III B.

Tech I semester (JNTUH-R15)

Prepared
By

Mr. S. Srikanth, Assistant Professor

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
DUNDIGAL, HYDERABAD – 500 043

1
 Power
Electronics
(A50220)

2
 Unit-I
Power Semiconductor Devices &
Commutation Circuits
• Diodes • Thyristors
• Transistors – Force-Commutated
– Power BJTs – Line-Commutated
– Power MOSFETs – Gate Turn Off--GTO
– Insulated-Gate BJT – Reverse-Conducting
• IGBT • RCT
– Static Induction – Gate-Assisted Turn-
Transistors off
• SITs • GATI

3
Thyristor/Triac

SC R1 MT1
2N3668 2N6346

4
 Power Electronic Circuits

• Diode Rectifiers (AC to Fixed DC)

• AC-DC Converters (Controlled Rectifiers)
• AC-AC Converters (AC Voltage Controllers)
• DC-DC Converters (DC Choppers)
• DC-AC Converters (Inverters)
• Static Switches

5
 SCR / Thyristor

• Circuit Symbol and Terminal Identification

ANODE

SCR
2N3668
GATE

CATHODE

6
 SCR / Thyristor

• Anode and Cathode

terminals as
conventional pn ANODE
junction diode
SCR
2N3668
GATE
• Gate terminal for a
controlling input signal
CATHODE

7
 SCR/ Thyristor

• An SCR (Thyristor) is a “controlled”

rectifier (diode)
• Control the conduction under forward bias
by applying a current into the Gate terminal
• Under reverse bias, looks like conventional
pn junction diode

8
 SCR / Thyristor
Anod
• 4-layer (pnpn) device e
• Anode, Cathode as for a
P
conventional pn
junction diode
N

Gate
• Cathode Gate brought P
out for controlling input
N

Cathod 9
 ANODE
Equivalent Circuit
ANODE

P
Q1

N N BJT_PNP_VIRTUAL

GAT Q2
E P P GATE
BJT_NPN_VIRTUAL

N
CATHODE

CATHOD 10
 Apply Biasing Variable
50V

With the Gate terminal OPEN,

both transistors are OFF. As ANODE (A)
I
the applied voltage increases, F
there will be a “breakdown” Q1
IC2=I
that causes both transistors to B1
BJT_PNP_VIRTUAL
conduct (saturate) making IF >
0 and VAK = 0. GATE (G)
IC1 = Q2

IB2
VBreakdown = VBR(F) BJT_NPN_VIRTUAL

I
CATHODE (K)
F

11
Volt-Ampere Characteristic

IF

Holding IH
Current

VBR( VAK
Breakdown
F) Voltage
12
 Apply a Gate Current
For 0 < VAK < VBR(F), Variable
50V

Turn Q2 ON by applying a I
ANODE (A)
current into the Gate F
Q1
IC2 =
This causes Q1 to turn ON, and IB1
BJT_PNP_VIRTUAL

eventually both transistors

SATURATE GATE (G) IB2 Q2

VAK = VCEsat + VBEsat BJT_NPN_VIRTUAL

VG
I
CATHODE (K)
If the Gate pulse is removed, F
Q1 and Q2 still stay ON!

13
 How do you turn it OFF?

• Cause the forward current to fall below the

value if the “holding” current, IH

• Reverse bias the device

14
 Characteristics of thyristors

 When the anode is at a positive potential VAK with respect

to the cathode with no voltage applied at the gate,
junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, while junction J2 is
reverse biased. As J2 is reverse biased, no conduction takes
place.
 Now if VAK is increased beyond the breakdown voltage
VBO of the thyristor, avalanche breakdown of J2 takes place
and the thyristor starts conducting.
 If a positive potential VG is applied at the gate terminal
with respect to the cathode, the breakdown of the junction
J2 occurs at a lower value of VAK. By selecting an
appropriate value of VG, the thyristor can be switched into
the on state suddenly.
15
 Switching Characteristic (IV)
 Forward breakdown voltage VBO
◦ The voltage of avalanche breakdown
 Latching current IL
◦ The minimum anode current required to maintain
the thyristor in the on-state immediately after it is
turned on and the gate signal has been removed
 Holding current IH
◦ The minimum anode current to maintain the IT
Forward volt-drop
thyristor in the on-state (conducting)

 IL > IH Latching
current Forward
Gate
Reverse break-over
trigger
breakdow voltage
Holdin ed
n voltage
g
current
IL
I
H VBO VAK
Forward
Reverse leakage
leakage current 16
current
 Symbol and construction
The thyristor is a four-layer, three terminal semiconducting
device, with each layer consisting of alternately N-type or P-type
material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals, labeled
anode and cathode, are across the full four layers, and the
control terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type material
near to the cathode.

17
 Different types of Thyristors

• Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).

• TRIAC.
• DIAC.
• Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS) – has built
in low voltage avalanche diode

Construction of 18
 Application
• Mainly used where high currents and voltages are
involved, and are often used to control alternating currents,
where the change of polarity of the current causes the
device to switch off automatically; referred to as Zero
Cross operation.

• Thyristors can be used as the control elements for phase

angle triggered controllers, also known as phase fired
controllers.

19
 Cntd…
• In power supplies for digital circuits, thyristor can be used
as a sort of "circuit breaker" or "crowbar" to prevent a
failure in the power supply from damaging downstream
components, by shorting the power supply output to
ground

Load voltage regulated by thyristor phase

control.
Red trace: load voltage
Blue trace: trigger signal. 20
 SCR Ratings
(a) SCR Current Ratings
1- Maximum Repetitive RMS current Rating
• Average on-state current is the maximum average current value that can be carried by the
SCR in its on state.
• RMS value of nonsinusoidal waveform is simplified by approximating it by rectangular
waveform.
• This approximation give higher RMS value, but leaves slight safety factor.

21
• Average value of pulse is

• Form factor is

22
• Knowing the form factor for given waveform, RMS current can be
obtained from

I =fo(I )
RMS AVE

• Maximum repetitive RMS current is given by

I T(RMS) =fo(I )
T(AVE)

• Conduction angle verses form factor

Conduction angle (θ) Form factor (fo)
20° 5.0
40° 3.5
60° 2.7
80° 2.3
100° 2.0
120° 1.8
140° 1.6
160° 1.4
23
180° 1.3
 Conduction Angle
• Duration for which SCR is on. It is measured as
shown

24
2- Surge Current Rating
Peak anode current that SCR can handle for brief duration.

3- Latching current
Minimum anode current that must flow through the SCR in order for it to
stay on initially after gate signal is removed.

4- Holding Current
Minimum value of anode current, required to maintain SCR in conducting
state.

25
 (b) SCR Voltage Ratings

1- Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage

Maximum instantaneous voltage that SCR can block in forward direction.
2- Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage
Maximum instantaneous voltage that SCR can withstand, without
breakdown, in reverse direction.
3- Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage
Maximum transient reverse voltage that SCR can withstand.

26
 (c) SCR Rate-of-Change Ratings

1- (di/dt rating)
Critical rate of rise of on-state current. It is the rate at which anode current increases and must be
less than rate at which conduction area increases.
To prevent damage to SCR by high di/dt value, small inductance is added in series with device.
Vaue of required inductance is
L>= Vp
(di/dt)max
2- dv/dt rating
Maximum rise time of a voltage pulse that can be applied to the SCR in the off state without
causing it to fire. Unscheduled firing due to high value of dv/dt can be prevented by using RC
snubber circuit.

27
 (d) Gate Parameters

1- Maximum Gate Peak Inverse Voltage

Maximum value of negative DC voltage that can be applied without damaging the gate-cathode junction.

2-Maximum Gate Trigger Current

Maximum DC gate current allowed to turn on the device.

3- Maximum gate trigger voltage

DC voltage necessary to produce maximum gate trigger current.

4- Maximum Gate Power Dissipation

Maximum instantaneous product of gate current and gate voltage that can exist during forward-bias.

5- Minimum gate trigger voltage

Minimum DC gate-to-cathode voltage required to trigger the SCR.

6-Minimum gate trigger current

Minimum DC gate current necessary to turn SCR on.

28
Series and Parallel SCR
Connections

29
SCRs are connected in series and parallel to
extend voltage and current ratings.

For high-voltage, high-current applications,

series-parallel combinations of SCRs are
used.

30
 SCRs in Series
• Unequal distribution of voltage across two series SCRs.

• Two SCRs do not share the same supply voltage. Maximum voltage
that SCRs can block is V1+V2, not 2VBO.

31
• Resistance equalization

• Voltage equalization

32
• RC equalization for SCRs connected in series.

33
 SCRs In Parallel
• Unequal current sharing between two SCRs is shown:

• Total rated current of parallel connection is I1+I2, not 2I2.

34
• With unmatched SCRs, equal current sharing is achieved by adding low
value resistor or inductor in series with each SCR, as shown below.

• Value of resistance R is obtained from:

R=V1-V2
I2-I1

35
Current sharing in SCRs with parallel
reactors
Equalization using resistors is inefficient due to
 Extra power loss
 Noncompansation for unequal SCR turn-on and turn-off times.
 Damage due to overloading

SCRs with center-tapped reactors is shown below.

36
SCR Gate-Triggering Circuits

37
Triggering circuits provide firing signal to
turn on the SCR at precisely the correct time.
Firing circuits must have following
properties
1. Produce gate signal of suitable magnitude and sufficiently short rise time.
2. Produce gate signal of adequate duration.
3. Provide accurate firing control over the required range.
4. Ensure that triggering does not occur from false signals or noise
5. In AC applications, ensure that the gate signal is applied when the SCR is
forward-biased
6. In three-phase circuits, provide gate pulses that are 120° apart with
respect to the reference point
7. Ensure simultaneous triggering of SCRs connected in series or
in parallel.

38
 Types Of Gate Firing Signals

1. DC signals
2. Pulse signals
3. AC signals

39
(a) DC Gating Signal From
Separate Source

40
DC Gating signals from Same
Source

41
 Disadvantage of DC gating
Signals
1. Constant DC gate signal causes gate
power dissipation

2. DC gate signals are not used for firing

SCRs in AC applications, because
presence of positive gate signal during
negative half cycle would increase the
reverse anode current and possibly
destroy the device.
42
 (2) Pulse Signals

1. Instead of continuous DC signal, single

pulse or train of pulses is generated.
2. It provides precise control of point at
which SCR is fired.
3. It provides electrical isolation between
SCR and gate-trigger circuit.

43
 SCR trigger circuits using UJT
Circuit A
oscillator

44
Circuit B

45
SCR trigger circuit using DIAC

46
SCR trigger circuit using
Optocoupler

47
 (c) AC Signals

Resistive phase control RC

phase control
48
Triggering SCRs in Series and in
Parallel

49
SCR Turnoff (Commutation)
Circuits

50
What is Commutation?
The process of turning off an SCR is
called commutation.

It is achieved by
1. Reducing anode current below holding current
2. Make anode negative with respect to cathode

 Types of commutation are:

1. Natural or line commutation
2. Forced commutation
51
 SCR Turnoff Methods
1. Diverting the anode current to an alternate path

2. Shorting the SCR from anode to cathode

3. Applying a reverse voltage (by making the cathode positive with

respect to the anode) across the SCR

4. Forcing the anode current to zero for a brief period

5. Opening the external path from its anode supply voltage

6. Momentarily reducing supply voltage to zero

52
 (1) Capacitor Commutation

• SCR turnoff circuit using a transistor

switch

53
• SCR turnoff circuit using commutation
capacitor

• Value of capacitance is determined by:

C>= tOFF
0.693RL
54
(2) Commutation By External
Source

55
(3) Commutation by Resonance
. Series resonant turnoff circuit

56
 Parallel resonant turnoff circuit

57
(4) AC line commutation

58
Other members of Thyristor
Family

59
 Power Semiconductor Switches

Power Diodes Power Transistors Thyristors

2 layer device 3 layer Device 4 layer Device

• Thyristor devices can convert and control large amounts of power in AC or DC

systems while using very low power for control.
• Thyristor family includes
1- Silicon controlled switch (SCR)
2- Gate-turnoff thyristor (GTO)
3- Triac
4- Diac
5- Silicon controlled switch (SCS)
6- Mos-controlled switch (MCT)

60
 Other Types of Thyristors

1. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

2. Gate Turnoff Thyristor (GTO)

3. DIAC

4. TRIAC

5. MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)

61
 1. SCS

Structure Equivalent circuit

Symbol for SCS

62
(2) GTO

Structure GTO Ideal VI

Symbol characteristiccs

63
(3) DIAC

Structure VI characteristics
Symbol of diac

64
(4) Triac

Structure Symbol SCR

equivalent circuit

65
Triac VI characteristics

66
 (5) MCT

Symbol equivalent MCT VI

circuit characteristics

67
UNIT-II AC-DC CONVERTERS (1-PHASE &
3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS)
Introduction to Line commutated
Inverter
 +
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(dc )
Voltage Converter
-

• Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency

ac power supply.
• Type of output: Variable dc output voltage
• Type of commutation: Natural / AC line
commutation
70
 Different types of
Line Commutated Converters
• AC to DC Converters (Phase controlled
rectifiers)
• AC to AC converters (AC voltage controllers)
• AC to AC converters (Cyclo-converters) at low
output frequency.

71
 Differences Between
Diode Rectifiers
&
Phase Controlled Rectifiers

72
Cntd…

• The diode rectifiers are referred to as

uncontrolled rectifiers .
• The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc output
voltage .
• Each diode conducts for one half cycle.
• Diode conduction angle = 1800 or  radians.
• We can not control the dc output voltage or the
average dc load current in a diode rectifier
circuit.

73
 Cntd…

Single phase half wave diode rectifier gives an

Vm
Average dc output voltage VO dc  

Single phase full wave diode rectifier gives an
2Vm
Average dc output voltage VO dc  


74
 Applications of
Phase Controlled Rectifiers
• DC motor control in steel mills, paper and
textile mills employing dc motor drives.
• AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
• Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical
processes.
• Magnet power supplies.
• Portable hand tool drives.
75
 Classification of
Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers.

• Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers.

76
Different types of Single
Phase Controlled Rectifiers.
• Half wave controlled rectifiers.
• Full wave controlled rectifiers.
 Using a center tapped transformer.
 Full wave bridge circuit.
 Semi converter.
 Full converter.

77
 Different Types of
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• Half wave controlled rectifiers.

• Full wave controlled rectifiers.
• Semi converter (half controlled
bridge converter).
• Full converter (fully controlled
bridge converter).
78
Principle of Phase Controlled Rectifier
Operation
Principle of Phase Controlled
Rectifier Operation

80
Single Phase Half-Wave Thyristor
Converter with a Resistive Load

81
Supply Voltage

Output Voltage

Output (load)
Current
82
 Supply Voltage

Thyristor Voltage

83
 Equations

vs  Vm sin  t  i/p ac supply voltage

Vm  max. value of i/p ac supply voltage
Vm
VS   RMS value of i/p ac supply voltage
2
vO  vL  output voltage across the load

84
When the thyristor is triggered at  t  
vO  vL  Vm sin  t ;  t   to 
vO
iO  iL   Load current;  t   to 
R
Vm sin  t
iO  iL   I m sin  t ;  t   to 
R
Vm
Where I m   max. value of load current
R
85
To Derive an Expression for the
Average (DC)
Output Voltage Across The Load

86
 2
1
VO dc   Vdc 
2  v .d t ;
0
O

vO  Vm sin  t for  t   to 

1
VO dc   Vdc   Vm sin  t.d  t 
2 

1
VO dc    Vm sin  t.d  t 
2 
87
 
Vm
VO dc    sin  t .d   t 
2 

Vm  
VO dc     cos  t 
2  

Vm
VO dc     cos   cos   ; cos   1
2
Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; Vm  2VS
2 88
Maximum average (dc) o/p
voltage is obtained when   0
and the maximum dc output voltage
Vm
Vdc max   Vdm  1  cos 0  ; cos  0   1
2
Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 

89
Cntd…

Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; Vm  2VS
2
The average dc output voltage can be varied
by varying the trigger angle  from 0 to a
maximum of 180  radians 
0

We can plot the control characteristic

V 
O dc  
vs  by using the equation for VO dc 
90
 Control Characteristic
of
Single Phase Half Wave Phase
Controlled Rectifier
with
Resistive Load

91
Cntd…

The average dc output voltage is given by the

expression
Vm
VO dc   1  cos  
2
We can obtain the control characteristic by
plotting the expression for the dc output
voltage as a function of trigger angle
92
93
Control Characteristic
VO(dc)
Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0 60 120 180
Trigger angle in degrees
94
Normalizing the dc output
voltage with respect to Vdm , the
Normalized output voltage
Vm
1  cos  
 2
Vdc
Vn 
Vdm Vm

Vdc 1
Vn   1  cos    Vdcn
Vdm 2
95
To Derive An Expression for the RMS Value of
Output Voltage of a Single Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier With Resistive Load

96
Cntd…

The RMS output voltage is given by

 1 2 2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
 2 0 
Output voltage vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to 
1
 1  2 2  2
VO RMS     Vm sin  t.d  t  
 2  
97
Cntd…
1  cos 2 t
By substituting sin  t  2
, we get
2
1
 1  2 1  cos 2 t   2
VO RMS     Vm .d  t  
 2  2 
1

 Vm2  2
VO RMS  
 4
 1  cos 2 t  .d  t 
1
 Vm2  
 2
VO RMS      d  t    cos 2 t.d  t  
 4   
98
Cntd…
1

Vm  1  
 sin 2 t 

 2
VO RMS     t    
2      2   

1

Vm 1   sin 2  sin 2    2
VO RMS            ;sin2  0
2    2  
1
Vm 1  sin 2   2
VO RMS           2  
2   
1
Vm  sin 2 
     
2
VO RMS   
2   2 
99
 Performance Parameters
Of
Phase Controlled Rectifiers

100
Cntd…

Output dc power (avg. or dc o/p

power delivered to the load)
PO dc   VO dc   I O dc  ; i.e., Pdc  Vdc  I dc
Where
VO dc   Vdc  avg./ dc value of o/p voltage.
I O dc   I dc  avg./dc value of o/p current
101
Cntd…

Output ac power
PO ac   VO RMS   I O RMS 
Efficiency of Rectification (Rectification Ratio)
PO dc  PO dc 
Efficiency   ; % Efficiency   100
PO ac  PO ac 
The o/p voltage consists of two components
The dc component VO dc 
The ac /ripple component Vac  Vr  rms 
102
Cntd…

The total RMS value of output voltage is given by

VO RMS   V 2
O  dc 
V 2
r  rms 

 Vac  Vr  rms   V 2
O  RMS 
V 2
O  dc 

Form Factor (FF) which is a measure of the

shape of the output voltage is given by
VO RMS  RMS output  load  voltage
FF  
VO dc  DC load output  load  voltage
103
Cntd…

The Ripple Factor (RF) w.r.t. o/p voltage w/f

Vr  rms  Vac
rv  RF  
VO dc  Vdc
2
V2
O  RMS 
V 2
O  dc  VO RMS  
rv     1
VO dc   VO dc  

 rv  FF  12

104
Cntd…
I r  rms  I ac
Current Ripple Factor ri  
I O dc  I dc

Where I r  rms   I ac  I 2
O  RMS 
I 2
O  dc 

Vr  pp   peak to peak ac ripple output voltage

Vr  pp   VO max   VO min 
I r  pp   peak to peak ac ripple load current
I r  pp   I O max   I O min 
105
Cntd…

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

PO dc 
TUF 
VS  I S
Where
VS  RMS supply (secondary) voltage
I S  RMS supply (secondary) current
106
Cntd…

107
Cntd…

Where
vS  Supply voltage at the transformer secondary side
iS  i/p supply current
(transformer secondary winding current)
iS 1  Fundamental component of the i/p supply current
I P  Peak value of the input supply current
  Phase angle difference between (sine wave
components) the fundamental components of i/p
supply current & the input supply voltage.
108
Cntd…

  Displacement angle (phase angle)

For an RL load
  Displacement angle = Load impedance angle
L 
   tan 
1
 for an RL load
 R 
Displacement Factor (DF) or
Fundamental Power Factor
DF  Cos
109
Cntd…
Harmonic Factor (HF) or
Total Harmonic Distortion Factor ; THD
1 1

I  I 
2 2   IS 
2
2
 2

HF        1
S S1

 I S 1  
2
 I S1 
Where
I S  RMS value of input supply current.
I S 1  RMS value of fundamental component of
the i/p supply current.
110
Cntd…
Input Power Factor (PF)
VS I S 1 I S1
PF  cos   cos 
VS I S IS
The Crest Factor (CF)
I S  peak  Peak input supply current
CF  
IS RMS input supply current
For an Ideal Controlled Rectifier
FF  1;   100% ; Vac  Vr  rms   0 ; TUF  1;
RF  rv  0 ; HF  THD  0; PF  DPF  1
111
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
With An RL Load

112
Cntd…

113
Input Supply Voltage (Vs)
&
Thyristor (Output) Current
Waveforms

114
Cntd…

115
Output (Load)
Voltage Waveform

116
Cntd…

To Derive An Expression For

The Output
(Load) Current, During  t   to 
When Thyristor T1 Conducts

117
Cntd…

Assuming T1 is triggered  t   ,
we can write the equation,
 diO 
L   RiO  Vm sin  t ;    t  
 dt 
General expression for the output current,
t
Vm
iO  sin  t     A1e 
Z
118
Cntd…

Vm  2VS  maximum supply voltage.

Z  R   L  =Load impedance.
2 2

L 
  tan 
1
  Load impedance angle.
 R 
L
   Load circuit time constant.
R
 general expression for the output load current
R
Vm
sin  t     A1e L
t
iO 
Z
119
Cntd…
Constant A1 is calculated from
 
initial condition iO  0 at  t   ; t=  
 
R
Vm
iO  0  sin      A1e L
t

Z
R
Vm
sin    
t
 A1e L
Z
We get the value of constant A1 as
R  
 Vm 
A1  e  Z sin     
L

  120
Cntd…
Substituting the value of constant A1 in the
general expression for iO
R
Vm  Vm
 t   
iO  sin  t     e L
 sin     
Z  Z 
 we obtain the final expression for the
inductive load current
Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
;
Z  
Where    t  
121
Cntd…

Extinction angle  can be calculated by using

the condition that iO  0 at  t  
Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
0
Z  
R
   
 sin       e L
 sin    
 can be calculated by solving the above eqn.
122
 To Derive An Expression
For
Average (DC) Load Voltage of a
Single Half Wave Controlled
Rectifier with
RL Load

123
 2
1
VO dc   VL 
2  v .d t 
0
O

1    2 
VO dc   VL    vO .d  t    vO .d  t    vO .d  t  
2  0   
vO  0 for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2

1  
VO dc   VL    vO .d  t   ;
2  
vO  Vm sin  t for  t   to 
124
 1  
VO dc   VL    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2  

Vm  
VO dc   VL    cos  t 
2  

Vm
VO dc   VL   cos   cos  
2
Vm
VO dc   VL   cos   cos  
2
125
Effect of Load
Inductance on the Output

During the period  t   to  the

instantaneous o/p voltage is negative and
this reduces the average or the dc output
voltage when compared to a purely
resistive load.
126
 Average DC Load Current

VO dc  Vm
I O dc   I L Avg     cos  cos  
RL 2 RL

127
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
With RL Load & Free Wheeling Diode
 T
i0
+
V0
+ R
Vs

~ FWD

L

129
vS
Supply voltage

0    t


iG
Gate pulses

0 t


iO Load current


t=

0 t
  2

vO
Load voltage

0    t


130
The average output voltage
Vm
Vdc  1  cos   which is the same as that
2
of a purely resistive load.
The following points are to be noted
For low value of inductance, the load current
tends to become discontinuous.

131
During the period  to 
the load current is carried by the SCR.
During the period  to  load current is
carried by the free wheeling diode.
The value of  depends on the value of
R and L and the forward resistance
of the FWD.
132
 For Large Load Inductance
the load current does not reach zero, &
we obtain continuous load current
i0
t1 t2 t3 t4

SCR FWD SCR FWD

0
 t
  2 

133
Single Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier With
A
General Load

134
 iO
R
+
~ vS
L
vO

+
 E
135
  E
  sin  
1

 Vm 
For trigger angle    ,
the Thyristor conducts from  t   to 
For trigger angle    ,
the Thyristor conducts from t   to 
136
vO Vm

Load voltage

  t
0   

iO
 
Im
Load current
0 t
   


137
Equations

vS  Vm sin  t  Input supply voltage.

vO  Vm sin  t  o/p  load  voltage
for  t   to  .
vO  E for  t  0 to  &
for  t   to 2 .
138
Expression for the Load Current
When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of
   , the eqn. for the circuit can be written as
 diO 
Vm sin  t  iO  R  L   +E ;    t  
 dt 
The general expression for the output load
current can be written as
t
Vm E
iO  sin  t      Ae 
Z R
139
Where
Z  R   L  = Load Impedance.
2 2

L 
  tan  1
  Load impedance angle.
 R 
L
   Load circuit time constant.
R
The general expression for the o/p current can
R
Vm E
sin  t      Ae
t
be written as iO  L
Z R
140
To find the value of the constant
'A' apply the initial conditions at  t   ,
load current iO  0, Equating the general
expression for the load current to zero at
 t   , we get
R 
Vm E 
iO  0  sin       Ae L 
Z R
141
We obtain the value of constant 'A' as
E   L
R
V
A    sin      e
m

R Z 
Substituting the value of the constant 'A' in the
expression for the load current; we get the
complete expression for the output load current as
R
Vm E  E Vm   t  
iO  sin  t        sin      e L
Z R R Z 
142
 To Derive
An
Expression For The Average
Or
DC Load Voltage

143
 2
1
VO dc  
2  v .d t 
0
O

1    2 
VO dc     vO .d  t    vO .d  t    vO .d  t  
2  0   
vO  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to 
vO  E for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2
1    2 
VO dc     E.d  t    Vm sin  t   E.d  t  
2  0   
144
 2
1   

VO dc    E  t   Vm   cos  t   E  t  
2  0   

1
VO dc    E   0   Vm  cos   cos    E  2    
2
Vm E
VO dc    cos   cos      2      
2 2
Vm  2       
VO dc    cos   cos     E
2  2 
145
Conduction angle of thyristor       

RMS Output Voltage can be calculated

by using the expression
2
1  2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2  0 
146
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier
Using A Center Tapped Transformer
 T1
A
+
vO

AC R L
O
Supply

T2

B
148
 Discontinuous
Load Current Operation
without FWD
for
       

149
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
150
 To Derive An Expression For
The Output
(Load) Current, During  t   to 
When Thyristor T1 Conducts

151
Assuming T1 is triggered  t   ,
we can write the equation,
 diO 
L   RiO  Vm sin  t ;    t  
 dt 
General expression for the output current,
t
Vm
iO  sin  t     A1e 
Z
152
Vm  2VS  maximum supply voltage.

Z  R   L  =Load impedance.
2 2

L 
  tan 
1
  Load impedance angle.
 R 
L
   Load circuit time constant.
R
 general expression for the output load current
R
Vm
sin  t     A1e L
t
iO 
Z
153
Constant A1 is calculated from
 
initial condition iO  0 at  t   ; t=  
 
R
Vm
iO  0  sin      A1e L
t

Z
R
Vm
sin    
t
 A1e L
Z
We get the value of constant A1 as
R  
 Vm 
A1  e  Z sin     
L

 
154
Substituting the value of constant A1 in the
general expression for iO
R
Vm  Vm
 t   
iO  sin  t     e L
 sin     
Z  Z 
 we obtain the final expression for the
inductive load current
Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
;
Z  
Where    t  
155
Extinction angle  can be calculated by using
the condition that iO  0 at  t  
Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
0
Z  
R
   
 sin       e L
 sin    
 can be calculated by solving the above eqn.
156
To Derive An Expression For The
DC Output Voltage Of
A Single Phase Full Wave
Controlled Rectifier With RL Load
(Without FWD)

157
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
158
 
1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t

1  
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
  

Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc   cos   cos  

159
When the load inductance is negligible  i.e., L  0 
Extinction angle    radians
Hence the average or dc output voltage for R load
Vm
VO dc    cos   cos  

 cos    1 
Vm
VO dc  

Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; for R load, when   

160
To calculate the RMS output voltage we use
the expression

1 2 2 
VO RMS     Vm sin  t.d  t  
  
161
Discontinuous Load Current
Operation with FWD

162
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
163
Thyristor T1 is triggered at  t   ;
T1 conducts from  t   to 
Thyristor T2 is triggered at  t      ;
T2 conducts from  t      to 2
FWD conducts from  t   to  &
vO  0 during discontinuous load current.
164
 To Derive an Expression
For The
DC Output Voltage For
A
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled
Rectifier
With RL Load & FWD
165
 
1
vO .d  t 
 
VO dc   Vdc 
t 0

1
 VO dc   Vdc   V sin  t.d  t 
 m


Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  1  cos  

166
• The load current is discontinuous for low values
of load inductance and for large values of
trigger angles.
• For large values of load inductance the load
current flows continuously without falling to
zero.
• Generally the load current is continuous for
large load inductance and for low trigger angles.
167
Continuous Load Current
Operation
(Without FWD)

168
vO Vm

t
0

iO
   

t
0
   
() ()
169
 To Derive
An Expression For
Average / DC Output Voltage
Of
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled
Rectifier For Continuous Current
Operation without FWD
170
vO Vm

t
0

iO
   

t
0
   
() ()
171
   
1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t

    

1
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
  
   
Vm 
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
   
172
VO dc   Vdc
Vm
 cos   cos      ;

cos       cos 
Vm
VO dc   Vdc  cos   cos  

2Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  cos 

173
• By plotting VO(dc) versus ,
we obtain the control characteristic of a
single phase full wave controlled rectifier
with RL load for continuous load current
operation without FWD

174
Vdc  Vdm  cos 

175
 V O(dc)
Vdc  Vdm  cos 
Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm

-0.6 V dm

-Vdm
Trigger angle in degrees
176
By varying the trigger angle we can vary the
output dc voltage across the load. Hence we can
control the dc output power flow to the load.
For trigger angle  , 0 to 90 0
 i.e., 0    90  ;
0

cos  is positive and hence Vdc is positive

Vdc & I dc are positive ; Pdc  Vdc  I dc  is positive
Converter operates as a Controlled Rectifier.
Power flow is from the ac source to the load.
177
For trigger angle  , 900 to 1800
 i.e., 90 0
   180 0
,
cos is negative and hence
Vdc is negative; I dc is positive ;
Pdc  Vdc  I dc  is negative.
In this case the converter operates
as a Line Commutated Inverter.
Power flows from the load ckt. to the i/p ac source.
The inductive load energy is fed back to the
i/p source.
178
Drawbacks Of Full Wave
Controlled Rectifier
With Centre Tapped Transformer
• We require a centre tapped transformer which
is quite heavier and bulky.
• Cost of the transformer is higher for the
required dc output voltage & output power.
• Hence full wave bridge converters are
preferred.

179
 Single Phase
Full Wave Bridge Controlled Rectifier
Single Phase
Full Wave Bridge Controlled
Rectifier
2 types of FW Bridge Controlled Rectifiers are
 Half Controlled Bridge Converter
(Semi-Converter)
 Fully Controlled Bridge Converter
(Full Converter)
The bridge full wave controlled rectifier does not
require a centre tapped transformer
181
 Single Phase
Full Wave Half Controlled Bridge
Converter
(Single Phase Semi Converter)

182
183
Trigger Pattern of Thyristors
Thyristor T1 is triggered at
 t   , at  t   2    ,...
Thyristor T2 is triggered at
 t      , at  t   3    ,...
The time delay between the gating
signals of T1 & T2   radians or 180 0

184
 Waveforms of
single phase semi-converter
with general load & FWD
for  > 900

185
Single Quadrant
Operation
186
187
188
Thyristor T1 & D1 conduct
from  t   to 
Thyristor T2 & D2 conduct
from  t      to 2
FWD conducts during
 t  0 to  ,  to     ,...
189
 Load Voltage & Load Current
Waveform of Single Phase Semi
Converter for
 < 900
& Continuous load current operation

190
vO Vm

t
0


iO
  

t
0
   
() ()
191
 To Derive an Expression
For The
DC Output Voltage of
A
Single Phase Semi-Converter With
R,L, & E Load & FWD
For Continuous, Ripple Free Load
Current Operation
192
 
1
vO .d  t 
 
VO dc   Vdc 
t 0

1
 VO dc   Vdc   V sin  t.d  t 
 m


Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  1  cos  

193
Vdc can be varied from a max.
2Vm
value of to 0 by varying  from 0 to  .

For   0, The max. dc o/p voltage obtained is
2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 

Normalized dc o/p voltage is
Vm
Vdc  
1  cos  
1
Vdcn  Vn    1  cos  
Vdn  2Vm  2
 
  
194
RMS O/P Voltage VO(RMS)
1

 2  2
VO RMS     Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 2

 2  
1

 Vm2  2
VO RMS  
 2
 1  cos 2t  .d t 
1
Vm  1  sin 2   2
VO RMS         2 
2  
195
Single Phase Full Wave
Controlled Rectifier

196
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier
Using A Center Tapped Transformer

197
Single Phase Midpoint type
Fully controlled Rectifier
T1
A
+
vO

AC R L
O
Supply

T2

B
198198
 Discontinuous
Load Current Operation
without FWD
for
       

199199
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
200200
 To Derive An Expression For
The Output
(Load) Current, During  t   to 
When Thyristor T1 Conducts

201201
Assuming T1 is triggered  t   ,
we can write the equation,
 diO 
L   RiO  Vm sin  t ;    t  
 dt 
General expression for the output current,
t
Vm
iO  sin  t     A1e 
Z
202202
Vm  2VS  maximum supply voltage.

Z  R   L  =Load impedance.
2 2

L 
  tan 
1
  Load impedance angle.
 R 
L
   Load circuit time constant.
R
 general expression for the output load current
R
Vm
sin  t     A1e L
t
iO 
Z
203203
Constant A1 is calculated from
 
initial condition iO  0 at  t   ; t=  
 
R
Vm
iO  0  sin      A1e L
t

Z
R
Vm
sin    
t
 A1e L
Z
We get the value of constant A1 as
R  
 Vm 
A1  e  Z sin     
L

 
204204
Substituting the value of constant A1 in the
general expression for iO
R
Vm  Vm
 t   
iO  sin  t     e L
 sin     
Z  Z 
 we obtain the final expression for the
inductive load current
Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
;
Z  
Where    t  
205205
Extinction angle  can be calculated by using
the condition that iO  0 at  t  
Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L
0
Z  
R
   
 sin       e L
 sin    
 can be calculated by solving the above eqn.
206206
To Derive An Expression For The DC Output
Voltage Of
A Single Phase Full Wave Controlled
Rectifier With RL Load
(Without FWD)

207207
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
208208
 
1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t

1  
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
  

Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc   cos   cos  
 209209
When the load inductance is negligible  i.e., L  0 
Extinction angle    radians
Hence the average or dc output voltage for R load
Vm
VO dc    cos   cos  

 cos    1 
Vm
VO dc  

Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; for R load, when   

210210
To calculate the RMS output voltage we use
the expression

1 2 2 
VO RMS     Vm sin  t.d  t  
  

211211
Discontinuous Load Current
Operation with FWD

212212
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
() ()
213213
Thyristor T1 is triggered at  t   ;
T1 conducts from  t   to 
Thyristor T2 is triggered at  t      ;
T2 conducts from  t      to 2
FWD conducts from  t   to  &
vO  0 during discontinuous load current.
214214
To Derive an Expression For The DC Output
Voltage For A Single Phase Full Wave
Controlled Rectifier With
RL Load & FWD

215215
 
1
vO .d  t 
 
VO dc   Vdc 
t 0

1
 VO dc   Vdc   V sin  t.d  t 
 m


Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  1  cos  

216216
• The load current is discontinuous for low values
of load inductance and for large values of
trigger angles.
• For large values of load inductance the load
current flows continuously without falling to
zero.
• Generally the load current is continuous for
large load inductance and for low trigger angles.
217217
Continuous Load Current
Operation
(Without FWD)

218218
vO Vm

t
0

iO
   

t
0
   
() ()
219219
 To Derive
An Expression For
Average / DC Output Voltage
Of
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled
Rectifier For Continuous Current
Operation without FWD
220220
vO Vm

t
0

iO
   

t
0
   
() ()
221221
   
1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t

    

1
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
  
   
Vm 
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
   
222222
VO dc   Vdc
Vm
 cos   cos      ;

cos       cos 
Vm
VO dc   Vdc  cos   cos  

2Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  cos 

223223
• By plotting VO(dc) versus ,
we obtain the control characteristic of a
single phase full wave controlled rectifier
with RL load for continuous load current
operation without FWD

224224
Vdc  Vdm  cos 

225225
 V O(dc)
Vdc  Vdm  cos 
Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm

-0.6 V dm

-Vdm
Trigger angle in degrees
226226
By varying the trigger angle we can vary the
output dc voltage across the load. Hence we can
control the dc output power flow to the load.
For trigger angle  , 0 to 900  i.e., 0    900  ;
cos  is positive and hence Vdc is positive
Vdc & I dc are positive ; Pdc  Vdc  I dc  is positive
Converter operates as a Controlled Rectifier.
Power flow is from the ac source to the load.
227227
For trigger angle  , 900 to 1800
 i.e., 90 0
   180 0
,
cos is negative and hence
Vdc is negative; I dc is positive ;
Pdc  Vdc  I dc  is negative.
In this case the converter operates
as a Line Commutated Inverter.
Power flows from the load ckt. to the i/p ac source.
The inductive load energy is fed back to the
i/p source.
228228
 Single Phase
Full Wave Bridge Controlled Rectifier

229
Drawbacks Of Full Wave
Controlled Rectifier
With Centre Tapped Transformer
• We require a centre tapped transformer which
is quite heavier and bulky.
• Cost of the transformer is higher for the
required dc output voltage & output power.
• Hence full wave bridge converters are
preferred.

230230
 Single Phase Full Wave Bridge
Controlled Rectifier

2 types of FW Bridge Controlled Rectifiers are

 Half Controlled Bridge Converter
(Semi-Converter)
 Fully Controlled Bridge Converter
(Full Converter)
The bridge full wave controlled rectifier does not
require a centre tapped transformer
231231
 Single Phase
Full Wave Half Controlled Bridge
Converter
(Single Phase Semi Converter)

232232
Single Phase Full Wave Half Controlled
Bridge Converter

233233
Trigger Pattern of Thyristors
Thyristor T1 is triggered at
 t   , at  t   2    ,...
Thyristor T2 is triggered at
 t      , at  t   3    ,...
The time delay between the gating
signals of T1 & T2   radians or 180 0

234234
 Waveforms of
single phase semi-converter
with general load & FWD
for  > 900

235235
Single Quadrant
Operation
236236
237237
238238
Thyristor T1 & D1 conduct
from  t   to 
Thyristor T2 & D2 conduct
from  t      to 2
FWD conducts during
 t  0 to  ,  to     ,...
239239
Load Voltage & Load Current Waveform of
Single Phase Semi Converter for
 < 900 & Continuous load current
operation

240240
vO Vm

t
0


iO
  

t
0
   
() ()
241241
 To Derive an Expression
For The
DC Output Voltage of
A
Single Phase Semi-Converter With
R,L, & E Load & FWD
For Continuous, Ripple Free Load
Current Operation
242242
 
1
vO .d  t 
 
VO dc   Vdc 
t 0

1
 VO dc   Vdc   V sin  t.d  t 
 m


Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  1  cos  

243243
Vdc can be varied from a max.
2Vm
value of to 0 by varying  from 0 to  .

For   0, The max. dc o/p voltage obtained is
2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 

Normalized dc o/p voltage is
Vm
Vdc  
1  cos  
1
Vdcn  Vn    1  cos  
Vdn  2Vm  2
 
  
244244
RMS O/P Voltage VO(RMS)
1

 2  2
VO RMS     Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 2

 2  
1

 Vm2  2
VO RMS  
 2
 1  cos 2t  .d t 
1
Vm  1  sin 2   2
VO RMS         2 
2  
245245
Single Phase Full Converter

246
Single Phase Full Converter

247247
 Waveforms of
Single Phase Full Converter
Assuming Continuous (Constant
Load Current)
&
Ripple Free Load Current
248248
249249
250250
 iO Constant Load Current
iO=Ia
Ia
t
 
iT1 Ia Ia
& iT2 t
  
iT3 Ia
& iT4 t
  
251251
To Derive An Expression For The Average DC
Output Voltage of a Single Phase Full Converter
assuming Continuous & Constant Load Current

252252
The average dc output voltage
can be determined by using the expression
2
1  
VO dc   Vdc    vO .d  t   ;
2  0 
The o/p voltage waveform consists of two o/p
pulses during the input supply time period of
0 to 2 radians. Hence the Average or dc
o/p voltage can be calculated as
253253
  
2  
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2   
2Vm
  cos  t 
 
VO dc   Vdc 
2
2Vm
VO dc   Vdc  cos 

254254
Maximum average dc output voltage is
calculated for a trigger angle   0 0

and is obtained as
2Vm 2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm   cos  0  
 
2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 
 255255
The normalized average output voltage is given by
VO dc  Vdc
Vdcn  Vn  
Vdc max  Vdm
2Vm
cos 
Vdcn  Vn    cos 
2Vm


256256
 By plotting VO(dc) versus ,
we obtain the control characteristic of a
single phase full wave fully controlled
bridge converter
(single phase full converter)
for constant & continuous
load current operation.
257257
To plot the control characteristic of a
Single Phase Full Converter for constant
& continuous load current operation.
We use the equation for the average/ dc
output voltage
2Vm
VO dc   Vdc  cos 

258258
259259
 V O(dc)
Vdc  Vdm  cos 
Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm

-0.6 V dm

-Vdm
Trigger angle in degrees
260260
• During the period from t =  to  the input
voltage vS and the input current iS are both
positive and the power flows from the supply
to the load.
• The converter is said to be operated in the
rectification mode
Controlled Rectifier Operation
for 0 <  < 900
261261
• During the period from t =  to (+), the
input voltage vS is negative and the input
current iS is positive and the output power
becomes negative and there will be reverse
power flow from the load circuit to the supply.
• The converter is said to be operated in the
inversion mode.
Line Commutated Inverter Operation
for 900 <  < 1800
262262
 Two Quadrant Operation
of a Single Phase Full Converter

263
Two Quadrant Operation
of a Single Phase Full Converter
0< < 900
Controlled Rectifier
Operation

900< <1800
Line Commutated
Inverter Operation
264264
To Derive An
Expression For The
RMS Value Of The Output Voltage

The rms value of the output voltage

is calculated as
2
1  2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2  0 
265265
The single phase full converter gives two
output voltage pulses during the input supply
time period and hence the single phase full
converter is referred to as a two pulse converter.
The rms output voltage can be calculated as
 
2  
   vO .d  t  
2
VO RMS 
2   
266266
  
1  
   Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 2
VO RMS 
 
 
V  2

   sin  t.d  t  
m 2
VO RMS 
  
V   
2
1  cos 2 t  
.d  t  
  
m
VO RMS 
  2 
   
V  2

   d  t    cos 2 t.d  t  
m
VO RMS 
2    
267267
    
V  2
 sin 2 t  
   t   
m
VO RMS  
2    2   
V 2
  sin 2      sin 2  
          
m
VO RMS 
2   2  

V 2
  sin  2  2   sin 2  
       ;
m
VO RMS 
2   2  
sin  2  2   sin 2
268268
 V   sin 2  sin 2  
2
VO RMS   m
     
2   2 
2 2
V V Vm
VO RMS      0 
m
 m

2 2 2
Vm
VO RMS    VS
2
Hence the rms output voltage is same as the
rms input supply voltage
269269
Thyristor Current Waveforms

270270
 iO Constant Load Current
iO=Ia
Ia
t
 
iT1 Ia Ia
& iT2 t
  
iT3 Ia
& iT4 t
  
271271
The rms thyristor current can be
calculated as
I O RMS 
IT  RMS  
2
The average thyristor current can be
calculated as
I O dc 
IT  Avg  
2
272272
 THREE PHASE LINE
COMMUTATED CONVERTERS

273
 Introduction to
Three phase converters

274
3 Phase Controlled Rectifiers

• Three phase converters are 3-

phase controlled rectifiers which
are used to convert ac input power
supply into dc output power across
the load

275
 Features of 3-phase controlled
rectifiers
• Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.
• They provide higher dc output voltage.
• Higher dc output power.
• Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
• Filtering requirements are simplified for
smoothing out load voltage and load
current.
276276
• Extensively used in high power variable
speed industrial dc drives.
• Three single phase half-wave converters can
be connected together to form a three phase
half-wave converter.

277277
Classification of 3-phase converters

• 3-phase half wave converter

• 3-phase semi converter
• 3-phase full converter
• 3- phase dual converter

278
 Classification according to
no of pulses in the output wave

• 3- pulse converter
• 6-pulse converter
• 12- pulse converter

279
 3-Phase
Half Wave Converter
(3-Pulse Converter)
with
R-L Load
Continuous & Constant
Load Current Operation
280280
Circuit Diagram of 3- pulse converter

281281
Vector Diagram of
3 Phase Supply Voltages
VCN

0
120
0 VAN vRN  v AN
120
0
120
vYN  vBN
vBN  vCN
VBN
282282
 3 Phase Supply Voltage Equations

We deifine three line to neutral voltages

(3 phase voltages) as follows

283283
vRN  van  Vm sin  t ;
Vm  Max. Phase Voltage
 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t  
 3 
 Vm sin  t  120 0

 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t  
 3 
 Vm sin  t  1200 
 Vm sin  t  240 0

284284
van vbn vcn van

285285
Each thyristor conducts for 2/3 (1200)
Constant Load
Current
io=Ia

Ia

Ia

286286
 To Derive an
Expression for the
Average Output Voltage of a
3-Phase Half Wave Converter
with RL Load
for Continuous Load Current

287287
  
T1 is triggered at  t        300   
6 
 5 
T2 is triggered at  t       1500   
 6 
 7 
T3 is triggered at  t        270   
0

 6 
0 2
Each thytistor conducts for 120 or radians
3
288288
If the reference phase voltage is
vRN  van  Vm sin  t , the average or dc output
voltage for continuous load current is calculated
using the equation
 56  
3  
Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 
 6  
289289
  56  
3Vm  
Vdc    sin  t .d   t 
2 
 6  
5
 

3Vm  6

Vdc     cos  t  
2 
 6
 

3Vm   5   
Vdc    cos      cos     
2   6  6 
290290
Note from the trigonometric relationship
cos  A  B    cos A.cos B  sin A.sin B 
  5   5  
  cos  6  cos    sin   sin   
3Vm     6  
Vdc 
2      
  cos   .cos    sin   sin   
 6 6 
3Vm 

 cos 150 0
 cos  
  sin 150 0
 sin   

Vdc 
2 
  cos  30 0
 .cos    sin  30 0
 sin   

291291
 3Vm 

 cos 180 0
 30 0
 cos    sin 180 0
 30 0
 sin   

Vdc 
2 
  cos  30 0
 .cos    sin  30 0
 sin   

Note: cos 1800  300    cos  300 
sin 1800  300   sin  300 

3Vm 

 cos  30 0
 cos    sin  30 0
 sin   

Vdc 
2 
  cos  30 0
 .cos    sin  30 0
 s in   


292292
  2 cos  300  cos   
3Vm
Vdc 
2  
3Vm  3 
Vdc  2  cos   
2  2 
3Vm 3 3Vm
Vdc   3 cos     cos  
2   2
3VLm
Vdc  cos  
2
Where VLm  3Vm  Max. line to line supply voltage
293293
The maximum average or dc output voltage is
obtained at a delay angle   0 and is given by
3 3 Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 
2
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage.
And the normalized average output voltage is
Vdc
Vdcn  Vn   cos 
Vdm
294294
The rms value of output voltage is found by
using the equation
1
5
   2

 3 
6
VO RMS    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 2

2 
 6
 
and we obtain
1
1 3  2
VO RMS   3Vm   cos 2 
 6 8 
295295
 3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier Output
Voltage Waveforms For RL Load
at
Different Trigger Angles

296296
  Van Vbn Vcn

=300
V0
=30
0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

 Van Vbn Vcn


V0 =60
0
=600
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

297297
  Vbn Vcn
Van
 =900
V0
=90
0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

298298
 3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier With
R Load
and
RL Load with FWD

299299
 T1 T1
a a
T2 T2
b b +
T3 T3
c c

R R V0
V0
L

n n 
300300
 3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier Output
Voltage Waveforms For R Load
or RL Load with FWD
at
Different Trigger Angles

301301
 Van Vbn Vcn

=0
Vs =00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

 Van Vbn Vcn

=150
=150

V0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

302302
  Van Vbn Vcn

=300 =300
V0 0
0
30 60
0
90
0 0
120
0 0
150 180
0
210
0 0
240 270
0 0
300 330
0 0
360 390 420
0 t

 Van Vbn Vcn

=600
=600
V0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

303303
To Derive An Expression For The Average
Or Dc Output Voltage Of A
3 Phase Half Wave Converter With
Resistive Load Or RL Load With FWD

304304
  
T1 is triggered at  t        300   
6 
T1 conducts from  30    to 180 ;
0 0

vO  van  Vm sin  t
 5 
T2 is triggered at  t       150   
0

 6 
T2 conducts from 150    to 300 ;
0 0

vO  vbn  Vm sin  t  120 0


305305
  7 
T3 is triggered at  t        270   
0

 6 
T3 conducts from  270    to 420 ;
0 0

vO  vcn  Vm sin  t  240 0

 Vm sin  t  120 
0

306306
 3 1800 
Vdc    vO .d  t  
2  300 
vO  van  Vm sin  t ; for  t    30 0
 to 180 
0

3 1800 
Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2  300 
3Vm  1800 
Vdc    sin  t.d  t  
2  300 
307307
 3Vm  1800 
Vdc    cos  t 
2    300 

Vdc 
3Vm
2

  cos180 0
 cos   30 0
 

cos180  1, we get
0

Vdc 
3Vm
2 
1  cos   30 0
 

308308
Three Phase Semi-converters

309
 Three Phase Semi-converters
• 3 Phase semi-converters are used in Industrial
dc drive applications upto 120kW power
output.
• Single quadrant operation is possible.
• Power factor decreases as the delay angle
increases.
• Power factor is better than that of 3 phase half
wave converter.
310310
 3 Phase
Half Controlled Bridge Converter
(Semi Converter)
with Highly Inductive Load &
Continuous Ripple free Load Current

311311
312312
Wave forms of 3 Phase Semiconverter
for
 > 600

313313
314314
315315
3 phase semiconverter output ripple frequency of
output voltage is 3 f S

The delay angle  can be varied from 0 to 

During the period
30   t  210
0 0

 7
 t  , thyristor T1 is forward biased
6 6
316316
  
If thyristor T1 is triggered at  t      ,
6 
T1 & D1 conduct together and the line to line voltage
vac appears across the load.
7
At  t  , vac becomes negative & FWD Dm conducts.
6
The load current continues to flow through FWD Dm ;
T1 and D1 are turned off.

317317
If FWD Dm is not used the T1 would continue to
conduct until the thyristor T2 is triggered at
 5 
 t      , and Free wheeling action would
 6 
be accomplished through T1 & D2 .

If the delay angle   , each thyristor conducts
3
2
for and the FWD Dm does not conduct.
3
318318
We deifine three line neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
vRN  van  Vm sin  t ; Vm  Max. Phase Voltage
 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t 


 m
3 
V sin   t  120 0

 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  120 
0

 3 
 Vm sin  t  2400 
Vm is the peak phase voltage of a wye-connected source
319319
  
vRB  vac   van  vcn   3Vm sin   t  
 6
 5 
vYR  vba   vbn  van   3Vm sin   t  
 6 
 
vBY  vcb   vcn  vbn   3Vm sin   t  
 2
 
vRY  vab   van  vbn   3Vm sin   t  
 6
320320
Wave forms of 3 Phase Semiconverter
for
  600

321321
322322
323323
324324
To derive an Expression for the
Average Output Voltage of 3 Phase
Semi-converter for  >  / 3
and Discontinuous Output Voltage

325325
 
For   and discontinuous output voltage:
3
the Average output voltage is found from
7

3  6 
Vdc   v .d   t  
2  
ac

 6 
7
  

6
3 
Vdc   3 V sin   t   d   t  
2  
m
 6
 6 
326326
 3 3Vm
Vdc  1  cos  
2
3VmL
Vdc  1  cos  
2
VmL  3Vm  Max. value of line-to-line supply voltage
The maximum average output voltage that occurs at
a delay angle of   0 is
3 3Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 

327327
The normalized average output voltage is
Vdc
Vn   0.5 1  cos  
Vdm
The rms output voltage is found from
1
7
 3 6  2

VO rms    v 2
.d   t  
 2 
ac

 6  
328328
 1
7
 3   2
2
6
VO rms    3V 2
sin   t   d   t  
 2 
m
  6
 6  
1
 3  sin 2   2
VO rms   3Vm      
 4  2 

329329
Average or DC Output Voltage
of a
3-Phase Semi-converter
for  / 3,
and Continuous Output Voltage

330330
 
For   , and continuous output voltage
3
 5

3  2 6  
Vdc   v .d   t    v .d   t  
2  
ab ac

 6 2 
3 3Vm
Vdc  1  cos  
2
331331
 Vdc
Vn   0.5 1  cos  
Vdm
RMS value of o/p voltage is calculated by using
the equation
1
 5
 3 2 6   2

VO rms   
2
vab .d  t    vac2 .d  t  
 2  
 6  2 
1
 3  2  2
VO rms   3Vm    3 cos   
2

 4  3 
332332
Three Phase Full Converter

333
 Three Phase Full Converter
• 3 Phase Fully Controlled Full Wave Bridge
Converter.
• Known as a 6-pulse converter.
• Used in industrial applications up to 120kW
output power.
• Two quadrant operation is possible.

334334
335335
336336
337337
• The thyristors are triggered at an interval of
 / 3.
• The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6fS.
• T1 is triggered at t = (/6 + ), T6 is already
conducting when T1 is turned ON.
• During the interval (/6 + ) to (/2 + ),
T1 and T6 conduct together & the output load
voltage is equal to vab = (van – vbn)

338338
• T2 is triggered at t = (/2 + ), T6 turns off
naturally as it is reverse biased as soon as T2 is
triggered.
• During the interval (/2 + ) to (5/6 + ), T1
and T2 conduct together & the output load
voltage vO = vac = (van – vcn)
• Thyristors are numbered in the order in which
they are triggered.
• The thyristor triggering sequence is 12, 23,
34, 45, 56, 61, 12, 23, 34, ………
339339
We deifine three line neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
vRN  van  Vm sin  t ; Vm  Max. Phase Voltage
 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  1200 
 3 
 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  120 
0

 3 
 Vm sin  t  2400 
Vm is the peak phase voltage of a wye-connected source.
340340
The corresponding line-to-line
supply voltages are
 
vRY  vab   van  vbn   3Vm sin   t  
 6
 
vYB  vbc   vbn  vcn   3Vm sin   t  
 2
 
vBR  vca   vcn  van   3Vm sin   t  
 2
341341
 To Derive An Expression For
The Average Output Voltage Of
3-phase Full Converter
With Highly Inductive Load
Assuming Continuous And
Constant Load Current
342342
The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage
pulses over a period of 2 radians, Hence the
average output voltage is calculated as


2
6
VO dc   Vdc 
2 
 vO .d t ;

6

 
vO  vab  3Vm sin   t  
 6
343343
 

3 2
 
Vdc 
 
 3Vm sin   t   .d t
 6

6

3 3Vm 3VmL
Vdc  cos   cos 
 
Where VmL  3Vm  Max. line-to-line supply voltage
The maximum average dc output voltage is
obtained for a delay angle   0,
3 3Vm 3VmL
Vdc max   Vdm  
 
344344
The normalized average dc output voltage is
Vdc
Vdcn  Vn   cos 
Vdm
The rms value of the output voltage is found from
1

   2

 6 
2
VO rms    vO .d  t  
2

2 
 6
 
345345
 1

   2

 6 
2
VO rms    vab .d  t  
2

2 
 6
 
1

   2

 3
2
2  
VO rms    3Vm sin   t  .d  t  
2

2   6
 6
 
1
1 3 3  2
VO rms   3Vm   cos 2 
 2 4 
346346
Single Phase Dual Converter

347
Single Phase Dual Converter

348348
349349
350350
351351
The average dc output voltage of converter 1 is
2Vm
Vdc1  cos 1

The average dc output voltage of converter 2 is
2Vm
Vdc 2  cos  2

352352
In the dual converter operation one
converter is operated as a controlled rectifier
with  90 & the second converter is
0

operated as a line commutated inverter

in the inversion mode with   90 0

 Vdc1  Vdc 2
353353
2Vm 2Vm 2Vm
cos 1  cos  2    cos  2 
  
 cos 1   cos  2
or
cos  2   cos 1  cos   1 
  2    1  or
1   2    radians
Which gives
 2     1 
354354
 To Obtain an Expression
for the
Instantaneous Circulating Current

355355
• vO1 = Instantaneous o/p voltage of converter 1.
• vO2 = Instantaneous o/p voltage of converter 2.
• The circulating current ir can be determined by
integrating the instantaneous voltage difference
(which is the voltage drop across the circulating
current reactor Lr), starting from t = (2 - 1).
• As the two average output voltages during the
interval t = (+1) to (2 - 1) are equal and
opposite their contribution to the instantaneous
circulating current ir is zero.
356356
 1  t 
ir    vr .d  t   ; vr   vO1  vO 2 
 Lr  2 1  
As the o/p voltage vO 2 is negative
vr   vO1  vO 2 

1  t 
 ir     vO1  vO 2  .d  t   ;
 Lr  2 1  
vO1  Vm sin  t for  2  1  to  t
357357
 Vm  t t 
ir     sin  t.d  t    sin  t.d  t  
 Lr  2 1   2 1  
2Vm
ir   cos  t  cos 1 
 Lr
The instantaneous value of the circulating current
depends on the delay angle.
358358
For trigger angle (delay angle) 1  0,
the magnitude of circulating current becomes min.
when  t  n , n  0, 2, 4,.... & magnitude becomes
max. when  t  n , n  1,3,5,....
If the peak load current is I p , one of the
converters that controls the power flow
may carry a peak current of
 4Vm 
 Ip  ,
  Lr 
359359
where
Vm
I p  I L max   ,
RL
&
4Vm
ir  max    max. circulating current
 Lr
360360
 Different Modes Of Operation of
Dual converter
• Non-circulating current (circulating current
free) mode of operation.

• Circulating current mode of operation.

361361
Non-Circulating
Current Mode of Operation
• In this mode only one converter is operated
at a time.
• When converter 1 is ON, 0 < 1 < 900
• Vdc is positive and Idc is positive.
• When converter 2 is ON, 0 < 2 < 900
• Vdc is negative and Idc is negative.

362362
 Circulating
Current Mode Of Operation

• In this mode, both the converters are switched

ON and operated at the same time.
• The trigger angles 1 and 2 are adjusted such
that (1 + 2) = 1800 ; 2 = (1800 - 1).

363363
• When 0 <1 <900, converter 1 operates as a
controlled rectifier and converter 2 operates as
an inverter with 900 <2<1800.
• In this case Vdc and Idc, both are positive.
• When 900 <1 <1800, converter 1 operates as
an Inverter and converter 2 operated as a
controlled rectifier by adjusting its trigger
angle 2 such that 0 <2<900.
• In this case Vdc and Idc, both are negative.
364364
 Four Quadrant Operation
Conv. 2 Conv. 1
Inverting Rectifying
2 > 900 1 < 900

Conv. 2 Conv. 1
Rectifying Inverting
2 < 900 1 > 900
365365
Advantages of Circulating
Current Mode Of Operation
• The circulating current maintains
continuous conduction of both the
converters over the complete control range,
independent of the load.
• One converter always operates as a rectifier
and the other converter operates as an
inverter, the power flow in either direction
at any time is possible.
366366
• As both the converters are in continuous
conduction we obtain faster dynamic response.
i.e., the time response for changing from one
quadrant operation to another is faster.

367367
 Disadvantages of Circulating
Current Mode Of Operation
• There is always a circulating current flowing
between the converters.
• When the load current falls to zero, there will be a
circulating current flowing between the converters
so we need to connect circulating current reactors in
order to limit the peak circulating current to safe
level.
• The converter thyristors should be rated to carry a
peak current much greater than the peak load
current.
368368
Three Phase Dual Converters

369
 Three Phase Dual Converters

• For four quadrant operation in many industrial

variable speed dc drives , 3 phase dual
converters are used.
• Used for applications up to 2 mega watt output
power level.
• Dual converter consists of two 3 phase full
converters which are connected in parallel & in
opposite directions across a common load.
370370
371371
372372
373373
Outputs of Converters 1 & 2

• During the interval (/6 + 1) to (/2 +

1), the line to line voltage vab appears
across the output of converter 1 and vbc
appears across the output of converter 2

374374
We deifine three line neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
vRN  van  Vm sin  t ;
Vm  Max. Phase Voltage
 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t 


 m
3 
V sin   t  120 0

 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t 


 m
3 
V sin   t  120 0

 Vm sin  t  2400 
375375
The corresponding line-to-line
supply voltages are
 
vRY  vab   van  vbn   3Vm sin   t  
 6
 
vYB  vbc   vbn  vcn   3Vm sin   t  
 2
 
vBR  vca   vcn  van   3Vm sin   t  
 2
376376
 To obtain an Expression for the
Circulating Current

• If vO1 and vO2 are the output voltages of

converters 1 and 2 respectively, the
instantaneous voltage across the current
limiting inductor during the interval
(/6 + 1)  t  (/2 + 1) is given by

377377
vr  vO1  vO 2  vab  vbc
     
vr  3Vm sin   t    sin   t   
  6  2 
 
vr  3Vm cos   t  
 6
The circulating current can be calculated by
using the equation
378378
 t
1
ir  t    vr .d  t 
 Lr 
1
6
t
1  
ir  t    3Vm cos   t   .d  t 
 Lr   6
1
6

3Vm    
ir  t   sin   t  6   sin 1 
 Lr    
3Vm
ir  max  
 Lr
379379
 Four Quadrant Operation
Conv. 2 Conv. 1
Inverting Rectifying
2 > 900 1 < 900

Conv. 2 Conv. 1
Rectifying Inverting
2 < 900 1 > 900
380380
Contd…

• There are two different modes of operation.

 Circulating current free
(non circulating) mode of operation
 Circulating current mode of operation

381381
 Non Circulating
Current Mode Of Operation
• In this mode of operation only one converter is
switched on at a time
• When the converter 1 is switched on,
For 1 < 900 the converter 1 operates in the
Rectification mode
Vdc is positive, Idc is positive and hence the
average load power Pdc is positive.
• Power flows from ac source to the load
382382
• When the converter 1 is on,
For 1 > 900 the converter 1 operates in the
Inversion mode
Vdc is negative, Idc is positive and the average
load power Pdc is negative.
• Power flows from load circuit to ac source.

383383
• When the converter 2 is switched on,
For 2 < 900 the converter 2 operates in the
Rectification mode
Vdc is negative, Idc is negative and the average
load power Pdc is positive.
• The output load voltage & load current reverse
when converter 2 is on.
• Power flows from ac source to the load
384384
• When the converter 2 is switched on,
For 2 > 900 the converter 2 operates in the
Inversion mode
Vdc is positive, Idc is negative and the average
load power Pdc is negative.
• Power flows from load to the ac source.
• Energy is supplied from the load circuit to the
ac supply.
385385
Circulating Current
Mode Of Operation
• Both the converters are switched on at the
same time.
• One converter operates in the rectification
mode while the other operates in the
inversion mode.
• Trigger angles 1 & 2 are adjusted such
that (1 + 2) = 1800

386386
• When 1 < 900, converter 1 operates as a
controlled rectifier. 2 is made greater than
900 and converter 2 operates as an Inverter.
• Vdc is positive & Idc is positive and Pdc is
positive.

387387
 UNIT-III
DC-DC CONVERTERS (CHOPPERS)

388
 DC-DC Converters

• Convert a fixed DC Source into a Variable

DC Source
• DC equivalent to an AC transformer with
variable turns ratio
• Step-up and Step-down versions
• Applications
– Motor Control
– Voltage Regulators
389
Step-down Operation

• Switch SW is known as
a “Chopper”
• Use BJT, MOSFET, or
IGBT
• Close for time t1
– VS appears across R
• Open for time t2
– Voltage across R = 0
• Repeat
• Period T = t1 + t2
390
Waveforms for the Step-Down Converter

391
Average Value of the Output Voltage
t1
1
Va   vO dt
T 0
t1
1
Va   VS dt
T 0
t1
Va  VS  ft1VS
T
Va  kVS
392
Average Value of the Load Current

Va kVS
Ia  
R R
T  period
t1
k   dutycycle
T
f  frequency
393
rms Value of the output voltage
1
1 kT
 2
VO   0 v dt 
2
O
T
1
1 kT
 2
VO    VS dt 
2

T 0 
VO  kVS

394
If the converter is “lossless”, Pin = Pout
kT
1
Pin 
T  v idt
0
O

kT 2
1 v
Pin 
T 
0
O

R
dt

1 VS2
Pin  kT
T R
VS2
Pin  k
R
395
 Effective Input Resistance seen by VS

VS VS
Ri  
I a k VS
R
R
Ri 
k
396
 Modes of Operation

• Constant – frequency operation

– Period T held constant, t1 varied
– Width of the pulse changes
– “Pulse-width modulation”, PWM
• Variable -- frequency operation
– Change the chopping frequency (period T)
– Either t1 or t2 is kept constant
– “Frequency modulation”
397
 Generation of Duty Cycle

• Compare a dc reference signal with a saw-

tooth carrier signal
DC Reference Signal Carrier Signal

398
 Vr
vr  k
T

k
T vr  Vcr @ t  kT
Vr
Vcr  kT
T
Vcr
k M
Vr
399
 To generate the gating signal

• Generate the triangular waveform of period T, vr, and

the dc carrier signal, vcr
• Compare to generate the difference vc - vcr
• Apply to a “hard limiter” to “square off”
400
Step-Down Converter with RL Load

401
 Mode 1: Switch Closed

di
V  Ri  L
S
E 1
1

dt
i (t )
1 ( t 0 )
I 1

V E
  t  t (kT )
R R

i (t )  I e  1 e
 t  t
L S L
1 1
R 1

t  t  kT
1

i (kT )  I
1 2
402
Mode 2: Switch Open
di
0  Ri  L 2
E 2

dt
i (t  0)  I
2 2

E
 
R R

i (t )  I e  1 e
 t  t
L L
2 2
R
0  t  t  (1  k )T 2

@t  t  (1  K )T
2

i (t )  I  I
2 2 3 1
403
Current for “Continuous” Mode

404
 V e 1
  E
kz

I  S

R e 1
1 z
R
V e 1
 
 kz
E
I  S

R e 1
2 z
R
TR
z 
L
V 1  e  kz
e e
z  ( 1k ) z


I  S

R  1 e z

V
I  max
S

4 fL
405
For Continuous Current

I 0
1

e  1 E 
kz


e  1 V   0
 
z

406
Define the load emf ratio

E
x 
V S

E e 1 kz

x  
V S
e 1z

407
 UNIT-IV
AC-AC CONVERTERS (AC
VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS) &
FREQUENCY CHANGERS
(CYCLO-CONVERTERS)

408
 Ac Voltage controller circuits
(RMS voltage controllers)
An ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor
power converter which is used to convert a
fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply
to obtain a variable voltage ac output

409
 Applications Of Ac Voltage
Controllers
•Lighting / Illumination control in ac power
circuits.
•Induction heating.
•Industrial heating & Domestic heating.
•Transformer tap changing (on load
transformer tap changing).
•Speed control of induction motors C
magnet controls.

410
 Type Of Ac Voltage Controllers

• Single phase half wave ac voltage controller

(Uni-directional controller).
• Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (Bi-
directional controller).
• Three phase half wave ac voltage controller
(Uni-directional controller).
• Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (Bi-
directional Controller)
411
A.C voltage control technique

412
Principle of ON-OFF Control
Technique

413
Vs n m

wt

Vo
io

wt

ig1 Gate pulse of T1

wt
ig2 Gate pulse of T2

wt

414
415
416
417
Expression For The RMS Value Of
Output Voltage, For ON-OFF
Control Method

418
419
420
421
422
423
RMS Out put voltage

424
Duty cycle

425
426
Input Power factor

427
428
The Average Current Of Thyristor

429
Waveform of Thyristor current

430
431
RMS Thyristor Current

432
 Principle Of AC Phase Control
And
Operation of single Phase half-Wave
A.C Phase controller

433
Principle Of AC Phase Control

Power Electronics Unit-6 434

435
Equations

436
Output Load Voltage

437
Out Put Load Current

438
Expression For RMS Out put Load
Voltage

439
440
441
442
443
Control Characteristics

444
Average Value of Out put Voltage

445
446
447
Disadvantages

448
Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage
Controller (Bidirectional Controller)
With R-Load

449
Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage
Controller With R-Load

Fig.: Single phase full wave ac voltage controller

(Bi-directional Controller) using SCR 450
Waveforms of single phase full
wave ac voltage controller

451
 Expression for RMS output voltage

1
  sin  t.d t
2 2 2
V L RMS 
V
 0
m

2
1
V 2
L RMS 
 v
2
.d  t 
2
L
0

 2
1  
   Vm sin  t  d  t    Vm sin  t  d  t  
2 2
VL2 RMS 
2    
452
Contd…
 2
1  
 Vm  sin  t.d  t   Vm  sin  t.d t  
2 2 2 2

2     
 2
1  
 Vm  sin  t.d  t   Vm  sin  t.d t  
2 2 2 2

2     
 2
Vm 
2
1  cos 2t 1  cos 2t 
  d  t    d t 
2  2   2 
  2 2
Vm 2
 
   d t    cos 2t.d t    d t    cos 2t.d t 
2  2       
453
  2  2
Vm  2
 sin 2 t   sin 2t  
   t    t      
4      2    2    

 
2

          2  sin 2  sin 2   2  sin 4  sin 2     

Vm 1 1

4
 
2

 2      2  0  sin 2   2  0  sin 2     

Vm 1 1

4

Vm  2
sin 2 sin 2     
  2       
4  2 2 
454
 Vm 2  sin 2 sin  2  2  
  2       
4  2 2 
Vm 2  sin 2 1 
  2         sin 2 .cos 2  cos 2 .sin 2  
4 2 2

sin 2  0 & cos 2  1

Therefore,
Vm 2  sin 2 sin 2 
  2      2  2 
2
V L RMS 
4
Vm 2
V 2 L RMS   
  2  2   sin 2 
4
455
• Taking the square root, we get
Vm
VL RMS    2  2   sin 2 
2 
Vm
VL RMS    2  2   sin 2 
2 2

Vm 1
VL RMS    2  2   sin 2 
2 2

Vm 1   sin 2 
VL RMS    2      
2 2   2 
456
 Vm 1 sin 2 
VL RMS        
2  2 

1 sin 2 
VL RMS   Vi RMS       
 2 

1 sin 2 
VL RMS   VS      
 2 

457
Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage
Controller (Bidirectional Controller)
With R-L Load

458
Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage
Controller (Bidirectional Controller)
With R-L Load

459
Input supply voltage & Thyristor
current waveforms

Power Electronics Unit-6 460

Gating Signals

461
  
Waveforms For RL load for and
for Discontinuous Conduction

Power Electronics Unit-6 462

 Expression for the inductive load
current of a single phase full wave
ac voltage controller with RL load

Vm  R
 t   
iO   sin   t     sin     e L

Z  
Z  R   L 
2 2
Where

L 
  tan 
1

 R 
= Load impedance angle (power factor
angle of load). 463
Output voltage and output current waveforms
for a single phase full wave
ac voltage controller with RL load for  
vO vO=vS
Vm

 2 3
0  t

  
iO
Im

 t
464
TRIAC and Its Modes of Operation

465
 TRIAC
MT1

G N2
MT2
P2
N3
P2
N1

N1
P1 G MT1

P1
N4

MT2
Fig.1 : Triac Structure Fig. 2 : Triac
Symbol

466
TRIGGERING MODES OF TRIAC
• MODE 1 : MT1 positive, Positive gate current
( I+ mode of operation)
MT (+) 2

P1

N1
P2
Ig
N2

MT1 ()
G
V
(+)
Ig
467
• When and gate current are positive with respect
to MT1, the gate current flows through P2-N2
junction
• The junction P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward
biased but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased.
• When sufficient number of charge carriers are
injected in P2 layer by the gate current the junction
N1-P2 breakdown and triac starts conducting through
P1N1P2N2 layers.
• Once triac starts conducting the current increases and
its V-I characteristics is similar to that of thyristor.
Triac in this mode operates in the first-quadrant.

468
 MODE 2
• MT2 positive, Negative gate current
(I- mode of operation)
MT2 (+)

P1
Initial Final
N1
conduction conduction
P2
N3 N2

MT1 ()
G
V

Ig
469
• When MT2 is positive and gate G is negative with
respect to MT1 the gate current flows through P2-N3
junction
• The junction P1-N1 and P2-N3 are forward biased
but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased. Hence, the triac
initially starts conducting through P1N1P2N3 layers.
• As a result the potential of layer between P2-N3 rises
towards the potential of MT2.
• Thus, a potential gradient exists across the layer P2
with left hand region at a higher potential than the
right hand region.

470
• This results in a current flow in P2 layer from
left to right, forward biasing the P2N2
junction. Now the right hand portion P1-N1 -
P2-N2 starts conducting.
• The device operates in first quadrant. When
compared to Mode 1, triac with MT2 positive
and negative gate current is less sensitive and
therefore requires higher gate current for
triggering.

471
 MODE 3
• MT2 negative, Positive gate current
(III+ mode of operation)
MT 2 ()

N4

P1
N1

P2
N2

G MT1 (+)
(+)

Ig
472
• When MT2 is negative and gate is positive with
respect to MT1 junction P2N2 is forward biased and
junction P1-N1 is reverse biased.
• N2 layer injects electrons into P2 layer as shown by
arrows in figure below.
• This causes an increase in current flow through
junction P2-N1. Resulting in breakdown of reverse
biased junction N1-P1.
• Now the device conducts through layers P2N1P1N4
and the current starts increasing, which is limited by an
external load.
• The device operates in third quadrant in this mode.
Triac in this mode is less sensitive and requires higher
gate current for triggering.
473
 MODE 4
• MT2 negative, Negative gate current
(III+ modeMTof(operation)
)
2

N4

P1
N1

P2
N3

G MT1 (+)
(+)

Ig

474
• In this mode both MT2 and gate G are negative with
respect to MT1, the gate current flows through P2N3
junction as shown.
• Layer N3 injects electrons as shown by arrows into
P2 layer. This results in increase in current flow
across P1N1 and the device will turn ON due to
increased current in layer N1.
• The current flows through layers P2N1P1N4. Triac is
more sensitive in this mode compared to turn ON
with positive gate current. (Mode 3).

475
• Triac sensitivity is greatest in the first quadrant when
turned ON with positive gate current and also in third
quadrant when turned ON with negative gate current.
when is positive with respect to it is recommended
to turn on the triac by a positive gate current.
• When is negative with respect to it is recommended
to turn on the triac by negative gate current.
Therefore Mode 1 and Mode 4 are the preferred
modes of operation of a triac (mode and mode of
operation are normally used).

476
 Triac characteristics
RL I
- +
A
MT2

Rg + +
+ -G
A MT1 V Vs
-
+ -
Vgg
-

477
V-I Characteristics of a triac
VB01, VB01
MT2(+) - Breakover voltages
G(+) Ig2 > Ig21
 Ig2
I Ig1
VB02
V
V VB01

MT2()
G()

478
 Single phase full wave ac
voltage controller
(Bi-directional Controller) using
TRIAC

479
 Single phase full wave ac voltage
controller (Bi-directional Controller)
using TRIAC

480
Waveforms of single phase full
wave ac voltage controller

481
Single phase full wave ac controller with
common cathode
(Bidirectional controller in common
cathode configuration)

482
 Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage
Controller Using A Single Thyristor

D1 D3
+
T1

D4 D2
AC
Supply RL

483
CYCLOCONVERTER

484
 CYCLOCONVERTER
• A device which converts input power at one
frequency to the out put power at different
frequency with one stage conversion is called
a cycloconverter.
• A cycloconverter requires one stage frequency
conversion.
• Cycloconverter of two types
(i) Step-Up Cycloconverter ( fo > s)
(ii) step-Down Cycloconverter ( fo < fs)
485
Single phase to single phase Mid point type
step-up Cycloconverter
with R load

Power Electronics Unit-6 486

487
Single phase to single phase Bridge
type step-up
Cycloconverter with R load

Power Electronics Unit-6 488

489
1-φ to 1-φ Mid point type step-Down
Cycloconverter with R load

Power Electronics Unit-6 490

Output voltage (Vo) and current (Io) waveform

491
1-φ to 1-φ Bridge type Cyclo-
converter with R and R-L load

492
1-φ to 1-φ Bridge type step-Down
Cycloconverter with R load

Power Electronics Unit-6 493

Output voltage (Vo) and current (Io) waveform

Power Electronics Unit-6 494

1-φ to 1-φ Midpoint type step-Down
Cycloconverter with R-L load

Power Electronics Unit-6 495

Output voltage (Vo) and current (Io)
waveform for Discontinuous
Conduction mode

Power Electronics Unit-6 496

 Output voltage (Vo) and current (Io)
waveform for Continuous Conduction mode

Power Electronics Unit-6 497

1-φ to 1-φ Bridge-type step-Down
Cycloconverter with R-L load

Power Electronics Unit-6 498

Output voltage (Vo) and current (Io)
waveform for Discontinuous
Conduction mode

Power Electronics Unit-6 499

Output voltage (Vo) and current (Io)
waveform for Continuous Conduction
mode

Power Electronics Unit-6 500

 UNIT-V
DC-AC CONVERTERS
(INVERTERS)

501
Single-phase half-bridge inverter

502
 Operational Details

3-wire DC
source

• Consists of 2 choppers, 3-wire DC source

• Transistors switched on and off alternately
• Need to isolate the gate signal for Q1 (upper device)
• Each provides opposite polarity of Vs/2 across the load
503
 Q1 on, Q2 off, vo = Vs/2

Peak Reverse Voltage of Q2 = Vs

504
Q1 off, Q2 on, vo = -Vs/2

505
Waveforms with resistive load

506
Look at the output voltage

rms value of the output voltage, Vo

1
 To
 2
2 
2 2
V Vs
Vo   0 4 dt   2
s

 To 
 
507
Fourier Series of the instantaneous output
voltage
ao 
vo     an cos(nt )  bn sin(nt ) 
2 n 1
ao , an  0

1  Vs 
0
Vs
bn    sin(nt )d (t )   sin(nt )d (t ) 
   2 0
2 
2Vs
bn   n  1,3,5,...
n

2Vs
vo   sin(nt )
n 1,3,5,.. n

508
rms value of the fundamental component


2Vs
vo   sin nt
n 1,3,5,.. n

1 2Vs
Vo1 
2 
Vo1  0.45Vs

509
When the load is highly inductive

510
 Turn off Q1 at t = To/2
Current falls to 0 via D2, L, Vs/2 lower

+
Vs/
2
-
+
Vs/2
-

511
 Turn off Q2 at t = To
Current falls to 0 via D1, L, Vs/2 upper

+
Vs/
2
-
+
Vs/2
-

512
Load Current for a highly inductive load

Transistors are only switched on for a quarter-cycle, or 90

513
 Fourier Series of the output current for an RL
load

vo vo 2Vs
io     sin(nt   n )
Z R  jn L n 1,3,5,... n R  (n L)
2 2

n L
 n  tan (
1
)
R

514
 Fundamental Output Power
In most cases, the useful power

Po1  Vo1 I o1 cos 1  I o21 R

2
 2Vs 
Po1    R
 2 R  ( L)
2 2


515
 DC Supply Current
• If the inverter is lossless, average power absorbed
by the load equals the average power supplied by
the dc source.

T T

 v (t )i (t )dt   v (t )i (t )dt
0
s s
0
o o

• For an inductive load, the current is approximately

sinusoidal and the fundamental component of the
output voltage supplies the power to the load. Also,
the dc supply voltage remains essentially at Vs.

516
 DC Supply Current (continued)

T T
1
0 is (t )dt  Vs 
0
2Vo1 sin(t ) 2 I o sin(t  1 )dt  I s

Vo1
Is  I o cos(1 )
Vs

517
 Performance Parameters

• Harmonic factor of the nth harmonic (HFn)

Von
HFn  for n>1
Vo1

Von = rms value of the nth harmonic component

V01 = rms value of the fundamental component

518
 Performance Parameters (continued)

• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

• Measures the “closeness” in shape between a
waveform and its fundamental component

 1
1
THD  (  Von ) 2 2
Vo1 n 2,3,...

519
 Performance Parameters (continued)

• Distortion Factor (DF)

• Indicates the amount of HD that remains in a
particular waveform after the harmonics have been
subjected to second-order attenuation.
1

1  
 Von  
2 2
DF     2  
Vo1  n  2,3,...  n  
Von
DFn  for n>1
Vo1n 2
520
 Performance Parameters (continued)

• Lowest order harmonic (LOH)

• The harmonic component whose frequency
is closest to the fundamental, and its
amplitude is greater than or equal to 3% of
the amplitude of the fundamental
component.

521
Single-phase full-bridge inverter

522
 Operational Details

• Consists of 4 choppers and a 3-wire DC source

• Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4 switched on and off alternately
• Need to isolate the gate signal for Q1 and Q3 (upper)
• Each pair provide opposite polarity of Vsacross the load
523
Q1-Q2 on, Q3-Q4 off, vo = Vs

+ Vs -

524
Q3-Q4 on, Q1-Q2 off, vo = -Vs

- Vs +

525
When the load is highly inductive
Turn Q1-Q2 off – Q3-Q4 off

526
Turn Q3-Q4 off – Q1-Q2 off

527
Load current for a highly inductive load

528