Interference by division of Amplitude

Michelson Interferometer

Newton’s ring

Thin film

Fabry-Perot Interferometer
 Michelson Interferometer
Experimental set up

Albert Abraham Michelson

(1852-1931)
 Two coherent Two coherent
sources are on sources are on
horizontal line vertical line

This instrument can produce both types of interference

fringes i.e., circular fringes of equal inclination at infinity and
localized fringes of equal thickness
Transverse section: Straight fringes

d sin θ m = mλ (m = 0,1,2,...) : Bright Fringes

Longitudinal section: Circular fringes

d cos θ m = mλ (m = 0,1,2,...) : Bright rings

 The transmitted wave gets
reflected by M2 and gets
The reflected wave (partially) reflected by beam
undergoes a further splitter and results in the
reflection at M1 and this interference of these waves.
reflected waves gets
(partially) transmitted
through BS M1: movable mirror
M2: fixed mirror

If x1 and x2 is the distances of

the mirrors M1 and M2 Three types of fringes
from the beam splitter 1. When M1 and M’2 are parallel: Circular
2. When M1 and M’2 are inclined: Curve
S will appear to get reflected by 3. When M1 and M’2 cross: Straight line
two parallel mirrors M1 and M’2
2d cos θ m = mλ (m = 0,1,2,...) : Minima
separated by a distance [d=(x1-x2)].
 1
2d cos θ m =  m + λ (m = 0,1,2,...) : Maxima
 2
Michelson rings are localized at infinity and require a telescope to view them
Michelson interferometer Michelson interferometer
with compensator without compensator
M1
M1

M2 S

M2

Condition for central dark spot Condition for central bright spot
2d = m0 λ (θ = 0) 2d = m0 λ (θ = 0 )
Effective arrangement of the interferometer
An observer at the detector will see M1, a reflected
Circular fringes image of M2(M2//) and the images S’ and S” of the
source provided by M1 and M2. This may be
represented by a linear configuration.
Longitudinal section –Circular fringes (general treatement)

P
∠ PS 'S ≈ ∠ PQ S =θ m

N
rn

θm S O
Q
S′
2d
D

S ' P − SP ≈ S ' N ≈ 2d cos θ m =

mλ Condition of maxima
(without any reflection)
θm2 (for small θm)
cos θ m ≈ 1 −
2 Taylor expansion
 For small θm θmmλ 2
1− =
2 2d

Central bright fringe 2d = m0 λ (Note: There is no reflection here)

(m0 − m)λ nλ
θ ≈
2
m = (n =
m0 − m)
d d
Radius of mth bright ring

D nλ 2
r ≈Dθ =
2
m
2 2
m
d
 Mirror 1

In Michelson interferometer Ray 1

(when the phase change of ray 2 is considered)
Ray 2

2d cos θ m = mλ (m = 0,1,2,...) : Minima

Mirror 2
Note: Ray 2
 1 experiences an
2d cos θ m =  m + λ (m = 0,1,2,...) : Maxima additional π phase

 2 change due to
external reflection
and as a result the
conditions of
Order of the fringe: maxima and minima
are exchanged
When the central fringe is dark the order of the fringe is
2d
m=
λ
As d is increased new fringes appear at the centre and the existing
fringes move outwards, and finally move out of the field of view.

For any value of d, the central fringe has the largest value of m.
Fringe shape

Central dark fringe

2d = mo λ

1st dark ring

θ1 (m0 − 1)λ
2d cos=
2nd dark ring
θ 2 (m0 − 2)λ
2d cos=

And so on.............
 In Michelson interferometer
2d cos θ m = mλ

For central dark fringe: 2d = mo λ

θ1 (m0 − 1)λ
The first dark fringe satisfies: 2d cos=

θ12
For small θ cos θ1 ≈ 1 −
2
 θ12  θ1
2d 1 −  =( m0 − 1) λ D
 2 

dθ = λ Dλ 2
r ≈Dθ =
2
2 2 2
1
1 1
d
Radius of first dark fringe
The mth dark fringe satisfies: 2d cos θ
= m (m0 − m)λ

 θ m2 
2d 1 −  =( m0 − m) λ dθ m2 = mλ (2d = mo λ )
 2 
mth dark ring
Radius of mth dark ring:

dθ ≈ mλ
2
m θm
D mλ 2
r ≈Dθ =
2
m
2 2
m
d

14
Superposition of waves
Concordance Discordance

 1
2 d1 = p λ1 = q (λ1 + ∆λ ) 2 d1 = p λ1 =  q +  (λ1 + ∆λ )
 2
1. Measurement of wavelength of light
If we reduce the value of d, the fringes will appear to collapse at the
centre and the fringes become less closely spaced.

If d increased, the fringe pattern will expand

If N fringes collapse to the centre as the mirror M1 moves by a

distance d0, then we must have

2d = mλ , & 2(d − d 0 ) = (m − N )λ

2 d0
Thus, λ=
N
2. Measurement of wavelength separation of a doublet
Step 1. the interferometer is first set corresponding to the zero path
difference. Near d = 0 , both the fringe patterns from doublet will overlap.
Step 2. If the mirror M1 is moved away or towards the beam splitter
through a distance d, then the maxima corresponding to the λ1 will not
occur at the same angle as λ2
2 d cos θ m = m λ1 & 2 d cos θ m = (m + 1 / 2) λ2
If the distance d is such that
2d 2d 1
− = , (Fringes will disappear)
λ1 λ2 2
2d 2d
− = 1, (Fringes will reappear)
λ1 λ2
2d 2d 1
− ≥ , (Fringes will disappear).
λ1 λ1 + ∆λ / 2 2
λ2
∆λ ≈
2d
 Phase Changes Due To Reflection
An electromagnetic wave undergoes a phase change of 180° upon
reflection from a medium of higher index of refraction than the one
in which it was traveling
– Analogous to a reflected pulse on a string

µ1 < µ 2

Phase shift δ = k0 Λ ± π
Fizeau/Wedge Fringes The optiocal path difference, Λ = 2 n f d cos α
Here the thickness is variable, d = x α
Condition for constructive interference (α is small),
2 n f d m = (m + 1 / 2)λ ⇒ 2 n f xm α = (m + 1 / 2)λ ; where, m = 0,1,2
λ
xm = (m + 1 / 2)
2α n f
λ
⇒ Fringe width, β =
2α n f

The larger α, the finer are the fringes

 Fringes of constant thickness
When the two surfaces coincide in position but are not parallel, the plane
of localization is near the site of the surface.
Eg: Newton’s ring, Wedge fringes, white light fringes in Michelson expt

2 d cos θ m = m λ ,
If d is small
but vary rapidly in small region , Beam splitter
d = constant,
fringes of constant thickness
and
fringes are localized Extended source n
at the site of the surface
n2
d = xα
x n
Light with wavelength =0.55 µm falls normally on the surface of a
glass wedge (n=1.5). A fringe pattern whose neighboring maxima on
the surface of the wedge are separated by a distance 0.21 mm is
observed in the reflected light. The angle between the wedge faces is

λ λ
∆x= ⇒α = (in radian )
2α n f 2∆ x nf
600 × 10 −9 60
α= −3
= × 10 −3
rad = 4.04'
2 × 0.17 × 10 × 1.5 51
 Fringes of equal thickness

- Fringes observed when optical thickness nfd is dominant rather

than θi.
- Ex: Oil slicks
- Each fringe is the locus of all points in the film for which the
optical thickness is a constant.
- In general nf does not vary, so the fringes correspond to regions
of constant film thickness.
- When the thickness d is not constant and the faces of the slab
form a wedge. The interfering rays are not parallel but meet at
points (real or virtual) near the wedge.
- The resulting interference fringes are localized near the wedge.
Haidinger’s Bands:
Fringes of equal
inclination

d
n1
Beam splitter n2

Extended
Focal
source
plane Dielectric
PI P2
slab
 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO)
General relativity predicts the existence of
gravitational waves.
In Einstein’s theory, gravity is equivalent
to a distortion of space. These distortions
can then propagate through space.

The LIGO apparatus is designed to detect the

distortion produced by a disturbance that
passes near the Earth.
The interferometer uses laser beams with an
effective path length of several kilometers.
At the end of an arm of the interferometer, a mirror is mounted on a
massive pendulum.
When a gravitational wave passes, the pendulum moves, and the
interference pattern due to the laser beams from the two arms changes.
25
• Orthogonal arm lengths change in different ways as they interact with a
gravitational wave
• Use laser to measure relative lengths ∆L/L by observing the changes in
interference pattern at the anti-symmetric port, for example, for L ~ 4 km
and for a hypothetical wave of h ~ 10–21 , ∆L ~ 10-18 m !
• Power-recycled Michelson interferometer with Fabry-Perot arm cavities

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Interferometric Detectors

VIRGO 3km
Italy

27
 Interferometric Detectors
LIGO Louisiana 4km, USA
 Interferometric Detectors
LIGO Washington 2km& 4km, USA
 E&M GW
space as medium for field Space-time itself
incoherent superpositions of atoms, coherent motions of huge masses (or
molecules energy)
wavelength small compared to wavelength ~large compared to
sources - images sources -
poor spatial resolution
absorbed, scattered, dispersed by very small interaction; no shielding
matter
106 Hz and up 103 Hz and down
measure amplitude (radio) or measure amplitude
intensity (light)
detectors have small solid angle detectors have large solid angle
acceptance acceptance
30
 Measurement of the coherence length of a spectral line

Temporal Coherence
Formation of straight white light fringes (∆=0)
 Measurement of thickness of thin transparent flakes

t
d = 2 ( µ − 1) t = λ

NOTE: Measurement of refractive index of the transparent material