Unit-1 BASICS OF NETWORKING AND WEB ARCHITECTURE

Evolution of Internet:-

 Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed in 1969.

 Need for communication between various heterogeneous networks led to the development of
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) in 1970.
 On January 1, 1983, a new communications protocol was established called the Transfer
Protocol/Internetwork Protocol or TCP/IP. This protocol allowed computers to connect to or
share information. Thus, officially this date marks the birth of the Internet

Basic Networking Concepts

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a
shared network medium.

Need for Networking

1. Resource Sharing:
2. Communication:
3. Access to remote databases:

Network Terminologies

i) Nodes (Workstations):- A computer becomes a node (also called a workstation) as Soon as it

is attached to a network.

ii) Server: - A computer that facilitates sharing of data, software and hardware resources on the
network is known as the server.

iii) Network Interface Unit (NIU):- A network interface unit is a device that is attached to each of
the workstations and the server which helps to establish communication between the server and
workstations.
Switching Techniques: - Switching techniques are used to efficiently transmit data across the
network. There are two type of switching Techniques.

1. Circuit switching:- Circuit switching is a technique in which a dedicated and complete physical
Connection is established between two nodes and through this dedicated Communication channel,
the nodes may communicate.

2. Packet switching is a switching technique in which packets (discrete blocks of data of fixed size
and of any content, type or structure) are routed between nodes over data links shared with other
traffic. The average size of a packet is 200 kilo byte.

Data communication terminologies:-

Channel:
A communication channel is a medium that is used in the transmission of a message from one
point to another.
Like such as a telephone line, optical fiber, coaxial cable or twisted pair wire, broadband etc.

Bandwidth:
In electronic communication, bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies available for
transmission of data. Its unit is Hertzs.

The data transfer rate (DTR)

It is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from one place to another in a given
time on a network. As studied before, the Greater the bandwidth of a given medium, the
higher is the data transfer rate. Data transfer rate is often measured in bits per second
(bps), although the unit baud, which is one bit per second, is also used.

Network Types

On the basis of geographical span, the network can be broadly categorized as PAN, LAN, MAN, and
WAN.

Personal Area Network: - A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for
communication among computers and devices close to one person. PAN may include wired and
wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meter.

Local Area Network:-

Local Area networks (LAN) are private networks and can span a radius of up to 1 Km.They are
generally established within a building or campus.LANs operate at a speed in the range 10 Mbps to 1
Gbps.
Metropolitan Area Network:-

These networks are used to establish links within a city, and span an area of radius up to 50 Km.
MANs facilitate sharing of resources by connecting various local area networks

Wide Area Network:

Wide Area Network (WAN) spans about 1000 Km. They are used for long distance communication
and are well suited for connecting remote areas. They establish links within a country or continent. It
connects various local and metropolitan area networks.

Networking Concepts – II

Transmission Medium

A transmission medium refers to the channel of transmission through which data can be transmitted
from one node to another in the form of signal. It is of two type.

Guided Medium: The term refers to physical conductors such as twisted pairs, coaxial cable, and
fiber optics. In twisted pair and coaxial cable, the signal travels as voltage and current signal whereas
in optical fibre, light.
Unguided Medium: The unguided medium uses Electromagnetic wave that does not require a
physical conductor. Examples of unguided medium include microwave, radio wave, and infrared.

Network Topologies:-
The arrangement (also called layout) of nodes in a network is called network topology. There are
broadly two types of topologies-broadcast and point to point.
In broadcast topology, all nodes share the same physical link. When one node transmits, all nodes
receive. Examples are bus and ring.
In point to point topology, every pair of nodes has a dedicated link examples are star and mesh

Bus Topology
In bus topology, there is a long cable, called backbone cable (or simply backbone), that connects
various nodes through a connector called tap

Ring Topology
In ring topology, all the devices are attached through a cable in the form of ring addition and deletion
of devices, and fault detection and isolation is easy. However, the topology suffers from the limitation
of single point failure leading to disruption of the entire network.
 Ring topology

Star Topology

In star topology, all the devices are connected to the central controller called hub. Star network can be
easily installed and configured. Also, fault detection and isolation is easy. However, it requires more
cabling as compared to bus and ring topology. Also, hub failure will lead to network failure.

Star Topology

Mesh Topology:-
In mesh topology, every node is connected with every other node in the network topology provides
secure data transfer without any traffic problem. it requires a large number of connections to establish
the topology. This leads to difficulty in installation as the number of nodes grow as the network grows.

Mesh Topology

Tree Topology:-
Tree topology is a hybrid topology using a combination of star and bus topology.
 Tree topology

Network Devices:-

Repeater: - With increase in distance, a signal may become weak and distorted. A repeater is used to
restore the input signal to its original form, so that it can travel a larger distance.

Repeater

Hub
Unlike a repeater which connects two cables, a hub connects several lines, also called, cable segments.
A hub comprises several input/ output (I/O) ports, each of which connects to a single cable.

Hub

Bridge
A bridge is a multiport device used for connecting two or more local area networks (LAN)

Bridge
Switch
Unlike bridges which connect two or more LAN segments, switches are used to connect individual
nodes in the network with each other.
 Switch

Router
Routers are used for connecting various networks (LAN or WAN) with each other.

Router

Gateway
A gateway connects networks based on different protocol technologies to communicate with each
other.

RJ-45
RJ-45, short form of Registered Jack - 45, is an eight wired connector that is used to connect
computers on a local area network (LAN).

Wi-Fi Card
Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow your desktop or laptop computer to connect to the
internet through a wireless network.
Network Protocols
Network protocols are formal standards and rules that define communication between two or more
devices over a network.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used for communicating over a Network. It divides
any message into a series of packets that are sent from source to destination and there it gets
reassembled at the destination.

Internet Protocol (IP):-

An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique number that identifies a device on a network or
the internet. IP addresses are used to differentiate between devices and make them accessible for
communication.

It has two versions IPv4 of 32 bits and IPv6 of 128 bits.

Example: 140.179.220.200

Point-to-Point Protocol:-
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is used for communication between two computers using a serial
interface, mostly a personal computer connected by phone line to a server.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two or more systems.

HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another. Types of files may include program
files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.

Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)

SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing Email

Post Office Protocol (POP)

It is an internet protocol that allows email clients to retrieve emails from a mail server.

Telnet
It is a client-server protocol that lets you remotely access a computer's terminal and communicate with
it over a network.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

It is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using an internet connection instead of a
traditional phone line.
 Web Architecture

Web Architecture can be defined as the conceptual structure of the internet.

Types of web architectures

The client-server model it is a network architecture that describes how a client requests information
or services from a server, which then responds to the request:
 Client: The device or software that requests information or services.
 Server: The device or software that provides information or services

The client-server model

II) Three-tier model

A three-tier model is a software application architecture that divides an application into three logical
and physical tiers:

Presentation tier
Also known as the user interface, this is where the end-user interacts with the system.

Application tier
Also known as the middle tier, this tier handles the application's core processing, business rules, and
calculations.

Data tier
Also known as the backend, this tier manages the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of the
application's data

Three-tier model
 Identification of computers and users over a network

A MAC address, or Media Access Control address

It is a unique 12-digit hexadecimal number that identifies a device on a network. It's assigned during
manufacturing and is usually found on a device's network interface card (NIC), such as a Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, or Ethernet card.

IP address

Every machine in a network has another unique identifying number, called its IPAddress. An IP
address is a group of four bytes (or 32 bits) each of which can be a number from 0 to 255. A typical IP
address looks like this: 59.177.134.72

Domain name
Domain name is a string of text that maps to an alphanumeric IP address, used to access a website
from client software. Examples of some domain names are cbse.nic.in, sikkimipr.org,
indianrailway.gov.in etc.

Network Threats and Security Measures

Malware, or malicious software, is type software that can damage or destroy your computer, tablet, or
phone. It's developed by cybercriminals, or hackers, to steal data. A malware may be a virus, worm,
Trojan horse.

Virus

A computer virus is a program that can replicate itself and infect a computer without the user's
knowledge. Some common types of computer viruses include: boot sector virus, file infector virus.

Worm

A computer worm is a type of malware that spreads itself to other computers by replicating itself. Like
Code Red Worm

The main difference between a virus and a worm is how they spread and how they are
activated:

 Spread
A virus needs to be sent from one computer to another by a user or via software, while a worm can
self-replicate and spread to other computers.

 Activation
A virus needs to be activated by the victim's interaction with the infected file, while a worm doesn't
need human interaction to activate and infect a device.
 Trojan horse

A Trojan horse virus is a type of malware that disguises itself as a legitimate program to gain access to
a device. Once installed, Trojans can perform a variety of malicious tasks, including:
 Stealing sensitive data like login credentials and credit card details
 Gaining backdoor access to a system
 Spying on users' online activity.

Evesdropping

Eavesdropping is the act of secretly or stealthily listening to the private conversation or

communications of others without their consent.

Denial of service (DoS)

A denial of service (DoS) is a cyber-attack that makes a device or computer unavailable to its intended
users. This is done by overwhelming the target with requests, making it impossible for normal traffic
to be processed. A DoS attack is like a group of people crowding the entry door of a shop, making it
hard for legitimate customers to enter.

Phishing
A phishing attack is a cyber-attack that uses fraudulent emails, text messages, phone calls, or websites
to trick people into sharing sensitive data. Phishing attacks are a form of social engineering.

Cyber Crime
The IT act defines cybercrime as an unlawful act where the computer is either a tool or a target or
both. Some of these crimes are mentioned below
● Sending spam mails to uninterested recipients.
● Hacking someone’s account or system.
● Stealing someone’s personal information through phishing.

Network Security Tools and Services

Firewalls
A firewall is a security system that protects a computer or network from unauthorized access by
monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing data. Firewalls can be hardware devices or
software applications.
Antivirus

Antivirus software is a program that protects your computer from viruses and other malicious software, or
malware, by detecting, preventing, and removing them.

Password managers
A password manager is a software application that helps a user store and organize
passwords.

Protective Measures while accessing Internet

1. Get the latest anti-virus and firewall software

2. Update your internet browser
3. Create a strong and easy-to-remember password
4. Use a different password to the one you use for other services

5. Change your password on a regular basis

6. Never share your password
7. Don't let your browser remember your log on details
8. Look after your paper statements
9. Learn to spot fake emails and websites
10. Avoid online fraud and con trick