ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE ASSETS:

A Review of the Models Used to Measure Intellectual Capital

Dr. Nick Bontis, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Strategic Management
Michael G. DeGroote School of Business, McMaster University
1280 Main Street West, MGD #207
Hamilton, Canada L8S 4M4
Tel: (905) 525-9140 x23918 [email protected]

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the literature pertaining to the assessment of knowledge
assets. Since knowledge assets are at the crux of sustainable competitive
advantage, the burgeoning field of intellectual capital is an exciting area for
both researchers and practitioners. Unfortunately, the measurement of such
intangible assets is difficult. A variety of models have surfaced in an attempt
to measure IC and this paper aims to highlight their strengths, weaknesses and
operationalizations.

KEYWORDS: intellectual capital, knowledge management, knowledge assets

WORD COUNT: abstract (70 words), text (9,982 words)

Copyright ” Dr. Nick Bontis 2000. Version Oct-11-2000. All rights reserved.
No part of this work may be reproduced without the permission of the author.
The author is indebted to the Queen's Management Research Centre for Knowledge-Based Enterprises for their
support of this research. The author would also like to acknowledge the research contribution that
Rosemary Park (PhD Candidate, McMaster University) made in earlier versions of this paper.
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INTRODUCTION

By the year 2010, all of the world’’s codified knowledge will double every 11 hours.
Dr. Nick Bontis, Ph.D.
September 15, 2000 –– Santa Clara, California
Closing Keynote Presentation, KM World 2000

The quote above was received with a stir from the audience at KM World. It seems that
cognitive psychologists are speaking with library scientists and they are both trying to warn us
about some pending doom. If individuals are being bombarded by information now, they
haven’’t seen anything yet. The exponential velocity with which this rate of bombardment is
increasing is unfathomable. Although society as a whole should benefit from the by-product of
increased technology, the average business manager may not be prepared to take advantage of
this truly knowledge-intensive world.

The popular use of the terms in the following list hint at the increased importance knowledge
assets have in organizations: intellectual capital, knowledge capital, knowledge organizations,
learning organizations, organizational learning, information age, knowledge era, information
assets, intangible assets, intangible management, hidden value, and human capital. These terms
and others are part of a new lexicon describing new forms of economic value. They are
descriptors belonging to a paradigm where sustainable competitive advantage is tied to
individual workers’’ and organizational knowledge. Reliance on productive tangible assets such
as ““raw materials, fixed capital, and even managerial knowledge”” no longer account for
investments made and wealth created by new and prospering companies (OECD, 1996, p.15).
Instead, leveraging knowledge is the key reason attributed to corporate success stories such as
the tremendous ‘‘overvaluation’’ of high-tech and Internet companies.

The adoption of this new lexicon, concepts, and explanations has been swift and far-reaching.
The notions of intellectual capital were first advanced by economist John Kenneth Galbraith who
wrote the following to fellow economist Michal Kalecki in 1969:

I wonder if you realise how much those of us the world around have owed to the
intellectual capital you have provided over these last decades (cited in Hudson,
1993, p.15).

Intellectual capital was further expounded upon by management guru Peter Drucker (1993) in
his description of post-capitalist society. By the end of the 1990s, references to intellectual
capital in contemporary business publications were commonplace (Bontis, 1999a; 1999b).
Intellectual capital management became the domain of the so-called CKO or Chief Knowledge
Officer (Bontis, 2000). Stewart, in his ground-breaking cover-story in Fortune Magazine, is
credited with providing the main impetus for a new world of intellectual capitalists (Stewart,
1991). The initial momentum was supported by his popular book several years later (Stewart,
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1997). Stewart (1997) defines intellectual capital as intellectual material –– knowledge,

information, intellectual property and experience –– that can be put to use to create wealth.

Endorsements by highly respected scholars such as Dr. Baruch Lev (from New York University)
and Dr. Tom Davenport (from Boston University) coupled with practitioner icons such as Leif
Edvinsson (formerly of Skandia) and Hubert Saint-Onge (formerly of CIBC) help to round out
the academic and practitioner love affair with this phenomenon.

Perhaps the most impressive evidence suggesting a transition in thinking about a new structure
and process supporting a company’’s productive assets is in the inclusion of intellectual capital as
a strategic performance measure. In 1998, Arthur Andersen conducted an international survey of
the measurement of intellectual capital. A total of 368 companies from a pool of 2,350 (15%
response rate) European, North American, and Asian organizations responded to direct mail
surveys. The survey revealed some interesting results.

First, the majority of respondents believed that IC (intellectual capital) reporting would increase.
Second, about three-quarters of the respondents already tracked two or more non-financial
metrics. Third, most agreed that knowledge measurement would improve organizational
performance. Fourth, roughly half believed that what was learned from the process of measuring
IC was as important as information received from the measures. Finally, while researchers
admitted that the respondents may have represented a biased sample of ““pro-IC”” organizations,
they concluded that IC would likely not be included on financial balance sheets any time in the
near future. External reporting of IC would be done on a voluntary disclosure basis and that IC
measurement would be more useful as an internal management tool than as an external
communication to shareholders or investors.

Similar research results have been found elsewhere. A 1998 study by Waterhouse and Svendsen
of 65 CEOs and 49 Directors of Boards of large Canadian companies showed that IC disclosure
was rated as a key strategic issue and should be regularly reported to boards. In addition to IC
disclosure, the study highlighted other key strategic issues that received inadequate reporting
such as innovation capacity, product quality, customer relations, and investor relations. Other
strategic issues involving investor relations, partner relations, community relations and
environment, health and safety were reported less often. Yet, of the nine strategic non-financial
measures rated highly, CEOs and Directors expressed least satisfaction with their IC measures.

Huseman and Goodman (1999) also examined IC disclosure as it related to human capital in 202
of the largest 1,500 companies in the US. A small minority (i.e., 15%) had systems that
attempted to quantify human capital as it is typically defined in the IC literature, and only 35%
of senior HR respondents thought they would have an HC accounting system in the future.
However, the large majority of companies were, in fact, actively collecting information about
employees. This included 66% of all respondents who reported that they had programs or
systems in place that tried to capture knowledge, skills, and best practices.

The frustration expressed by the three aforementioned studies regarding IC measurement is

interesting. It suggests a period in time when tangible measures of intangible assets of
intellectual capital are wanted but early renditions have proven unworthy. This is fascinating
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because it is occurring in tandem with continuing high levels of satisfaction expressed by CEOs
and Directors regarding traditional financial measures such as profit and loss statements and
capital expenditure reports (Waterhouse and Svendsen, 1998). Yet these traditional measures
themselves are now generally acknowledged as inadequate. It is indeed ironic that the reason for
their inadequacy is because of the same competitive forces that have given rise to the need for IC
measures. Perhaps, IC measures are recognized as necessary but are unsatisfying due to the
embryonic stage of their development.

David Moore, research director for the CICA (Canadian Institute for Chartered Accountants)
states:

Financial performance measures derived from information in financial statements

or other financial sources have been used by publicly listed companies for many
years. They highlight specific aspects of a company’’s profitability, solvency,
liquidity, productivity or market strength. Such performance measures, are
however based on historical and transaction based information that does not take
into account changes in values or internally generated intangibles. There is the
growing view that financial performance measures by themselves are inadequate
for strategic decision making. They need to be supplemented or even to some
extent, replaced [italics the author] by non-financial measures that cover such
matters as, for example, customer satisfaction and operating efficiency.
(Waterhouse and Svendsen, 1998, p. v)

Is a Paradigm Shift Occurring?

Brooking (1996) attributes the shift in thinking to information-age technology, the media, and
communications which have provided tools with enormous intangible benefits to organizations.
Standfield (1999) believes the obvious impact of intangibles such as knowledge technology, and
intellectual property, has made executives feel they need to factor in such intangibles, and lose
confidence in their decision-making ability based on traditional tangible data. Yet to move from
historical understandings of financial value based on accepted assumptions and concepts
developed over 500 years, to the identification of a new structure of assets is not an easy task.
Some practitioners and scholars have labelled the process a paradigm shift. Is it?

Kuhn (1962) hypothesized that a scientific paradigm will change if sufficient anomalies appear
in core concepts, methodologies, and/or research findings. He also believed in the logical
possibility of scientific revolutions versus more gradual evolutions when a paradigm (thesis) is
undermined by the discovery of an antithesis (anomalies) sufficient to create a revolution and
synthesis (new paradigm) (Scott, Mitchell, and Birnbaum, 1981).

A new model whether introduced in theoretical or applied realms, must contain superior
philosophical, conceptual and empirical elements before the model will replace any existing set
of ideas. Moreover, like most transformational change efforts, model development likely will
proceed through a relatively orderly series of change steps.
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First, there must be an awareness that something is amiss. Old methods will be used to try to
explain new information. A general dissatisfaction must be created around flaws in existing
procedures and explanations. Alternative solutions based on new conceptualizations likely
already being advanced, must be subject to testing and promoted as having the potential of
providing superior understanding. These solutions must represent a whole new way of doing
business to qualify as a true paradigm shift. Furthermore, it is important for respected
champions to advocate a change. Finally, those solutions found superior to others must be
supported while others must be discarded –– at least for the time being.

There is ample evidence that at least the first few change steps to value new forms of economic
wealth have occurred. In some large measure, we have also moved into the final two stages as
respected practitioners and scholars with impressive credentials line up to acknowledge that
traditional measures are insufficient, and promote the use of alternative financial performance
models.

What about the critical step? Currently, measuring knowledge assets is in an experimental phase
where a myriad of possible solutions (i.e., new concepts, definitions, criteria, and operational
measures) are being promoted and tried.

If our understanding of paradigms is correct and useful (i.e., that ““order out of chaos”” can be
acquired through the rational acquisition of knowledge), we will be able to continue and proceed
through this critical step. To solve this challenge requires a multi-layered structure of ideas. At
its foundation are philosophical assumptions, or as Lincoln and Gubba (1985) describe them
““metaphysical truths”” of what we think but cannot prove. These assumptions in turn support
presuppositions or an orientation regarding how beliefs are to be logically organized and
defended or else remain as beliefs. Commitments are then made as to a research design and
accepted measurement. Finally, a paradigm requires actual findings from measured variables to
confirm observed and expected events. Of all business models advanced to date, it would be
truly ironic if the IC (intellectual capital) model could not be tested for its defensibility as a new
paradigm.

Reviewing Measurement of Knowledge Assets

The purpose of this paper is to summarize what is currently known about assessing knowledge
assets through trends and features of current IC measurement models. Each section reviews the
assumptions of the measurement model and describes its main conceptualizations as well as its
strengths and weaknesses.

I. SKANDIA NAVIGATOR

Skandia is considered the first large company to have made a truly coherent effort at measuring
knowledge assets (Bontis, 1996; Huseman and Goodman, 1999). Skandia first developed its IC
report internally in 1985, and became the first company to issue an IC addendum accompanying
its traditional financial report to shareholders in 1994. Other companies including Dow
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Chemical’’s initiatives in valuing its R&D and patent process have relied extensively on
Skandia’’s multi-dimensional conceptualization of organizational value.

Leif Edvinsson, the chief architect behind Skandia’’s initiatives developed a dynamic and holistic
IC reporting model called the Navigator with five areas of focus: financial, customer, process,
renewal and development, and human capital. This new accounting taxonomy sought to identify
the roots of a company’’s value by measuring hidden dynamic factors that underlie ““the visible
company of buildings and products”” (Edvinsson and Malone, 1997, p.11). According to
Skandia’’s model the hidden factors of human and structural capital when added together
comprise intellectual capital.

Human Capital is defined as the combined knowledge, skill, innovativeness, and ability of the
company’’s individual employees to meet the task at hand. It also includes the company’’s values,
culture, and philosophy. Human capital cannot be owned by the company.

Structural Capital is the hardware, software, databases, organizational structure, patents,

trademarks, and everything else of organizational capability that supports those employees’’
productivity - in other words, everything that gets left behind at the office when employees go
home. Structural capital also provides customer capital, the relationships developed with key
customers. Unlike human capital, structural capital can be owned and thereby traded.

Intellectual Capital equals the sum of human and structural capital. According to Edvinsson and
Malone (1997), IC encompasses the applied experience, organizational technology, customer
relationships and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive advantage in the
market

In sum, Skandia’’s value scheme contains both financial and non-financial building blocks that
combine to estimate the company’’s market value shown below. This conceptualization achieved
a balance for Skandia in trying to represent both financial and non-financial reporting,
uncovering and visualizing its intellectual capital, tying its strategic vision to the company’’s core
competencies reflecting knowledge-sharing technology and knowledge assets beyond intellectual
property, and reflecting better its market value.

Edvinsson and Malone (1997) argue that IC represents such a fundamentally new way of looking
at organizational value that it will never be confined to playing an adjunct role to traditional
accounting. They also assert that the presence and value of intangible assets is capable of
accounting for the significant widening gap between companies’’ valuing of enterprises stated in
corporate balance sheets and investors’’ assessment of those values.

FIGURE: SKANDIA’’S VALUE SCHEME

Operationalization
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Market
Value

Financial Intellectual
Capital Capital

Human Structural
Capital Capital

Customer Organizational
Capital Capital

Innovation Process
Capital Capital

The Skandia IC report uses up to 91 new IC metrics plus 73 traditional metrics to measure the
five areas of focus making up the Navigator model. Edvinsson and Malone (1997) acknowledge
that various indices may be redundant or of varying importance. Yet in trying to use their
experience to create a universal IC report, they still recommend 112 metrics. The following
table summarizes some of these metrics:

SAMPLE OF SKANDIA IC MEASURES

x revenues / employee ($)

Financial Focus x revenues from new customers / total revenue ($)
x profits resulting from new business operations ($)
x days spent visiting customers (#)
Customer Focus x ratio of sales contacts to sales closed (%)
x number of customers gained versus lost (%)
x PCs / employee (#)
Process Focus x IT capacity –– CPU (#)
x processing time (#)
Renewal and x satisfied employee index (#)
Development x training expense / administrative expense (%)
Focus x average age of patents (#)
x managers with advanced degrees (%)
Human Focus
x annual turnover of staff (%)
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x leadership index (%)

The 112 indices use direct counts, dollar amounts, percentages and even survey results.
Edvinsson and Malone (1997) encourage direct counts to be compared with other direct counts
to produce ratios or be transformed into money leaving only two types of measurement.
Monetary measures are combined using a pre-determined weighting to produce an overall IC
value (C) for the organization. Percentages, that can be considered measures of incompleteness,
can be combined to produce the coefficient of IC efficiency (i) that captures the organization’’s
““velocity, position, and direction”” (p. 184). An organization’’s IC represents a multiplicative
function of the two sums, C and i.

Organizational Intellectual Capital = i C

When trying to come up with a monetary value of an organization’’s IC, Edvinsson and Malone
(1997) recommend reducing the number of indices available to create a more parsimonious
measure. They note that Navigator’’s five ““focuses”” have 36 monetary measures that cross-
reference each other. They also recommend multiplying out the denominators in those that are
ratios e.g., ““value added/employee””, and excluding from a final list any redundancies and entries
that are found on the traditional balance sheet Their examination leaves them with 21 indices
which they believe can act as IC measurements for a fiscal year.

The second coefficient of IC efficiency (i) is what Edvinsson and Malone call the ““truth
detector”” of their equation. While the absolute (C) variable ““emphasizes an organization’’s
commitment to the future, the efficiency (i) variable grounds those claims in present
performance”” (p.186). The two authors take from the general report only percentages and ratios,
““once more cull out redundancies and apply some subjective judgement”” to arrive at 9 indices of
an organization’’s IC efficiency. Edvinsson and Malone (1997) then choose to combine the nine
percentage measures into a single percentage (i.e., determine the average of the indices in an
effort to represent how effectively the organization is currently using its IC).

By giving equal weight to each index, the equation assumes that a complete breakdown of one
part of the nine organization’’s operations would diminish the coefficient by just over 12%.
Whether or not organizations decide to create a monetary value for their IC, the two authors are
sufficiently confident in their 112 indices that they believe they can be used not only by for-
profit businesses in many different sectors, but also non-profit organizations including all levels
of government, the military, charitable organizations, etc.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Most researchers agree that Skandia’’s considerable efforts to create a taxonomy to measure a
company’’s intangible assets has emboldened others to look beyond traditional assumptions of
what creates value for organizations. Skandia’’s model is particularly impressive in recognizing
the role of customer capital in creating value for an organization and how the very nature of
customer relationships has changed. For example, Edvinsson and Malone (1997) offer five very
specific indicators of customer capital: customer type, duration, role, support, and success as
evidence of the important role played by customers in creating value for organizations. Skandia
also provides a broad coverage of organizational structural and process factors with its focus on
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process and renewal and development contributions to organizational value that has not been
attempted before.

Lynn (1998) points out that Skandia assigns no dollar value to its IC, but uses proxy measures of
IC to track trends in the assumed value added. Roos, Roos, Dragonetti, and Edvinsson (1997)
looked at the assumptions underlying three of Skandia’’s metrics and were able to offer plausible
alternative interpretations about what each metric might represent for an organization. As a
result, they concluded that every company would need to possess a unique understanding of
which intangible assets were truly valuable for the organization to choose which assumption was
most valid and identify appropriate metrics. Moreover, given the requirement to create unique
standards for their metrics, Roos and his colleagues felt that generic standards for measuring IC
among companies or across industries likely would be slow in coming. They also emphasized
that because Skandia follows a balance sheet approach when measuring its intangible assets, it
offers only a snapshot in time and cannot represent dynamic flows of an organization. Finally,
Huseman and Goodman (1999) note that Skandia’’s inclusion of Structural Capital variables that
include computer PCs, etc. as creators of true value can be criticized because it presumes that
employees showing up for work and sitting in front of their computers end up investing
knowledge into that computer that translates into the company’’s competitive advantage. Yet for
that to occur, data given to the employee must be transformed into information, and that
information converted into added-value knowledge which is rarely automatic.

II. IC-INDEX
The IC-Index is an example of ““second generation”” practices that attempt to consolidate all the
different individual indicators into a single index, and to correlate the changes in intellectual
capital with changes in the market (Roos, Roos, Dragonetti and Edvinsson, 1997). According to
the authors, second generation practices still seek ““to improve the visualization of the value-
creating processes of the company so that they can be managed comprehensively [but] in effect
create a bottom-line for IC. This synthesis allows managers to assess the IC situation of a
company holistically, whereas the first generation practices give information only on the single
components of intellectual capital”” (p. 80). A summary index further provides an immediate
improvement to having long lists of individual indicators because it requires companies to
understand the priorities and relationships that exist between their different measures.

Operationalization
The notion of an IC-Index was first advanced by Goran Roos and his colleagues at Intellectual
Capital Services Ltd. and was first used by Skandia in its 1997 IC supplement to the annual
report. Since Skandia’’s adoption, the logic of an IC-Index has been endorsed and implemented
by many other practitioners. According to Roos, Roos, Dragonetti and Edvinsson, (1997), the
IC-Index has several distinct features:

x it is an idiosyncratic measure
x it focuses on the monitoring of the dynamics of IC
x it is capable of taking into account performance from prior periods
x it sheds light on a company different from an external view typically based on an
examination of physical assets
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x it is a self-correcting index in that if performance of the IC-Index does not reflect changes of
the market value of the company, then the choice of capital forms, weights, and/or indicators
is flawed.

The IC-Index is context specific because it permits boundaries to be placed around the
measurement of intellectual capital. While the concept of IC can include all intangible resources
and their flows (i.e., any factor that contributes to the value generating process that do not come
from a company’’s physical or monetary assets), Bontis et al. (1999) support restricting the IC
conceptual definition used to create an IC-Index to those company intangible processes that are
more or less under the control of the company itself. An idiosyncratic measure then also permits
any IC metric to have maximum relevance for an organization.

Roos et al. (1997) propose that the specific measurement of company IC forms, weightings, and
indicators can be decided by knowing the company’’s strategy, characteristics of the particular
business of the company, and its day-to-day operations.

To give an example, Roos et al. (1997) suggest that company strategy and those IC forms which
help the company achieve its strategic goals should be the guiding factor in deciding which IC
structural or human capital form to emphasize in an index. Moreover, the main consideration for
selecting weights assigned the IC forms should be the relative importance each capital form has
in the particular business of the company. And finally, knowledge of a company’’s day-to-day
operations should be known in order to know which specific indicators to choose.

Bontis et al. (1999) suggest that a process model can help create an IC measurement system and
especially the selection of the right indicators. To do this, they refer to the ““value scheme”” (see
section on Skandia Navigator) that describes the sources of company value coming from
intellectual capital.

Bontis and his colleagues believe that once a company has a clear idea about its identity and
strategy, it should use its long-term goals to identify two sets of variables: one set comprising its
value-creating path (i.e., those IC categories that really drive company value creation); and the
other set that can act as performance measurements. This second set is made up of key success
factors (KSF) that can describe more than one company, and indicators which reflect a
company’’s characteristics more closely. Information from the two steps are then to be joined
leading to the creation of an IC system. Unfortunately, although the authors state that
information from the two sets should be joined together to create the IC measurement system,
they do not explain whether each category has its own measurement, and how such measures
duplicate or offer unique variance from that contributed by the second set of KSF and indicators.

Strengths and Weaknesses

An IC-Index is very much context specific and is therefore is limited in its universality among
companies. Definitions, strategic prioritizing, choice of indicators, etc. all make comparisons of
any absolute IC-Index summary value calculated for different companies or over time by one
company meaningless. In addition, because only proxy measures are taken of IC stock, all
metrics are dimensionless, ordinal numbers (Roos et al. 1997). As a result, the value of an IC-
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Index continues to lie in its measurement of changes in IC stocks i.e., IC flow. This stock-flow
perspective is quite powerful for researchers since they can examine firms as organizational
learning systems which try to minimize stock-flow misalignment (Bontis, Crossan and Hulland,
2001). Bontis et al. (1999) suggest changes in an IC-Index reflect changes in the underlying IC
elements, that in turn signal changes in the underlying drivers of future earnings potential. They
conclude:

A company that improved its IC-Index by 50 per cent is invariably doing better
than another that improved the same measure ‘‘only’’ by 25 per cent. The nature of
IC and its increasing returns also eliminate any concern about the starting point of
the two companies. In fact, companies with higher starting IC levels would
probably increase their IC performance more easily, contrary to common logic (p.
399).

Like most other measures of tangible assets, an IC-Index does depend on value judgements, in
the choice of weights, indicators, and even the assumption that IC is present and important in
company operations. Although this charge of subjectivity can also be made of certain traditional
accounting methods and assumptions, Roos et al. (1997) argue that at least IC measurement and
especially a consolidated measure such as the IC-Index, makes a larger part of the organization
visible and open to valuation. On a final note, because the IC-Index takes past performance into
account, it is subject to ““one-off special events”” which can have a strong influence on moving
the index up or down for some years after the event. On the other hand, the IC-Index allows
mangers to ““finally understand the effects a particular strategy has on the IC of a company and
compare two alternatives to understand which one is preferable from an IC point of view”” (p.
92).

III. TECHNOLOGY BROKER

Annie Brooking (1996) makes a practical contribution to IC measurement by offering three
measurement models to help calculate the dollar value of IC as identified through the
Technology Broker’’s IC audit.

Brooking defines IC as the combined amalgam of these four components: market assets, human-
centred assets, intellectual property assets and infrastructure assets. Market assets equal the
potential an organization has due to market-related intangibles such as brands, customers, repeat
business, backlog, distribution channels, contracts and agreements such as licensing and
franchises. Human-centred assets are the collective expertise, creative and problem-solving
capability, leadership, entrepreneurial and managerial skills embodied by employees of the
organization. Intellectual property assets contain the legal mechanism for protecting many
corporate assets, and infrastructure assets including know-how, trade secrets, copyright, patent
and various design rights, trade and service marks. Finally, infrastructure assets equal those
technologies, methodologies and processes which enable the organization to function including
corporate culture, methodologies for assessing risk, methods of managing a sales force, financial
structure, databases of information on the market or customers, and communication systems.
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Operationalization
Brooking begins the diagnostic process by having the organization answer twenty questions that
make up the IC indicator. The results of this test suggest that the less a company is able to
answer in the affirmative to the 20 questions, the more it needs to focus on strengthening it’’s
intellectual capital.

SAMPLE OF 5 IC INDICATOR QUESTIONS

x In my company every employee knows his job and how it contributes to corporate goals.
x In my company we evaluate ROI on R&D.
x In my company we know the value of our brands.
x In my company there is a mechanism to capture employees’’ recommendations to improve
any aspect of the business.
x In my company we understand the innovation process and encourage all employees to
participate within it.

Each component of Brooking’’s IC model is then examined via a number of specific audit
questionnaires that ask questions specific to those variables thought to contribute to that asset
category. For example, to identify the hidden value due to Market-Related intangibles, Brooking
asks 15 Brand audit, 14 Customer audit, 7 Name audit, 5 Backlog audit, and 6 Collaboration
audit questions. Intellectual Property intangible assets are identified by 9 Patent audit, 6
Copyright audit, 3 Design audit, and 4 Trade-Secret audit questions. Human-Centred hidden
assets are identified by 5 audit questions about Employee Education, 5 Vocational audit, 12
Work-related Knowledge audit, 8 Occupational Assessment audit, 8 Work-related Competency
audit, 10 Corporate Learning audit, and 3 Human-centred Asset Management audit questions.
Lastly, Infrastructure hidden assets are evaluated by 6 Management Philosophy audit, 4
Corporate Culture audit, 31 Corporate Culture Collaboration audit, 7 Information Technology
Systems audit, 6 Database audit, and 4 IT Manager audit questions. In total, the Technology
Broker IC Audit is comprised of 178 questions.

SAMPLE OF 20 IC AUDIT QUESTIONS

x What is the annual cost of protecting this brand?

x What is the potential for repeat business with our customers?
x What does your company name mean to the financial community and investors?
x What is the optimum backlog for your company?
x How does your company track and identify opportunities to collaborate with partners?
x To what extent are the patents owned by your company optimally exploited?
x What copyrights owned by your company are of value?
x Would a design right give your company a competitive advantage in some area?
x Where are trade secret agreements kept in your company?
x Does your company give any advice or counselling to employees on educational issues?
x How do your employees know when it is time to learn new vocational skills?
x On what special knowledge does your company depend to operate?
x How is information generated from personality tests used in your company?
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x How are work related competencies planned for the future?

x What is the average length of time that knowledge in your company is current and useful?
x Is the management philosophy an asset or a liability?
x Is the culture conducive to achieving corporate goals?
x What is the ratio of employee to PCs in your company?
x Are databases able to be queried to satisfy the user’’s need?
x What use is made of e-mail, Internet and the WWW in your company?

Brooking proposes that the value an organization place on its IC is wholly dependent upon the
goals of the organization and the state of the market As such, any valuation is organization-
specific and limited in time (Lynn, 1998). Once an organization completes its IC Technology
Broker audit, Brooking offers three methods to calculate a dollar value for the IC identified by
the audit:

x the cost approach, which is based on assessment of replacement cost of the asset;
x the market approach, which uses market comparables to assess value; and
x the income approach, which assesses the income-producing capability of the asset (i.e., the
NPV of its net cash benefits)

Strengths and Weaknesses

The Technology Broker approach has been lauded for offering a tool box for organizations to
assign value to IC. Lynn (1998) suggests that Brooking has created an IC audit that itself
represents an intellectual asset for organizations. Moreover, her active marketing of the
instrument and its conceptual basis has served to help others identify, value, and leverage the IC
in their organizations.

The main weakness in these items is that there is a considerable leap that must be made from the
qualitative results of the questionnaire to actual dollar values for these assets. For example,
using replacement cost implies that a cost figure actually represents value and that
notwithstanding their unique value in creating competitive advantage, a ““replacement”” value can
actually be determined for such intangible items as management systems or brands. A market-
based valuation suffers from a lack of efficient market-based prices for many elements of IC.
Finally, the income-based model suffers from subjectivity of estimations and uncertainties
inherent in the cash-flow model.

Almost all of the items in the IC audit can be converted into Likert-type based scales which may
help organizations assign quantitative values to qualitative questions. For example, the second
sample question above can be reworded as follows: ““We are confident in the potential for repeat
business with our customers””. Multiple respondents in the organization can now answer this
question on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The results will yield a
richer (quantitative) description of this item.

There are also many similarities between the Technology Broker IC audit questions which are
subjective in nature and Skandia’’s IC measures which are objective in measure. For example,
 BONTIS - 13

both models look at the number of PCs per employee as a proxy for structural capital or
infrastructure assets.

IV. INTANGIBLE ASSET MONITOR

Karl-Erik Sveiby (1997) believes that difficulties in measuring intangible assets can be
overcome. He foresees an intangible model as clearly understood as that of an organization’’s
book value equal to tangible assets minus visible debt. Sveiby asserts that key to such a system
is having a coherent conceptual framework. But to do this, Sveiby argues that money has to stop
being used as a proxy for human effort. A 500-year-old system of accounting must make way
for a system of non-financial knowledge flows and intangible assets that use new proxies.

Sveiby proposes a conceptual framework based on three families of intangible assets: external
structure (brands, customer and supplier relations); internal structure (the organization:
management, legal structure, manual systems, attitudes, R&D, software); and individual
competence (education, experience). While efficiency of the internal structure or ““operational
efficiency”” of an organization has historically been part of most traditional accounting
measurement, the other two intangible assets in his model are not. Sveiby believes that the
problem with using measures of these two assets is not that they are difficult to design, rather
their outcomes seem difficult to interpret as they correlate with changes in business performance.

First, Sveiby recommends replacing the traditional accounting framework with a new framework
that contains a knowledge perspective. Within this framework, he argues that both non-financial
measures to measure intangible assets, and financial measures to measure visible equity can be
jointly used to provide a complete indication of financial success and shareholder value.

SEEING INTANGIBLE ASSETS

Visible Equity Intangible Assets

(Stock Price Premium)
(book value) External Structure Internal Structure Individual Competence
(management, legal
Tangible assets (brands, customer structure, manual (education, experience)
minus visible and supplier systems, R&D,
debt. relations) software)

According to Sveiby, the purpose of measuring these three indicators of intangible assets is to
provide management control. To do this, the first preliminary step is to identify who will be
interested in the results. In an external presentation, a company needs to describe itself as
accurately as possible to stakeholders, customers, creditors, and shareholders so that these
external agents can assess the quality of its management and whether the company is likely to be
a reliable supplier or a dependable creditor. External parties are usually interested in a
company’’s position versus changes and flows, given that external accounts are provided only at
relatively lengthy intervals. They also need to assess risk. Finally, the presentation’’s form is
important given their lesser familiarity with how the business works. As a result, Sveiby
recommends that management information given external parties about a company’’s intangible
 BONTIS - 14

assets should include key indicators and explanatory text given that it is not possible to compile
a full balance sheet that expresses in monetary terms every intangible asset Moreover, in the
process of redefining what it is to be measured, new contributors of data will likely include these
outside parties. Sveiby believes that companies should be prepared to pay for this assistance.

Internal measurement on the other hand is undertaken for management which needs to know as
much as possible about the company so that it can monitor its progress and take corrective action
when needed. It in fact becomes a management information system. With business today in a
constant state of flux, Sveiby suggests that management information should emphasize flow,
trends, change, and control figures. He believes that managers are more likely concerned with
the speed with which intangible assets are measured than with accuracy. Notwithstanding this
acknowledgement that business cycles have shortened, it is interesting that Sveiby recommends
that the measurement of intangible assets should include at least three measurement cycles in
order evaluate results, and repeated yearly.

Operationalization
In his conceptual model, Sveiby identifies three measurement indicators: growth and renewal
i.e., change, efficiency, and stability for each of the three intangible assets. He recommends
managers select one or two variables indicative of each indicator similar to those developed in
the example of his Intangible Assets Monitor model shown below.

SAMPLE MEASURES FOR INTANGIBLE ASSETS

External Structure Internal Structure Competence of People

x organic volume x investments in IT x share of sales from competence-
growth x time devoted to R&D enhancing customers
Growth & x growth in market x attitude index of x growth in average professional
Renewal share personnel toward experience
x satisfied customers managers, culture, x competence turnover
x quality index customers
x profit per customer x proportion of support x change in added value per
Efficiency x sales per employee staff employee
x sales per support staff x change in proportion of employee

In essence, the Intangible Assets Monitor is ““a presentation format that displays a number of
relevant indicators in a simple fashion”” (Sveiby, 1997, p. 197). The choice of indicators depends
on the company’’s strategy but should include only a few of the measurement indicators for each
intangible asset with the most important areas needing to be covered those of growth and
renewal, efficiency, and stability. The IAM can be integrated into the management information
system. And lastly, it should not exceed one page in length but should be accompanied by a
number of comments.

The second step in designing a measurement system for intangible assets is to classify all
employee groups within one of the two categories: professional and support staff. Professionals
are those who plan, produce, process, or present the product or solutions, and who are all directly
involved in client work. They are the only employees considered when assessing the third
intangible asset: competence of personnel. All other employees whose work seeks to preserve,
 BONTIS - 15

maintain, and develop the internal rather than external structure e.g., those who work in
accounting, administration, reception, etc., while essential to a firm’’s long-term viability,
contribute to an organization’’s internal structure and should be measured under that category.
Where employees perform a variety of duties, the time spent working for clients is assigned
professional, with the rest charged to the internal structure. As such, time is an important
variable to record in knowledge organizations. Outside experts and suppliers, although essential
contributors to production in many companies, are not classed as employees i.e., professionals in
Sveiby’’s model. Rather, they are considered under the external structure as an important
element in the external networks that a knowledge company builds to support the process of
knowledge conversion. Indeed, where independent contractors may be so important to an
organization that the organization becomes virtual; i.e., ““ it ceases to be possible to see where the
competence of the organization ends and that of its suppliers begin.”” (Sveiby, 1997, p.166).

Sveiby lists specific indices for each of his three growth and renewal, efficiency, and stability
measurement indicators used to assess each category of intangible assets of a knowledge
organization. To measure professional competence intangible assets, the indices include:

x growth/renewal: number of years in the profession, education level, training and education
costs, grading of executives, professional turnover, competence-enhancing customers
x efficiency: proportion of professionals in the company, the leverage effect of professionals,
value-added per professional
x stability: average age, seniority, relative pay position, professional turnover rate

To measure internal structure intangible assets, the indices include:

x growth/renewal: investment in the internal structure, investment in information processing

systems, customers contributing to internal structure
x efficiency: proportion of support staff, sales per support person, values and attitude
measurements
x stability: age of the organization, support staff turnover, the rookie ratio

To measure external structure intangible assets, the indices include:

x growth/renewal: profitability per customer, organic growth

x efficiency: the satisfied customer index, win/loss index, sales per customer
x stability: proportion of big customers, age structure, devoted customers ratio, frequency of
repeat orders

Strengths and Weaknesses

Celemi, a Swedish company selling software and consulting services, has been measuring and
monitoring its knowledge assets for several years by following IC growth through non-financial
models and non-financial indicators.

Although the Celemi endeavours to measure growth of its intellectual network, it does not assign
a financial value to it. However, in the same 1998 Celemi report, there is an attempt to provide a
 BONTIS - 16

Value-Added Statement outlining key indicators that they measured including: Value added %
of sales, Profit capacity % sales, Return on equity capacity after tax, value added per employee
and value added per expert.

Both Sveiby and Celemi assume financial outcomes are somehow related, and by leveraging IC
correctly, financial outcomes will follow suit. According to Lynn (1998), this idea of ““innate
value creation”” has been argued before with JIT (just-in-time inventory), diversity management,
etc. but only when organization culture supports it such as case in Celemi. It has not worked for
many North American companies when they tried to institute JIT, quality circles, etc. without
appropriate support of financial feedback systems. Lynn argues for most organizations, making
a business case means creating ties to financial results. And she suspects that only those
companies which can emulate Celemi’’s culture, will also be able to emulate its highly successful
reporting system on IC. Finally, Sveiby has developed an executive training module called the
TANGO Simulation which is intended to help senior managers understand how to account for IC
using similar measures that he has developed in his IAM model (Bontis and Girardi, 2000).

V. MVA AND EVA

Economic Value Added (EVATM) was introduced by Stern Stewart as a comprehensive
performance measure that uses the variables of capital budgeting, financial planning, goal
setting, performance measurement, shareholder communication, and incentive compensation to
properly account for all ways in which corporate value can be added or lost (Bontis, Jacobsen,
Dragonetti, and Roos, 1999). Bontis et al. describe EVA as providing ““a common language and
benchmark for managers to discuss value-creation [and because] it is blessed with widespread
acceptance in the financial community, can increase the legitimacy of a company in the eyes of
financial markets, as a valuable measure of corporate value-creation or destruction over a given
period”” (p.394). According to Strassman (1999), economic value added is the net result of all
managerial activities.

EVA is intended to offer improvements to the market value added (MVATM) calculation. MVA
represents the spread between the cash that a firm’’s investors have put into the business since the
start up of the company and the present value of the cash that they could get out of it by selling
their shares. By maximizing this spread, corporate managers maximize the wealth of the
company’’s shareholders relative to other uses of capital (Bontis et al., 1999).

According to Bontis et al. (1999), MVA can represent the market’’s assessment of the net present
value of a company’’s current and contemplated capital investment projects. As such, MVA is a
““significant summary assessment of corporate performance”” (p.395). However, a key
disadvantage with MVA is that gains and losses accruing from historic activities are aggregated
on a one-to-one basis with last year’’s results plus today’’s moods as they are shown in market
price. As a result, a company with a successful history will keep on showing positive and high
MVA even when current or future prospects are bleak and unrewarding.

Operationalization
EVA only concentrates on changes in MVA occurring from new projects to account for the
spread between market value and total capital. It accomplishes this by emphasizing maximizing
 BONTIS - 17

incremental earnings over capital costs. To have a positive EVA, therefore, a company’’s rate of
return on capital must exceed its required rate of return.

Bontis et al. (1999) define EVA as ““the difference between net sales and the sum of operating
expenses, taxes and capital charges where capital charges are calculated as the weighted average
cost of capital multiplied by the total capital invested. In practice, EVA is increased if the
weighted average cost of capital is less than the return on net assets, and vice versa.”” (p.395). Its
equation is given below:

Net sales - operating expenses - taxes - capital charges = EVA

Bontis et al. (1999) further liken EVA to an accounting concept introduced much earlier, that of
residual income (RI). RI represents the value remaining after a company’’s stockholders and all
other providers of capital have been compensated. The sole distinction the authors make
between EVA and RI is that EVA has simply been paid more attention. Given its positive
reception, some writers have suggested that EVA can be used as a surrogate measure for the
stock of intellectual capital if it can be assumed that effective management of knowledge assets
increases EVA.

Strengths and Weaknesses

EVA is a financial measurement system that seeks to properly account for many important
factors and their trade-offs involved when creating value. Yet in terms of its use as a surrogate
measure of IC, Bontis et al (1999) note that if EVA is used, it implies that no specific measures
of intangible assets are needed. Moreover, managers are no better off understanding exactly
what are the company’’s intangible resources or their specific contribution. Such a ““black box””
approach to accounting blocks any real effort to validate the value of or manage a company’’s IC.

Strassman (1999) does say that EVA represents something that defies the laws of conservation
energy which state that output of any system can never be greater than its input. Delivering a
positive EVA therefore comes from an act of creativity that is coming from an intangible. Put
another way, Strassman (1999) believes that ““if EVA is the interest earned from an accumulation
of knowledge residing within the firm, then the value of this principal can be calculated by
dividing the EVA by the price one pays for such capital”” (p.4).

Bontis et al. (1999) state that EVA uses 164 different areas of performance adjustment to solve
problems such as trying to account for these intangibles and long-term investments that lack a
high degree of certainty. However, the very fact that the model contains 164 adjustments
suggests that managers will have to engage in a trade-off between complexity, accuracy, and
ease. Given the very great likelihood that managers will likely pick and choose from this larger
list, it runs the risk of making comparisons of EVA values difficult if not meaningless between
companies or over time.

Three other limitations in the calculations used to create EVA include: i) the use of book assets
relies on historical costs which give little indication of current market or replacement value; ii)
empirical research has not shown conclusively that EVA is a better predictor of stock price or its
variation; and iii) the starting point for EVA analysis assumes that companies should be run in
 BONTIS - 18

the interest of shareholders exclusively. In sum, the EVA performance measure may not be
appropriate when applied to quantifying the value of intangible assets.

VI. CITATION-WEIGHTED PATENTS

According to Bontis (1996), Dow Chemical has been at the forefront in using patents as proxies
for practical IC measurement. Former Director of Intellectual Asset Management at Dow,
Gordon Petrash, implemented a six-step process for managing intellectual assets that includes:

x defining the role of knowledge in the business;

x assessing the competition’’s strategies and knowledge assets;
x classifying the company’’s portfolio of knowledge assets;
x evaluating the value of those assets to keep, develop, sell, or abandon;
x investing in areas where gaps have been found; and
x assembling the new knowledge portfolio and repeat ad infinitum.

Dow Chemical instituted this IC initiative at the same time as it was reorganizing and delayering
its organization to facilitate critical communication links. According to Lynn (1998), these
organizational changes and concern for knowledge sharing and teamwork represented a cultural
revolution for an oversized Dow that had developed knowledge silos and minimal exchanges of
knowledge between various parts of its organization. Worse, ““the idea of selling ideas
discovered at Dow or developing ideas not invented at Dow (the not-invented-here syndrome) or
even collaborating to develop in-house or outside ideas were foreign concepts.”” (p. 31).

A significant component of Dow’’s initial management of intellectual assets has been its review
of patent maintenance within R&D to create objective, major cost savings for the firm (Lynn,
1998). The Dow model estimates a ““technology factor”” to identify the impact of R&D efforts
that lead to the creation of intellectual property and uses indicators such as R&D expense per
sales dollar, number of patents, income per R&D expense, cost of patent maintenance per sales
dollar, and project lie-cycle cost per sales dollar. The ““patent evaluation process”” is a team-
based effort where members from R&D and marketing interact directly with production to
decide on the viability of undertaking and/or continuing the research process. The team may
review one indicator or sets of indicators for longer than a year in order to decide whether the
intellectual property is valuable. It also triggers management action to investigate whether the
intellectual property might have value for someone else i.e. sell the idea, or whether it should be
abandoned and written off, like other unproductive assets.

Dow started with patents as an obvious and important example of intellectual assets in order to
make IC visible to the organization. Patents can be readily understood to be indicators of
intellectual property. Traditional accounting methods assign value to patents, but only in terms
of the cost to obtain the patent, and not the cost of the R&D leading to the patent, nor the
potential for marketability if put into production, nor any legal considerations about the patent.
Objectively measuring and monitoring patents using multiple indicators within Dow’’s
““technology factor””, has made this intangible asset become meaningful. It also has the benefit of
more thoroughly incorporating the bottom-line impact of R&D efforts. In addition, the Dow
 BONTIS - 19

patent evaluation process can measure the internal operations that created the intellectual
property, and can be benchmarked against other companies in the industry or compared to
industry averages. In 1996, Dow produced its first public IC report as a supplement to its annual
report, comparable to Skandia’’s.

In separate work, Hall, Jaffe and Tratzenberg (1999) make the distinction between patents and
their citations as evidence of technological output and information flow. Using the financial
market valuation of firms that own the patents, they found higher market valuations due mainly
to firms with highly cited patents per R&D dollar spent. Hall et al. interpret their findings to
suggest that citation-weighted patents can act as a better measure of innovative output than pure
patent counts.

Citation-weighted patents also did as good a job as R&D in explaining the market valued firms
relative to their book value, mostly because the explanatory power of R&D declined when patent
citations were included in the regression. Hall et al. interpreted the unique variance added by
citations as success in innovative activity or success in appropriating returns to such activity.
Indeed, using a firm’’s average citations per patent revealed that citation rate had a substantial
effect on market value beyond that due to R&D or patenting behaviour. That is, an increase of
one citation per market was associated with a 3-4% increase in market value at the firm level.

VII. RESEARCH AGENDA

It would be useful to emphasize what we have learned so far in this field. Early research on IC
primarily focused on definitions and classification. Interestingly, many IC models have similar
constructs and measures that are merely labelled differently. For example, human capital
(Skandia Navigator) is also called human-centred assets (Technology Broker) and competence of
personnel (Intangible Asset Monitor). This re-labelling of similar conceptualizations can be
construed as both positive and negative for the field of IC measurement. On a positive note, it
shows that researchers are narrowing their frameworks and focusing on important concepts that
are consistent across perspectives. However, since the field is still in its embryonic stage, no one
is willing to give up their own nomenclature and build off each other’’s work. Perhaps, a change
for the better will occur as this field further develops and the desire for more valid and
generalizable measures emerges. It is important for the development of this field in the near-
term to build on each researcher’’s work so that a common set of definitions can be used.

It should be noted that this review is by no means exhaustive. There are numerous other models
that have been presented at many conferences that were not mentioned here. In addition, there
exist dozens of customized models that are designed to service only one organization –– typically
the one that designed it. Other models that were not reviewed in this paper that are nevertheless
worth examining include Standfield’’s (1999) Knowcorp Audit, the Tobin’’s Q ratio, the Balanced
Score Card (Kaplan and Norton, 1992) and a popular stream of research from the 1960s called
Human Resource Accounting (Brummet, Flamholtz and Pyle, 1968; Bontis, Jacobsen,
Dragonetti, and Roos 1999).

Another challenge with IC research thus far has been that it has been primarily of the anecdotal
variety. Most researchers have conducted case-based reviews of organizations who have
 BONTIS - 20

established intellectual capital initiatives already. Other researchers have merely documented
the metrics that have been developed by Skandia and others without advancing or testing them.
A way to overcome this challenge is for researchers to pursue more empirical research. Using
survey data, Bontis (1998) has already shown a very strong and positive relationship between
Likert-type measures of intellectual capital and business performance in a pilot study. The
explanatory power of the final specified model was highly significant and substantive (R2 =
56.0%, p-value < 0.001). In order to make any significant claims, IC researchers must now
move from perceptual measures in isolated cases to large scale studies with objective measures.
This task is daunting since the challenges are enormous but the potential benefits are far-
reaching across many management disciplines including accounting, human resources, finance,
training and development, and strategy to name a few.

Such a grand vision for IC research requires some realistic goals. Unfortunately, the pursuit of
measuring IC assets objectively is a noble but difficult one. Top executives in large U.S. and
Canadian businesses agree that new intellectual capital measures are required to help manage
knowledge assets. Covin and Stivers (1999) surveyed 253 companies among the U.S. Fortune
500 and Canadian Post 300 in their study of nonfinancial measure usage. Results showed that
even though 63 per cent of the sample felt that measuring innovation was important, only 14 per
cent were actually measuring it, and only 10 per cent were actually using the measures for
strategy development. Stivers and her colleagues argue that these results show a significant
measurement-use gap. However, the evidence presented at many conferences on the topic show
that this gap is decreasing. What was once a small club of practitioners has grown into a
community of thousands and thousands of organizations around the world who are developing
and experimenting with new IC measurement techniques (see Brennan and Connell, 2000 for a
nice summary of other empirical research in the IC field). A realistic goal for this field is to
continue to document such activity and to share measurement practices across industries in order
to take full advantage of the innovation that is already taking place.

Given the challenges of: i) trying to measure an intangible construct; ii) putting forth nascent
efforts to conceptualize an IC domain; iii) establishing bi-directional cause-effect relationships,
and iv) maintaining a reliance on the use of proxy variables, it should not be surprising that
different companies’’ IC management systems contain any number of unconnected and unproved
individual indicators. Göran Roos and his colleagues also note that companies in their search for
individual proxies of IC tend to produce long lists of multiple indicators. Typically, the
indicators are weighted equally. Put together, companies can end up with a measurement system
that is awkward and complex, and may contain invalid measures. Moreover, these indicators are
likely expressed in qualitative and quantitative units, that attempt to represent any number of
diverse elements of an organization’’s functioning, range in their degree of specificity and focus
i.e., from the individual employee to macro-organization relationships, and potentially represent
either linear or non-linear relationships. To complicate matters further, IC measurement may
attempt to capture not only forms of individual IC resources using a balance sheet approach, but
also changes in these stocks of capital i.e., the flows or transformation of intellectual capital into
financial capital and vice versa (Roos et al, 1997).

Another realistic goal for IC researchers is to pursue international research settings so as to

remove oneself from the anglophonic bias of the field’’s initial growth. The goal of international
 BONTIS - 21

research would be to show that the relationship between intellectual capital and performance can
be generalized to other countries and industries. In a recent study of Malaysian managers,
Bontis, Chua and Richardson (2000) showed that many of the hypotheses tested in previously
anglophonic settings of intellectual capital also held true. This speaks well for the
generalizability of intellectual capital research across a variety of national and industry settings.
Professor Ante Pulic and his colleagues in Austria are also finding evidence of generalizable
results across Eastern Europe (Pulic, 2000). The lesson here is that there exists a growing
amount of IC research that is not necessarily published in English. We are also indebted to the
Journal of Intellectual Capital which has positioned itself as one of the leading academic outlets
for research in this area.

Furthermore, an intellectual capital training tool that is gaining widespread use by senior
managers and CKOs (Chief Knowledge Officers) alike (Bontis, 2000; Mitchell and Bontis,
2000) is the TANGO Simulation developed by Karl-Erik Sveiby. Research has shown that this
simulation game significantly improves the perceived importance of developing intellectual
capital metrics among its participants (Bontis and Girardi, 2000) and could prove to be quite
useful in further enhancing the intellectual capital management skills of knowledge managers.
The advent of the Internet has also provided us with ample opportunities to trade our intellectual
capital in a virtual marketplace. Knexa.com is touted as the world’’s first knowledge & exchange
auction and has attracted international attention for its intellectual capital exchange platform.

CONCLUSION
Intangible assets have a substantial implication for financing a knowledge organization’’s vision.
While visible financing is usually simple to calculate consisting of equity, short-term and a few
long-term loans, it is more difficult for knowledge organizations because of a lack of tangible
collateral. Attempts to measure intangible assets have included treating employees as balance
sheet items and measured in dollars, and using financial variables e.g., discounting a person’’s
output during a lifetime, costing out sick leaves or personnel turnover to create personnel
accounting calculations for managers’’ use. Unfortunately, these efforts to create human
resources costing and accounting systems have not considered the full range of intangible assets
that can exist, nor have they been particularly useful as management information systems
monitoring the daily progress of business. They have tended to adopt a manufacturing or
industrial perspective. Yet service companies now account for two-thirds of the employment in
the industrialized world. Even more compelling, the wealth of knowledge-intensive
organizations is now surpassing the manufacturing sector in most global economies.

The International Accounting Standards Committee and its national counterparts face a
challenge in setting standards for IC disclosure. The measurement examples thus far have been
too firm-specific and no set of indicators could hope to be general enough to encompass the
needs of a variety of international and industry settings. Auditing all of the different frameworks
at this point would be pointless. In fact, pursuing standards at this point might be more harmful
given the nascent stage of research development. Voluntary disclosure is the only solution in the
short-term. In the long-term, it will be up to the demands of the capital markets. If shareholders
and analysts agree that IC disclosure is beneficial in explaining business performance, than
companies will have no choice but to appease their audience. In the meantime, academic
 BONTIS - 22

researchers must continue to push the envelope on empirically-based studies so as to support the
growing numbers of early adopters.
 BONTIS - 23

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