Data Communications

Chapter 1
Introduction

Dr. Dalia Nashat

Information Technology Department
Faculty of Computers and Information
Administration
Instructor
Dr Dalia Nashat
Dr Fatma Abd-Alhaleem
References
Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan
Grading
◦ 50% final exam (Credit Hours)
◦ 50% mid term (Credit Hours)

2
 Introduction
1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
1.2 NETWORKS
1.3 NETWORK TYPES
1.4 INTERNET HISTORY
1.5 STANDARDS AND ADMINISTRATION

3
❖
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunication
communication at a distance.
❖ Data
refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.
❖ Data communications
the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable. telecommunicati
on

Components of a data communication system

4
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics:
Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.
Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data
that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected
are unusable.
Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and
audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
time transmission.
Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video
packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are
sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms 5
A data communications system has five components:
Message: the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
Sender: the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera
Receiver: the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television.
Transmission medium: physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol: a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating
devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected
but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese. 6
 Data Representation
Text : represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the
process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system is called
Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the
world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), developed
some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode
and is also referred to as Basic Latin.
Numbers: represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.
Images: represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
Audio: refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.
Video: refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

7
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

8
Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the
monitor can only accept output.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa .The half-duplex
mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. Walkie-talkies and CB
(citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The half-duplex mode is used in cases
where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time; the entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the
capacity of the link with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two
ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions. E.g. telephone network. The capacity of the channel, however,
must be divided between the two directions.

9
NETWORKS
❖ Network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. device in this
definition can also be a connecting device such as a
router, which connects the network to other networks,
a switch, which connects devices together, a modem
(modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of
data, and so on. These devices in a network are
connected using wired or wireless transmission
media such as cable or air. When we connect two
computers at home using a plug-and-play router, we
have created a network, although very small.
❖ node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
❖ link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal carrying information.
10
 Network Criteria
❖ Performance
• Depends on Network Elements
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
❖ Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness
❖ Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data
due to:
• Errors
• Malicious users
11
 Physical Structures
Type of Connection
A network is two or
more devices connected
through links. For
communication to occur,
two devices must be
connected in some way
to the same link at the
same time. There are
two possible types of
connections: point-to- point-to-point and multipoint
point and multipoint.
◦ Point to Point: single
transmitter and
receiver
◦ Multipoint: multiple
recipients of single
12
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY

The term physical topology refers to the way in

which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh,
star, bus, and ring.

13
 Mesh topology
In a, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
Advantages :
First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be
routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to
discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

14
Disadvantages :

First, because every device must be connected to every other

device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and
cable) can be prohibitively expensive. For these reasons a mesh
topology is usually implemented in a
limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main
computers of a hybrid network that can include several other
topologies.

15
Star Topology

Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central

controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly
linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts
as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device

16
Advantages :
First, star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a
star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others.
Second it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs
to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection: between that device and
the hub.
Finally, robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected.
All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to
easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub
is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.

17
Disadvantages :

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency

of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the
hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each
node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often
more cabling is required in a star than in some other
topologies (such as ring or bus).

18
Bus Topology

A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone

to link all the devices in a network.

19
Advantages :

Ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the

most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop
lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling
than mesh or star topologies. In a star, for example, four
network devices in the same room require four lengths of
cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this
redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches
through the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only
as far as the nearest point on the backbone.

20
 Disadvantages :
difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually
designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore
be difficult to add new devices.
Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing
of devices connected to a given length of cable. Adding new
devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission,
even between devices on the same side of the problem. The
damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin,
creating noise in both directions.

21
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it. A
signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along.

22
 Advantages :

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is

linked to only its immediate neighbours (either physically or
logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). In
addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally, in a ring a signal is circulating at all times. If one
device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location.

23
Disadvantages :

Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.

This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch
capable of closing off the break.
In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station)
can disable the entire network.

24
 NETWORK TYPES
❖ Local Area Networks (LANs)
◦ Short distances
◦ Designed to provide local interconnectivity
◦ In the past, all hosts in a network were connected through a common cable,
which meant that a packet sent from one host to another was received by
all hosts.
◦ Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize
the destination address of the packet and guide the packet to its destination
without sending it to all other hosts.

25
Wide Area Networks
(WANs)
Long distances
Provide connectivity over large areas
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects
two communicating devices through a
transmission media (cable or air).
A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

26
Internetwork
Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they
are connected to one another.
When two or more networks are connected, they make an
internetwork, or internet.
As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one
on the east coast and the other on the west coast. Each office has
a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate
with each other. To make the communication between
employees at different offices possible, the management leases a
point-to-point dedicated WAN from a service provider, such as a
telephone company, and connects the two LANs.

27
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

28
 Switching
❖ Circuit-Switched Network
A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between the two end systems;
the switch can only make it active or inactive.
❖ Packet-Switched Network
In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks of
data called packets.

29
Packet-Switched
Network
In a computer network, the communication between the two
ends is done in blocks of data called packets.
Instead of the continuous communication we see between two
telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange
of individual data packets between the two computers.
This allows us to make the switches function for both storing
and forwarding because a packet is an independent entity that
can be stored and sent later.

30
THE INTERNET

An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more

networks that can communicate with each other.
The most notable internet is called the Internet
(uppercase I ), and is composed of thousands of
interconnected networks.

31
THE INTERNET
Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has
affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time. The Internet is a communication system that has
brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for
our use.

32
 Accessing the Internet

❖ Using Telephone Networks

• Dial-up service
The first solution is to add to the telephone line a modem that converts data to
voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates making
a telephone connection. Unfortunately, the dial-up service is very slow, and
when the line is used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for telephone
(voice) connection.
• DSL Service
Since the advent of the Internet, some telephone companies have upgraded their
telephone lines to provide higher speed Internet services to residences or small
businesses. The DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for
voice and data communication.

33
 Accessing the Internet
❖ Using Cable Networks
More and more residents over the last two decades have begun using cable TV
services instead of antennas to receive TV broadcasting. The cable companies
have been upgrading their cable networks and connecting to the Internet. A
residence or a small business can be connected to the Internet by using this service.
It provides a higher speed connection, but the speed varies depending on the
number of neighbours that use the same cable.
❖ Using Wireless Networks
Wireless connectivity has recently become increasingly popular. A household or a
small business can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to access
the Internet. With the growing wireless WAN access, a household or a small
business can be connected to the Internet through a wireless WAN.
❖ Direct Connection to the Internet
A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local ISP and be
connected to the Internet. This can be done if the organization or the corporation
leases a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and connects itself to a regional
ISP. For example, a large university with several campuses can create an
internetwork and then connect the internetwork to the Internet.

34
Internet Standards
It is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to
by those who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation
that must be followed.
An Internet draft is a working document (a work in progress) with
no official status and a six-month lifetime.
Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be
published as a Request for Comment (RFC).
Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all
interested parties. RFCs go through maturity levels and are
categorized according to their requirement level.

35
Maturity Levels
An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of six maturity levels: proposed
standard, draft standard, Internet standard, historic, experimental, and
informational

36
Requirement Levels
RFCs are classified into five requirement levels:
Required. An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by all
Internet systems to achieve minimum conformance. For example, IP and
ICMP are required protocols.
Recommended. An RFC labeled recommended is not required for
minimum conformance; it is recommended because of its usefulness. For
example, FTP and TELNET are recommended protocols.
Elective. An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended.
However, a system can use it for its own benefit.
Limited Use. An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in limited
situations.Most of the experimental RFCs fall under this category.
Not Recommended. An RFC labeled not recommended is inappropriate
for general use. Normally a historic (deprecated) RFC may fall under this
category.

37
Internet Administration
The Internet, with its roots primarily in the research domain, has evolved and gained a
broader user base with significant commercial activity. Various groups that coordinate
Internet issues have guided this growth and development.
The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, non-profit organization formed in 1992 to
provide support for the Internet standards process.
The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the technical advisor to the ISOC. The main
purposes of the IAB are to oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
and to serve in a technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet community.

38
Internet Administration

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a forum of

working groups managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group
(IESG). IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems and
proposing solutions to these problems. IETF also develops and
reviews specifications intended as Internet standards. The working
groups are collected into areas, and each area concentrates on a
specific topic.

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) is a forum of working

groups managed by the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG).
IRTF focuses on long-term research topics related to Internet
protocols, applications, architecture, and technology.

39