UNIT 4:

Sinusoidal Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillator: what is feedback? Positive feedback and oscillators.
Condition for transistor oscillators – Barkhausen criterion. Types of transistor
oscillators: tuned RC and crystal oscillators.
Tuned oscillators – Colpitts oscillator, Hartley Oscillator
RC oscillators – Phase shift oscillator, Wien-bridge RC oscillator
Crystal Oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 1

Sinusoidal Oscillator
• An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired
frequency is know as a sinusoidal oscillator. An oscillator generates a
frequency it does not create energy, but acts as an energy converter.
It receives dc energy and changes it into ac energy of desired
frequency. The frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants
of the device.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 2

advantages
• An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little
wear and tear and hence longer life.
• Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is
quite silent.
• An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely high
frequencies (100 MHz).
• The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
• It has good frequency stability i.e. frequency once set remains
constant for a considerable period of time.
• It has very high efficiency.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 3

feedback
• The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device
back to the input is know as feedback.
• There are two types of feedback:
• Positive feedback: when the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase
with the input signal and thus aids it is called positive feedback. The positive
feedback increases the gain of amplifier but also increases distortion and
instability. Positive feedback is mostly used in oscillators.
• Negative feedback: when the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of
phase with the input signal and thus opposes it is called negative feedback.
Negative feedback reduces gain of amplifier but it reduces distortion, stability
in gain increased bandwidth and improved input and output impedance.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 4

Positive Feedback Amplifier - Oscillator
• A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an
oscillator i.e. it can generate oscillations without any external signal
source. A positive feedback amplifier is one that produces a feedback
voltage 𝑉𝑓 that is in phase with original input signal.
• A phase shift of 1800 is produced by the amplifier and a further
phase shift of 1800 is introduced by feedback network. The signal is
shifted by 3600 and fed to the input i.e. feedback voltage is in phase
with the input signal.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 5

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 6
• Points to be noted:
• A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback will work as an oscillator.
• The circuit needs only a quick trigger signal to start the oscillations. Once the
oscillations have started, no external signal source is needed.
• To get continuous undamped output from the circuit, the following condition
must be met:
• 𝑚𝑣 𝐴𝑣 = 1
• 𝐴𝑣 = voltage gain of amplifier without feedback
• 𝑚𝑣 = feedback fraction

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 7

Barkhausen criterion
• This criterion is required to produce continuous undamped
oscillations at the output of an amplifier, the positive feedback should
be such that:
• 𝐴𝑣 𝑚𝑣 = 1
• Once this condition is set in the positive feedback amplifier,
continuous undamped oscillations can be obtained at output
immediately after connecting the necessary power supplies.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 8

• The voltage gain of a positive feedback amplifier is given by:
𝐴𝑣
• 𝐴𝑣𝑓 = , if 𝑚𝑣 𝐴𝑣 = 1, then 𝐴𝑣𝑓 → ∞.
1−𝑚𝑣 𝐴𝑣
• This means that a vanishing small input voltage would give rise to
finite output voltage even when the input signal is zero.
• Thus once the circuit receives the input trigger, it would become an
oscillator, generating oscillations with no external signal source.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 9

Different types of transistor oscillators
• Tuned collector oscillator
• Colpitt’s oscillator
• Hartley oscillator
• Phase shift oscillator
• Wien Bridge oscillator
• Crystal oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 10

Tuned Collector Oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 11

• It contains tuned circuit 𝐿1 − 𝐶1 in the collector. The feedback coil 𝐿2
in base circuit magnetically coupled to the tank circuit coil 𝐿1 .
• The biasing is provided by potential divider arrangement. The
capacitor C connected in the base circuit provides low reactance path
to the oscillations.
• The frequency of oscillation is given by:
1
•𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 12

operation
• When switch S is closed, collector current starts increasing and charges the
capacitor 𝐶1 . When this capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through coil
𝐿1 , setting up oscillations of frequency. These oscillations induce some
voltage in coil 𝐿2 by mutual induction.
• The frequency of voltage in coil 𝐿2 is same as that of tank circuit but its
magnitude depends upon the number of turns of 𝐿2 and coupling between
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .
• The voltage across 𝐿2 is applied between base and emitter and appears in
the amplified form in the collector circuit, thus overcoming the losses
occurring in the tank circuit.
• The number of turns of 𝐿2 and coupling between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are so adjusted
that oscillations across 𝐿2 are amplified to a level just sufficient to supply
losses to the tank circuit.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 13

• The phase of feedback is in phase with generated oscillations. A
phase shift of 180° is created between the voltages of 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 due
to transformer action (transformer introduces a phase shift of 180°
between input and output).
• A further phase shift of 180° takes place between the base emitter
and collector circuit due to transistor properties. As a result, the
energy feedback to the tank circuit is in phase with the generated
oscillations.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 14

• The tuned collector oscillator circuit used in the local oscillator of a
radio receiver makes use of an LC tuned circuit with 𝐿1 = 58.6𝜇𝐻 and
𝐶1 = 300𝑝𝐹. Calculate the frequency of oscillations.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 15

• 𝐿1 = 58.6𝜇𝐻 = 58.6 × 10−6 𝐻
• 𝐶1 = 300𝑝𝐹 = 300 × 10−12 𝐹
1 1 3
•𝑓= = 𝐻𝑧 = 1199 × 10 𝐻𝑧 =
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1 2𝜋 58.6×10−6 ×300×10 −12

1199𝑘𝐻𝑧

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 16

• Find the capacitance of the capacitor required to build an LC oscillator
that uses an inductance of 𝐿1 = 1𝑚𝐻 to produce a sine wave of
frequency 1𝐺𝐻𝑧.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 17

 1
•𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1
1 1
• 𝐶1 = = = 2.53 × 10−17
𝐿1 2𝜋𝑓 2 1×10−3 2𝜋×1×109 2

= 2.53 × 10−5 𝑝𝐹

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 18

Colpitt’s Oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 19

• It uses two capacitors and placed across a common inductor L and the
center of the two capacitors is tapped. The tank circuit is made up of
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐿.
1 𝐶1 𝐶2
•𝑓= , 𝐶𝑇 =
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1 𝐶1 +𝐶2
• 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 − 𝐿 is also the feed back circuit that produces a phase shift of
180°.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 20

operation
• When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 are charged.
The capacitors discharge through L, setting up oscillations of
frequency as per the equation.
• The output voltage of the amplifier appears across 𝐶1 and feedback
voltage of the amplifier appears across 𝐶1 and feedback voltage is
developed across 𝐶2 .
• The voltage across it is 180° out of phase with voltage developed
across 𝐶1 .
• A phase shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and further phase
shift of 180° is produced by 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 voltage divider.
BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 21
Feedback fraction 𝑚𝑣
• The amount of feedback voltage in Colpitt’s oscillator depends upon
feedback fraction 𝑚𝑣 of the circuit.
𝑉𝑓 𝑋𝑐2 𝐶1
• Feedback fraction, 𝑚𝑣 = = =
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑋𝑐1 𝐶2
𝐶1
• 𝑚𝑣 =
𝐶2

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 22

• Determine the operating frequency and feedback fraction for Colpitt’s
oscillator for given figure.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 23

 𝐶1 𝐶2 0.001×0.01
• 𝐶𝑇 = = = 9.09 × 10−4 𝜇𝐹 = 0.909𝑛𝐹
𝐶1 +𝐶2 0.001+0.01
• 𝐿 = 15𝜇𝐻 = 15 × 10−6 𝐻
1 1
•𝑓= = = 1361𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶𝑇 2𝜋 15×10−6 ×0.909×10−9
𝐶1 0.001
• 𝑚𝑣 = = = 0.1
𝐶2 0.01

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 24

• A 1mH inductor is available. Choose the capacitor values in a Colpitts
oscillator so that f = 1MHz and 𝑚𝑣 = 0.25.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 25

 𝐶1 𝐶1
• 𝑚𝑣 = ,∴ 0.25 = ,∴ 𝐶2 = 4𝐶1
𝐶2 𝐶2
1
• 𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶𝑇
1 1
• 𝐶𝑇 = = = 25.3 × 10−12 𝐹 = 25.3𝑝𝐹
𝐿 2𝜋𝑓 2 1×10−3 2𝜋×1×106 2
𝐶1 𝐶2
• 𝐶𝑇 = = 25.3pF
𝐶1 +𝐶2
𝐶2
• 𝐶2 = 25.3pF
1+ ൗ𝐶1
𝐶2
• = 25.3pF, ∴ 𝐶2 = 25.3 × 5 = 126.5𝑝𝐹
1+4
• 𝐶1 = 𝐶2ൗ4 = 126.5Τ4 = 31.6𝑝𝐹
BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 26
Hartley Oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 27

• It is similar to Colpitt’s instead of using tapped capacitor, two
inductors 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are placed across a common capacitor C and the
centre of inductors.
• The tank circuit is made up of 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 and C. the frequency of
oscillations is determined by the values of:
1
•𝑓= , where 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
2𝜋 𝐶𝐿𝑇
• M = mutual inductance between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2
• 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 − 𝐶 also is the feedback network which produces a phase
shift of 180°.
BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 28
Operation
• When circuit is turned on the capacitor is charged. When it is fully
charged it discharges through coils 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 setting up oscillations of
frequency given in equation.
• The output voltage of the amplifier appears across 𝐿1 and feedback
voltage across 𝐿2 . The voltage across 𝐿2 is 180° out of phase with the
volage developed across 𝐿1 .
• A phase shift of 180° produced by transistor and further phase shift
of 180° is produced by 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 voltage divider. In this way, feedback
is properly phased to produce continuous undamped oscillations.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 29

Feedback fraction 𝑚𝑣
𝑉𝑓 𝑋𝐿2 𝐿2
• 𝑚𝑣 = = =
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑋𝐿1 𝐿1
𝐿2
• 𝑚𝑣 =
𝐿1

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 30

• Calculate the operating frequency and feedback fraction for Hartley
oscillator for given figure. The mutual inductance between coils, 𝑀 =
20𝜇𝐻.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 31

• 𝐿1 = 1000𝜇𝐻; 𝐿2 = 100𝜇𝐻; 𝑀 = 20𝜇𝐻;
• Total inductance, 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
= 1000 + 100 + 2 × 20 = 1140𝜇𝐻 = 1.14𝑚𝐻
• 𝐶 = 20𝑝𝐹
1 1
•𝑓= = 𝐻𝑧 = 1052𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝐶𝐿𝑇 2𝜋1.14×10−3 ×20×10−12
𝐿2 100
• 𝑚𝑣 = = = 0.1
𝐿1 1000

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 32

• A 1pF capacitor is available. Choose the inductor values in Hartley
oscillator so that f=1MHz and 𝑚𝑣 = 0.2. Consider M=0.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 33

 𝐿2 𝐿2
• 𝑚𝑣 = ,∴ 0.2 = ,∴ 𝐿1 = 5𝐿2
𝐿1 𝐿1
1
•𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿𝑇 𝐶
1 1
• 𝐿𝑇 = = = 25.3 × 10−3 𝐻 = 25.3𝑚𝐻
𝐶 2𝜋𝑓 2 1×10−12 2𝜋×1×106 2
• 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 25.3pF
• 5𝐿2 + 𝐿2 = 25.3pF
• 6𝐿2 = 25.3pF, ∴ 𝐶2 = 25.3/6 = 4.22mH
• 𝐿1 = 5𝐿2 = 5 × 4.22 = 21.1𝑚𝐻
BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 34
Phase shift oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 35

• It consists of single transistor amplifier and a RC phase shift network.
The phase shift network consists of three sections 𝑅1 𝐶1 , 𝑅2 𝐶2 and
𝑅3 𝐶3 .
• At some particular frequency 𝑓0 the phase shift in each RC section is
60° so that total phase-shift produced by the RC network is 180°. The
frequency of oscillations is given by:
1
• 𝑓0 = , where 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅, 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 𝐶
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 36

Operation
• Good frequency stability and waveform can be obtained from
oscillators employing resistive and capacitive elements. Such amplifier
are called R-C or phase shift oscillators and have additional
advantages that they can be used for very low frequencies.
• When the circuit is switched on, it produces oscillations of frequency
given by the equation. The output of amplifier is fed back to RC
feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180° and a
voltage appears at its output is applied to the transistor amplifier.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 37

• Advantages:
• It does not require transformers or inductors.
• It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
• The circuit provides good frequency stability.
• Disadvantages
• It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as the feedback is generally
small.
• The circuit gives small output.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 38

• In phase shift oscillator 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 1𝑀Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 =
68𝑝𝐹. At what frequency does the circuit oscillate?

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 39

 1 1
• 𝑓0 = = 𝐻𝑧 = 954𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6 2𝜋×106 ×68×10−12 6

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 40

• A phase shift oscillator uses 5pF capacitors. Find the value of R to
produce a frequency of 800kHz.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 41

 1
• 𝑓0 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6
1 1
• 𝑅= = = 16.2𝑀𝐻𝑧.
2𝜋𝑓0 𝐶 6 2𝜋×800×103 ×5×10−12 × 6

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 42

Wien Bridge Oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 43

• The Wien-bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for all
frequencies in the range of 10 Hz to about 1 MHz. It is the most
frequently used type of audio oscillator as the output is free from
circuit fluctuations and ambient temperature.
• It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with R-C bridge circuit. The
bridge circuit has the arms 𝑅1 𝐶1 , 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 𝐶2 and tungsten lamp 𝐿𝑃 .
• Resistance 𝑅3 and 𝐿𝑃 are used to stabilise the amplitude of the
output. The transistor 𝑇1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier while
the other transistor 𝑇2 serves as an inverter (phase shift 180°).
• The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks. The positive
feedback is through 𝑅1 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 𝑅2 to the transistor 𝑇1 . The negative
feedback is through the voltage divider to the input of transistor 𝑇2 .
1 1
•𝑓= . If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 then 𝑓 =
2𝜋 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 44
Operation
• When the circuit is started, bridge circuit produces oscillations of
frequency given in the equation. The two transistors produce a total
phase shift of 360° so that proper positive feedback is ensured.
• The negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output. This is
achieved by the temperature sensitive tungsten lamp 𝐿𝑃 .
• Its resistance increases with current. Should the amplitude of output
tend to increase, more current would provide more negative
feedback. The result is that the output would return to original value.
• A reverse action would take place if the output tends to decrease.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 45

• Advantage:
• It gives constant output.
• The circuit works quite easily.
• The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
• The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed by using a potentiometer.
• Disadvantage:
• The circuit requires two transistors and a large number of components.
• It cannot generate very high frequencies.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 46

• In the Wien bridge oscillator 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 220𝑘Ω and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 =
250𝑝𝐹. Determine the frequency of oscillations.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 47

• 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 220𝑘Ω
• 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 250𝑝𝐹
1 1
•𝑓 = = = 2892𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋×220×103 ×250×10−12

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 48

Limitations of LC and RC Oscillators
• Due to change in temperature the values of resistors and inductors
will change and hence change in frequency of oscillator will take
place.
• If any component in the feedback network is changed, it will shift
operating frequency of the oscillator.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 49

Piezoelectric Crystals
• Certain crystalline materials, Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline
exhibit the piezoelectric effect, i.e. when we apply an AC voltage
across them, they vibrate at the frequency of the applied voltage.
Conversely, when they are compressed or placed under mechanical
strain to vibrate, they produce an AC voltage. Such crystals which
exhibit piezoelectric effect are called piezoelectric crystals.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 50

Transistor Crystal Oscillator

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 51

• It is a Collpit’s oscillator modified to act as a crystal oscillator. The only
change is the addition of the crystal (Y) in the feedback network. The
crystal will act as a parallel-tuned circuit.
• At parallel resonance, the impedance of the crystal is maximum. This
means that there is a maximum voltage drop across 𝐶1 . This in turn
will allow the maximum energy transfer through the feedback
network at 𝑓𝑃 .
• Even the smallest deviation from 𝑓𝑃 will cause the oscillator to act as
an effective short. Consequently, we have an extremely stable
oscillator.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 52

• Advantage:
• They have a high order of frequency stability.
• The quality factor Q of the crystal is very high. The Q factor of the crystal may
be as high as 10000 compared to about 100 of L-C tank.
• Disadvantage:
• They are fragile and consequently can only be used in low power circuits.
• The frequency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably.

BY - PROF. SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 53