IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.

1: Acids, Bases & salts

Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & Salts

Types of solutions

Acids Bases

Acids are Proton donors Neutral Bases are Proton acceptors

m
(H+ donors) (H+ acceptors)
A solution that is

to
neither acidic or basic
Strong Weak Strong Weak
Acid Acid E.g.: Pure Water, Base Base

os
Alcohol, Salt solutions,
sugar solution
An acid that is An acid that is A base that is A base that is partially
completely dissociated
in water giving High
concentration of H+
partially dissociated
in water giving low
concentration of
R completely dissociated in
water giving High
concentration of OH- ions
dissociated in water
giving low
concentration of OH-
ions H+ ions
an
E.g.: Hydrochloric acid, E.g.: Ethanoic acid E.g.: Sodium Hydroxide, E.g.: Ammonia,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid (vinegar), Carbonic acid potassium hydroxide ammonium Hydroxide
ur

Properties of acids: Properties of Bases:

- Have sour taste - Soft & slippery
- Have pH < 7
No

- Have pH > 7
- Turn blue litmus paper into Red - Turn red litmus paper into Blue
- Acids usually start with H or - Bases are metal oxides or metal hydroxide or
they are non - metal oxides.
ammonia.
.

- Bases that are soluble in water are called alkali

Dr

Most commonly used acids: Most commonly used bases:

- Hydrochloric acid HCl - Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
- Nitric acid HNO3 - Potassium Hydroxide KOH
- Sulfuric acid H2SO4 - Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
- Ethanoic acid CH3COOH - Ammonia NH3

HCl ! H+ + Cl- NaOH ! Na+ + OH-

HNO3 ! H+ + NO3- Ca(OH)2 ! Ca2+ + 2 OH-
H2SO4 ! 2 H+ + SO4 2- NH3 + H2O ! NH4+ + OH -
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Using the pH- scale

๏ Acids: have pH from (1 – 6)

‣ A strong acid has pH of 1-3
‣ A weak acid has pH of 4-6

m
๏ Neutral: has pH 7

to
๏ Bases: have pH from (8- 14)
‣ A weak Base has pH of 8-10

os
‣ A Strong Base has pH of 12-14
R
How can we measure the pH of a solution?
an
1- Using pH meter:
It’s a digital instrument that measures the exact pH of the solution.
ur

2. Using universal indicator:

No

It’s a mixture of different plant dyes that gives a different color for every pH.
We can determine the exact pH of the solution by comparing the color produced to the
color chart.
.
Dr

‣ As pH decreases, concentration of H+ ions increase & acidity increases &

color of the indicator gets darker (Yellow → orange → red)

‣ Neutral: pH 7 (green color)

‣ As pH increases, concentration of H+ ions decrease & alkalinity increases

& color of the indicator gets darker (blue → dark blue → purple)

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Other indicators:
Color in acidic solution Color in alkaline solution
Litmus paper Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Thymol phthalein Colorless Blue
Phenol phthalein Colorless Pink

m
to
Chemical Reactions of Acids & of Bases.

os
Reactions of Acids:
• Acids react with Metals or Bases or Metal Carbonates or Ammonia to form salts.
R
• The name of the salt depends on the acid you used.
an
Acid Salt name
Hydrochloric acid X chloride
ur

Sulfuric acid X Sulfate

Nitric Acid X nitrate
No

Ethanoic acid X ethanoate X: metal

.

1) Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen (Displacement Reaction) MASH

Dr

• Displacement reactions depend on reactivity, if the metal is more reactive than

Hydrogen it can displace it from the acid, if the metals is less reactive than Hydrogen
(as Copper, silver, or gold) no reaction will take place.
Zinc + Sulfuric acid → Zinc Sulfate + Hydrogen
H2SO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + H2

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen

Mg + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Ionic equation: Mg (s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Mg 2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Observations: Bubbles of Hydrogen gas & solid metal starts to disappear.

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

2) Base /Alkali + Acid → Salt + Water (Neutralization Reaction)

• Base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide.
Potassium Hydroxide + Nitric acid → Potassium Nitrate + Water
KOH + HNO3 → KNO3 + H2O
Ionic equation: K+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+ (aq) + NO3 (aq) → K+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + H2O (l)
Net ionic equation: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

m
Magnesium Oxide + Sulfuric acid → Magnesium sulfate + Water

to
MgO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O
Net ionic equation: 2 H+ (aq) + O2- (aq) → H2O (l)

os
• From the previous 2 ionic equations, we find that during Neutralization:
‣ Protons (H+) are donated by acids. R
‣ Hydroxide OH- /Oxide O2- ions from the base accept H+ from acids giving water.
‣ Acids are proton donors & bases are proton acceptors.
an
ur

3) Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide (Neutralization Reaction)

Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Water + carbon dioxide
No

CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Sodium carbonate + Nitric acid → Sodium Nitrate + Water + Carbon dioxide

.

Na2CO3 + 2 HNO3 → 2 NaNO3 + H2O + CO2

Dr

4) Ammonia + Acid → Ammonium salt (Neutralization Reaction)

Ammonia + Hydrochloric acid → Ammonium Chloride
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

Ammonia + Sulfuric acid → Ammonium Sulfate

2 NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Making Use of Neutralization reaction

• Neutralization is a chemical reaction between Acids & (bases or metal carbonate or
ammonia) giving neutral products.

• Neutralization reaction is exothermic. (releases heat to the surrounding, so temp. rises)

m
1)Acid rain:
Burning fossil fuels in factories and car engines produce acidic gases (sulfur dioxide and

to
nitrogen oxides) that dissolve in the rainwater giving sulfurous acid and nitric acid.

os
Effects of acid rain:
1) Cracking of lime stone buildings.
2) Corrosion of metal statues. R
3) Soil acidity affecting growth of crops.
4) Lowering the pH of lakes and kill fish.
an

We Can Neutralize Acidic Soil By:

ur

Adding a base as Crushed Limestone “Calcium Carbonate” or Lime “Calcium Oxide” or

Slaked lime “Calcium Hydroxide.
No

Explain Why: Using Excess Calcium Carbonate is better than using excess
Calcium Oxide to neutralize acidic soil or acidic lake?
.

Calcium carbonate is insoluble in water, so, pH can’t get more than 7 & stays neutral.
Dr

While, Calcium oxide dissolves in water so excess CaO dissolves giving alkaline solution
and pH gets more than 7.

2) Stings
Bee stings are acidic.
We Can Neutralize the sting By:
Rubbing weak bases as baking soda (NaHCO3) or toothpaste or soap.

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Reactions of Bases:

1) Base /Alkali + Acid → Salt + Water (Neutralization Reaction)

2) Base /Alkali + Ammonium salt → Salt + Water + Ammonia

Sodium hydroxide + ammonium chloride → sodium chloride + water + ammonia

m
NaOH + NH4Cl → NaCl + H2O + NH3

to
Calcium hydroxide + ammonium sulfate → calcium sulfate + water + ammonia
Ca(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 → CaSO4 + 2 H2O + 2 NH3

os
R
an
Red litmus paper turns blue
Because ammonia gas produced is
alkaline
ur
. No
Dr

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Preparation of Salts

Preparation of Salts

Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts

Is it Lithium or Sodium or
Potassium or Ammonium salt ?
Precipitation

m
No ! Yes ! method

to
Excess Titration
Method Method

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Solubility of salts R
Salt Soluble Insoluble
an
Nitrate All nitrates are soluble
Sulfate All sulfates are soluble CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4
ur

except Ca, Ba, Pb

Chloride All chlorides are soluble AgCl, PbCl2
No

except Ag, Pb

Solubility of Bases & Metal Carbonates

.
Dr

Salt Soluble Insoluble

Metal oxides or LiOH, NaOH, KOH, All metal oxides/
hydroxides NH4OH, Ca(OH)2 hydroxides are insoluble
except Li, Na, K, NH4 & Ca
Metal carbonates Li2CO3 , Na2CO3 ,K2CO3 , All carbonates are insoluble
(NH4)2CO3 , except Li, Na, K, NH4

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Preparation of Soluble salts

Excess Method

• It is a method used to prepare soluble salts (other than Li,Na,K, NH4 Salts)
By adding excess insoluble metal, or metal oxide, or metal hydroxide, or metal
carbonate to an acid.

m
• Excess: It’s more than enough to react with all of the other substance.

to
Example: Preparation of Zinc Sulfate crystals

os
Zinc + Sulfuric acid → Zinc Sulfate + Hydrogen

1.
2.
R
Put certain volume of Sulfuric acid in a conical flask and warm it.
Add excess Zinc to the warm acid & stir until no more zinc dissolves.
3. Filter to remove excess unreacted Zinc.
an
4. Heat/ Evaporate the filtrate (Zinc sulfate solution) till crystallization point.
5. Leave to cool.
ur

6. Filter Zinc sulfate crystals

7. Dry crystals between 2 filter paper.
. No
Dr

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Important Q & A:
Q.1 Explain why we do we warm the acid.
To increase the rate of the reaction.
Q.2 Explain why do we add excess metal or base or metal carbonate to the acid.
To make sure all the acid has reacted & that the reaction finished.
Q.3 Explain how do we know that the reaction is finished.

m
1. When excess unreacted solid stops dissolving (remains at the bottom of the

to
flask).
2.When no more bubbles of gas is given off (hydrogen if we use a metal & carbon

os
dioxide if we use a metal carbonate)
Q.4 Explain how do we remove the excess unreacted solid.
By Filtration
R
Q.5 Explain why do we sometimes wash the residue obtained on filtering the
an
excess unreacted solid.
To collect the washings that may contain traces of soluble salt sticking to it.
ur

Q.6 Explain how can we check if crystallization point was reached.

By dipping a glass rod in the solution, crystals are formed on it.
No

Q.7 Why do we leave the filtrate to cool.

So that more crystals are formed because solubility decreases by cooling.
.
Dr

Q.8 Explain why do we wash the salt crystals with cold distilled water.
To clean it / to remove impurities.

Q.9 Explain why the crystals aren’t dried in an oven.

To avoid losing water of crystallization.

Water of crystallization: the water molecules present in hydrated crystals such as

CuSO4.5H20 & CoCl2.6H20

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Titration Method

• We use titration method to prepare Li, Na, K, NH4 salts instead of using excess
method because Li,Na,K,NH4 oxides/hydroxide/ carbonate are soluble in
water.
• If we added excess Li,Na,K,NH4 oxides/hydroxide/ carbonate to the acid,
excess will dissolve in water making it alkaline & there will be no solid residue to
remove by filtration.
SLAP

m
Sodium, Lithium, ammonium, Potassium

to
Example: Preparation of Sodium Chloride crystals
Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid → Sodium chloride + Water

os
1. Using a pipette, add 25 cm3 of Hydrochloric acid in a conical flask.
2.
3.
R
Add few drops of indicator to the flask using a teat pipette.
Slowly drop Sodium Hydroxide from the burette to the flask
4. Swirl the flask to mix.
n
5. Stop adding sodium hydroxide when the end point is reached which is when
ra

the indicator changes color.

6. Note the volume of sodium hydroxide used.
ou

7. Either:
‣ Repeat the experiment one more time using same used volume of acid and
.N

alkali without the indicator.

‣ Add charcoal to remove the color of the indicator, then filter to remove
charcoal.
Dr

8. Carry out crystallization process:

• Heat the solution till
crystallization point.
• Leave to cool
• Filter crystals
• Dry them between two
filter papers.

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Important Q & A:
Q.1 Explain how do we know that the reaction is finished.
When the indicator changes it color.
Q.2 Explain why do we need to remove the indicator.
To obtain pure crystals of the salt without the indicator’s color.

m
Q.3 Explain how to remove the indicator.

to
By adding charcoal to absorb the color, then filtering the charcoal.
Or By repeating the experiment using the same volumes of acid and alkali

os
without the indicator.

R
Using Titration to determine unknown concentration of a solution:
an
Example: Plan a sc. investigation to find concentration of a solution of HCl.
You’re provided with NaOH of concentration 1 mole/dm3 & common lab apparatus.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
ur

1. Use a pipette to add 25 cm3 of NaOH in a conical flask.

No

2. Add few drops of an indicator to the flask.

3. Drop the acid slowly from the burette into the conical flask & swirl.
4. Continue until the color of indicator changes.
.
Dr

5. Note the volume of HCl acid used to neutralize the NaOH solution.
6. Carry out calculations to find concentration of HCl

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Preparation of Insoluble salts

Precipitation Method
To prepare an insoluble salt, we mix a solution that contains its positive ion with
another solution that contains its negative ion.

m
Precipitation Reaction: It is a chemical reaction in which substances in solution
are mixed and an insoluble solid is made.

to
os
Precipitate: an insoluble solid formed when two solutions are mixed & reacted
together.
R
an
ur
. No
Dr

Example: Preparation of Silver Chloride salt

AgNO3 (aq.) + NaCl (aq.) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq.)
Ionic Equation.: Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl (s)

1. Mix a solution that contains Silver ions such as : Silver Nitrate with a
solution that contains Chloride ions such as: Sodium Chloride & stir, a white
precipitate of silver chloride will be formed.
2. Filter to obtain the insoluble salt silver chloride.
3. Wash solid silver chloride with distilled water.
4. Dry in an oven.

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Example: Preparation of Barium Sulfate salt

Ba(NO3)2 (aq.) + Na2SO4 (aq.) → BaSO4 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq.)
Ionic Equation: Ba2+ + SO42- → BaSO4 (s)

1. Mix a solution that contains Barium ions such as : Barium Nitrate with a
solution that contains Sulfate ions such as: Sodium Sulfate & stir, a white

m
precipitate of Barium sulfate will be formed.

to
2. Filter to obtain the insoluble salt Barium Sulfate.
3. Wash solid Barium sulfate with distilled water.

os
4. Dry in an oven.

R
an
ur
. No
Dr

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 IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.1: Acids, Bases & salts

Types of Oxides
Oxides are Compounds containing Oxygen + another element.

There are 4 types of Oxides:

1.Acidic Oxide: Non-metal oxide (as: SO2, NO, NO2 , CO2)
2.Basic Oxide: Metal oxide (as: MgO, CaO, Na2O, CuO)

m
3.Neutral Oxide: H2O, CO and N2O

to
4.Amphoteric Oxide: Al2O3 & ZnO

os
How can we differentiate between the 4 types of oxides?
Add a known acid (e.g. HCl) and a known base (e.g. NaOH) to each of them.
R
‣ Acidic oxide: reacts with base only and dissolves.
‣ Basic oxide: reacts with acid only and dissolves.
an
‣ Amphoteric oxide: reacts with both acid & base and dissolves.
‣ Neutral oxide: doesn’t react with acid or base.
ur

Acidic Basic
No

Non- metal oxide Metal oxide

- pH < 7 - pH > 7
Types of Oxides
.

- -
Dr

Turns litmus paper Red Turns litmus paper Blue

- React with bases only & Dissolve - React with Acids only & Dissolve
- They are covalent compounds - They are ionic compounds

Neutral Amphoteric

H2O, CO & N2O ZnO & Al2O3

- pH = 7 - React with Acids & bases & Dissolve
- Doesn’t React with acids nor bases
Al2O3 + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O
Al2O3 + 6 NaOH → 2 Na3AlO3 + 3 H2O

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.2: Chemical Tests

Topic 8.2: Chemical Tests

Tests for Positive Ions “ Cations”:
Positive ion Effect of aq. sodium hydroxide Effect of aq. ammonia
Ammonium Bubbles of ammonia produced on -
(NH4+) warming that turns damp red litmus
paper to blue

m
Zinc White precipitate White precipitate
(Zn2+) Soluble in excess sodium hydroxide Soluble in excess ammonia giving

to
giving colorless solution colorless solution
Aluminum White precipitate White precipitate

os
(Al3+) Soluble in excess sodium hydroxide Insoluble in excess ammonia
giving colorless solution
Calcium
(Ca2+)
R
White precipitate
Insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide
Slight or no precipitate
an
Group 1 ions no precipitate no precipitate
(Li+ , Na+ , K+ )
Copper (II) Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate
ur

(Cu2+) insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide Soluble in excess ammonia

Giving dark blue solution
No

Chromium(III) Green precipitate Green precipitate

(Cr3+) Soluble in excess sodium hydroxide Insoluble in excess ammonia
giving green solution
Iron (II) Green precipitate Green precipitate
.
Dr

(Fe2+) insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide insoluble in excess ammonia,

Precipitate turns brown near surface Precipitate turns brown near
on standing. surface on standing.
Iron (III) Red brown precipitate Red brown precipitate
(Fe3+) insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide insoluble in excess ammonia

★The precipitates formed in the above tests are metal hydroxides.

• For example: light blue ppt of copper is copper (II) Hydroxide
Cu2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s)
• Green ppt of chromium is chromium (III) Hydroxide
Cr3+(aq) + 3 OH-(aq) → Cr(OH)3 (s)
• White ppt of Calcium is Calcium Hydroxide
Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) → Ca(OH)2 (s)

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.2: Chemical Tests

m
to
os
R
an

Tests for Negative Ions “ Anions”:

ur

Negative ion Test Result

No

Carbonate Add dilute acid & test for Carbon Effervescence of Carbon dioxide
CO3 2- dioxide gas using limewater. gas that turns lime water milky.
Chloride Acidify with dilute nitric acid, White precipitate of
.

Cl - then add aq. Silver nitrate AgCl

Dr

Bromide Acidify with dilute nitric acid, Creamy precipitate of

Br - then add aq. Silver nitrate AgBr
Iodide Acidify with dilute nitric acid, Yellow precipitate of
I- then add aq. Silver nitrate AgI
Sulfate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, White precipitate of
SO4 2- then add aq. Barium nitrate BaSO4
Sulfite Add small volume of acidified Aq. potassium manganate (VII)
SO3 2- potassium manganate (VII) changes color from purple to
colorless due to SO2 gas
Nitrate Add aq. Sodium hydroxide then Bubbles of ammonia gas that
NO3 - aluminum foil & warm carefully. turns damp red litmus paper into
blue

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IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.2: Chemical Tests

★When testing for Halides:

‣ Solution is acidified by Dil. nitric acid to remove carbonate ions.
‣ Hydrochloric acid can’t be used as it already contains Cl- ion which will
give white precipitate with silver nitrate.

Tests for Gases:

m
Gas Test Result

to
Carbon dioxide Lime water Turns milky
Sulfur dioxide Acidified potassium manganate (VII) Changes color from purple

os
to colorless
Hydrogen Lighted splint Burns with a pop sound
Oxygen
Chlorine
R
Glowing splint
Damp litmus paper
Relights
Bleaches / turns white
an
Ammonia Damp red litmus paper Turns blue
ur

Collection of gases:
No

Downward delivery Upward delivery Collection over water Gas syringe

.
Dr

Measuring volume of gas

For gases denser For gases less For gas insoluble in For any gas
than air dense than air water
E.g.: Chlorine, Sulfur E.g.: Ammonia, e.g: any gas Any gas
dioxide, Carbon Hydrogen except Chlorine &
dioxide ammonia

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 IGCSE Chemistry Topic 8.2: Chemical Tests

Drying of gases:

Delivery Tube carrying the moist gas

into the drying agent
must be immersed into the drying
agent. Delivery Tube carrying the Dry gas
must be out of the drying agent.

To avoid collecting the drying agent

m
with the gas

to
Drying agents:

os
1. Concentrated Sulfuric acid (Conc. H2SO4): for all gases except Ammonia
(Ammonia is alkaline so it will react with acid forming ammonium sulfate)
2. Calcium Oxide (CaO): for drying of AmmoniaR
3. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2): can’t be used for drying ammonia because it forms a
an
complex with ammonia.
ur

Flame tests for Metal ions:

No

How to carry out a flame test?

1. Dip a platinum loop or nichrome wire in concentrated hydrochloric acid solution
then rinse it with water to clean it & remove traces of any ions on it.
.

2. Then Dip the clean loop in the sample solution.

Dr

3. Hold the loop to the edge of a roaring blue bunsen burner flame and observe the
color of the flame.

Metal ion Flame color

Lithium (Li+) Red
Calcium (Ca2+) Orange Red
Sodium (Na+) Yellow
Barium (Ba2+) Light Green
Copper (Cu2+) Blue Green
Potassium (K+) Lilac

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