PREFACE

As the UPSC Mains exam approaches, the need for concise and updated study material,
especially for Optional subjects, becomes crucial for students. AnthroEdge is a humble
attempt by us to present quality revision material for Anthropology subject in a
consolidated manner for students appearing in UPSC CS Mains 2024 exam. This
document has been thoughtfully designed to cater to the needs of variety of students at
different levels of preparation.
The first edition of AnthroEdge was immensely valuable for 2023 UPSC Mains students.
Last year, students were able to confidently answer nearly all questions, including many
new ones, using AnthroEdge. The success of the previous edition has motivated us to
revamp this document, making it more relevant, enriched and user-friendly for our
readers.
This updated edition of AnthroEdge has been modified extensively in its format as well as
its content. This edition has a sharp focus on essential and updated information with a
goal of providing clear and definitive answers to UPSC questions. It incorporates updated
perspectives on Anthropology and has accommodated changing demands of the
UPSC Civil services Mains examination. It attempts to arm students with value addition
content such as data, case studies, relevant current affairs, perspectives, illustrations and
diagrams while providing essential basic content on all topics mentioned in the syllabus,
to enable them write persuasive answers to ace Optional papers.
We are privileged to have compiled this updated edition and are enthusiastic about all
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Team AnthroEdge,
VISIONIAS

2
 INDEX

AnthroEdge
CHAPTER 1 4
Foundations of Anthropology and Human Evolution

CHAPTER 2 49
The Nature of Culture & Society

CHAPTER 3 70
Marriage, Family And Kinship

CHAPTER 4 107
Economic Organization

CHAPTER 5 121
Political Organisation & Social Control

CHAPTER 6 141
Religion

CHAPTER 7 153
Anthropological Theories

CHAPTER 8 187
Culture, Language and Communication

CHAPTER 9 201
Research Methods in Anthropology

CHAPTER 10 222
Physical Anthropology

CHAPTER 11 278
Growth and Development

CHAPTER 12 299
Demography: Fertility, Bioevents, and Demographic Theories

CHAPTER 13 308
Applications of Anthropology

3
 Chapter: 1
FOUNDATIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
AND HUMAN EVOLUTION
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/Questions
Meaning, Scope and development of Anthropology.
Relationships with other disciplines: Social Sciences, Scope and relevance of Social and Cultural
behavioural Sciences, Life Sciences, Medical Sciences, Anthropology. (10 Marks, 2023)
Earth Sciences and Humanities.
Elaborate the scope of anthropology and elucidate
Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and its uniqueness in the field of other social sciences
relevance: (20 Marks, 2021)
a) Social-cultural Anthropology. “The biocultural approach is the Hallmark of
b) Biological Anthropology. biocultural anthropology”. Explain (10 Marks, 2021)
c) Archaeological Anthropology. How can synergising the core branches of
d) Linguistic Anthropology. anthropology reinvigorate the holistic spirit of the
Human Evolution and emergence of Man: discipline. (20 Marks, 2020)
a) Biological and Cultural factors in human evolution. Give an account of the field methods used in the
b) Theories of Organic Evolution (Pre-Darwinian, study of Archaeological Anthropology. (15 marks,
Darwinian and Post-Darwinian). 2018)
c) Synthetic theory of evolution; Brief outline of terms Define Anthropology. Describe the major branches
and concepts of evolutionary biology (Doll’s rule, of Anthropology elaborating on any one branch.
Cope’s rule, Gause’s rule, parallelism, convergence, (2017)
adaptive radiation, and mosaic evolution). Explain the genetic mechanisms of micro and
Characteristics of Primates; Evolutionary Trend and macro evolution. (15 Marks, 2021)
Primate Taxonomy; Primate Adaptations; (Arboreal Elucidate how Darwin and post-Darwin theories of
and Terrestrial) Primate Taxonomy; Primate Behaviour; evolution resulted in the development of Synthetic
Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates; Living theory of evolution. (15 Marks, 2020)
Major Primates; Comparative Anatomy of Man and
Explain the biological changes that made human
Apes; Skeletal changes due to erect posture and its
beings capable of making cultures. (20 Marks,
implications.
2018)
Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical
The losses and gains of erect posture (10 Marks,
distribution of the following:
2021)
a) Plio-preleistocene hominids in South and East
Africa—Australopithecines. Jane Goodall’s contributions in studying primate
behaviour. (10 Marks, 2020)
b) Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe
(Homo erectus (heidelbergensis), Asia (Homo Illustrate with examples the various types of
erectus javanicus, Homo erectus pekinensis. locomotion pattern among non-human primates.
c) Neanderthal man—La-chapelle-auxsaints (Classical (15 Marks, 2020)
type), Mt. Carmel (Progressive type). Adaptive primate radiation (10 Marks, 2019)
d) Rhodesian man. Discuss the evolutionary significance of bipedalism
e) Homo saoiens- Cromagnon, Grimaldi and and erect posture. (20 Marks, 2019)
Chancelede. Discuss major species of Australopithecus
The biological basis of Life: The Cell, DNA structure discovered from South and East Africa. Describe
and replication, Protein Synthesis, Gene, Mutation, the discovery, physical features and significance of
4 Chromosomes, and Cell Division.
Taung baby. (20 Marks, 2023)
What are the physical and cultural characteristics
of Homo erectus? Discuss its phylogenetic status?
(20 Marks, 2021)
Critically evaluate the contesting theories of the
emergence and dispersal of modern Homo sapiens.
(20 Marks, 2020)
Europeans are closer to Neanderthals’. Critically
discuss in view of the African origin of human kind.
(2019)
Describe the culture related to homo erectus.
15marks (2018)

5
 CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

Meaning: Anthropology, originating from the Greek words

Unveiling the Distinctiveness of Anthropology
“Anthropos” (Man) and “Logos” (Study), pertains to the
study of humans. The study of human beings is insufficient to define
anthropology as it encompasses various disciplines
Definition: Anthropology is the study of the origin, like sociology, psychology, political science,
development, and nature of human beings. economics, history, human biology, and even
The definition and meaning of Anthropology have humanistic fields like philosophy and literature.
evolved over time. Definitions by different scholars at Anthropology has a broader scope, covering a
various periods demonstrate the discipline’s evolving longer span of time and a wider range of topics
meaning. compared to these disciplines.
Anthropology is the only academic discipline that
1. Aristotle, the father of anthropology, coined and studies all aspects of humanity, from our biological
defined the term, describing anthropology as the origins to our cultural diversity. This makes it a
gossip that revolves around man. unique and valuable field of study, and one that is
2. Emmanuel Kant described anthropology in the essential for understanding the world we live in.
18th century as a study of animal origins, social and
cultural development, and human progress.
3. During the 19th century, Encyclopedia Britannica Anthropology Works
defined anthropology as a discipline concerned Orangutan Research Leads to Orangutan Advocacy
with discourse on human nature, encompassing
biology, culture, and society.
4. Anthropologists like Malinowski, Radcliffe Brown,
and Franz Boas defined anthropology as the study
of man at all levels of development, encompassing
the past, present, and future of humanity.
5. Krober described anthropology as the science of
groups of men and their behavior and production.
6. Herskovitz defined anthropology as the study of
man and his actions.

Scope:
Central Problem: Explanation of humanity (Man as
physical and social being). Biruté Galdikas, with her profound expertise in
Its scope is both broad and unique. orangutans, has studied and advocated for their
Broad Scope: As it study all people worldwide, preservation for five decades in Indonesia. She
from the distant past to the present, exploring their established Camp Leakey research center and co-
development and cultures across diverse regions. founded the Orangutan Foundation International
(OFI) to protect the endangered species. Her activism
Anthropologists have evolved from focusing solely on
includes educating the public, lobbying international
non-Western cultures to studying their own and other
institutions, and employing locals to safeguard
complex societies, erasing traditional disciplinary
orangutans and their habitat.
boundaries.
Unique (special role) Scope: Anthropology’s unique
role lies in its distinct combination of holistic, historical,
and comparative methods.

6
 CASE STUDY Broad Scope of Anthropology

Geographically (Spatially) study all varieties of

Correcting the Mistaken Belief people in the whole world
In the 1960s, American educators discovered
that African American schoolchildren seldom Historically (Temporally study people of all periods
consumed milk. Initially, attributing it to (Origin to today)
financial constraints or education, they were
proven wrong by evidence from anthropology.
Anthropologists had long known that in regions
with milking animals, people often sour milk or Anthropology studies man
turn it into cheese before consuming it. The
reason behind this practice became evident As member of animal kingdom
when it was revealed that many individuals
lack the enzyme lactase, essential for breaking
down lactose, the sugar in milk. Regular milk As member of society
consumption caused digestion issues, leading
to milk intolerance. This condition was found +Relation/intricacies between these two
in various populations worldwide, including
African Americans.
Why Anthropology has such a broad scope?
Generalization: Skeptical Approach: Protection against
Driven by the belief Entitled to Invalid Ideas:
that generalizations + skepticism if + Skepticism guards
about human beings generalizations don't against accepting
must apply across hold true widely. erroneous notions
different times about humans.
and places.

Themes of
Description Example
Anthropology

Holistic Approach Comprehensive understanding of human beings, Studying a tribal community's culture,
considering biological, cultural, social, and rituals, and ecology as a whole system.
historical aspects.

Comparative Theme Analyzing various societies and cultures Comparing marriage customs between
across time periods to identify similarities and different indigenous groups.
differences.
Historic Theme Tracing the development of human societies from Examining the evolution of trade routes in
ancient times to the present, exploring cultural the Silk Road.
changes and continuity.
System and Process Focusing on cultural systems and underlying Investigating the impact of globalization on
Theme processes that shape human behavior and local economies.
societal organization.
Case Study Method In-depth analysis of specific cultural groups or Conducting a case study on the Maasai
communities to reveal unique aspects of their community in Africa.
societies.
Emics and Etics Distinguishing between insider (emic) and Understanding cultural norms from the
outsider (etic) perspectives in studying cultural viewpoint of the local community (emic) and
phenomena. from an outsider's perspective (etic).

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 CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

Development of Anthropology:
Evolution of Anthropology: From Limited Knowledge to
Scientific Worldview
1. Limited Awareness of Other Cultures
Few encounters with non-native cultures.
Exceptions like Herodotus and Marco Polo.
2. European Exploration and Cultural Encounters
Colonial era brought exposure to diverse cultures.
Challenged traditional Judeo-Christian worldview.
3. Puzzles and Discoveries in Archaeology
Stone tools, extinct animals, and Neanderthal
remains.
Questions about human origins and ancient
civilizations.
4. Interpretations through Biblical Narratives
Cultures viewed through religious perspectives.
Supernatural explanations for unfamiliar customs. This painting by Raphael shows the expulsion of Eve and Adam
from Paradise. Well into the nineteenth century, the biblical
5. Paradigm Shift: Emergence of Geology and Biology
account of history provided the dominant framework explaining
Understanding Earth’s ancient age and geological the existence of “natives” in other lands and the nature of their
history raised questions about cultural progress culture.
and evolution.
Darwin’s theory of evolution and its influence on Important Anthropologists and their Work:
biological anthropology.
Questions about cultural progress and evolution. Late Nineteenth Century: Armchair Anthropology and
Comparative Study
Classification of phases of Anthropology: 1. Sir Edward Tylor: First definition of culture.
T.K. Penniman was a British anthropologist who wrote the 2. Sir James Frazer: Comparative study of religion.
book A Hundred Years of Anthropology in 1935. In this
Early Twentieth Century: Evolution, Functionalism,
book, he proposed a four-part model for the history of
and Cultural Relativism
anthropology, which is still widely used today.
1. Lewis Henry Morgan: Cultural evolution,
The four phases of anthropology are: comparative method.
1. Formulatory period (before 1835): This period is 2. Bronislaw Malinowski: Functionalism, holism,
characterized by the collection of data on human participant observation.
cultures and societies, but there is little attempt to
3. Franz Boas: Cultural relativism, historical
analyze or interpret this data. For example, the work of
particularism, advocacy.
James Cook and Charles Darwin in the 18th and 19th
centuries falls into this category. 4. Margaret Mead: Personality and culture, cultural
constructionism, public anthropology.
2. Convergent period (1835-1859): Development of the
first theories in anthropology, as scholars begin to 5. Ruth Benedict: Personality and culture, national
compare and contrast different cultures. For example, character studies.
the work of Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan in 6. Zora Neale Hurston: Black culture, women’s roles,
the 19th century falls into this category. ethnographic novels.
3. Constructive period (1859-1900): This period sees the Mid- and Late Twentieth Century and Early Twenty-
development of the four subfields of anthropology. For First Century: Diverse Approaches
example, the work of Franz Boas and Alfred L. Kroeber
1. Claude Lévi-Strauss: Symbolic analysis, French
in the early 20th century falls into this category.
structuralism.
4. Critical period (1900-present): New theoretical
2. Beatrice Medicine: Native American anthropology.
approaches in anthropology, as scholars begin to
question the assumptions of earlier work. For example, 3. Eleanor Leacock: Anthropology of colonialism and
the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss and Margaret Mead indigenous peoples.
in the mid-20th century falls into this category. 4. Marvin Harris: Cultural materialism, comparison,
theory building.
8
Some other classifications: 5. Mary Douglas: Symbolic anthropology.
Franz Boas (1858-1942) divided the history of
6. Michelle Rosaldo: Feminist anthropology.
anthropology into three periods: ethnological (18th-
19th centuries), culture-historical (early 20th 7. Clifford Geertz: Interpretive anthropology, thick
century), and relativistic (mid-20th century). description of local culture.
Alfred L. Kroeber (1876-1960) divided the history of 8. Laura Nader: Legal anthropology, “studying up”.
anthropology into four periods: pre-scientific (before 9. George Marcus: Critique of culture, critique of
1860), evolutionary (1860-1920), historical-cultural cultural anthropology.
(1920-1950), and modern (1950-present). 10. Gilbert Herdt: Gay anthropology.
Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) divided the history of
anthropology into two periods: positivist (19th-20th
centuries) and interpretive (mid-20th century- Phase Dates Characteristics
present).
Formulatory Before 1835 Data collection, little analysis
or interpretation
Do you know? Convergent 1835-1859 Development of first theo-
ries, comparison of cultures
The discipline of anthropology was finally
established as a distinct discipline with Edward Constructive 1859-1900 Development of four
B. Tylor assuming the chair of anthropology at subfields, new research
the Oxford University. methods
In India, S. C. Roy, the first Indian ethnographer, Critical 1900-present Development of new theo-
is regarded as ‘father of Indian anthropology’. retical approaches,
questioning of assumption

Relationships with other disciplines:

A. Similarities and Differences between History and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines study the past. History focuses on answering questions about the causes of certain
Matter events in the past, while anthropology aims to understand the past as
a part of the evolution of human beings, their institutions, cultures, and
civilization.
Scope Both rely on evidence-based History often deals with important people and famous incidents, while
investigation. anthropology considers society as a whole and gives equal importance
to all human beings, regardless of status.
Approach Both use a variety of methods, The scope of anthropology in time and scale is wider than history, while
including participant observation, the depth of history in understanding detailed events can be said to be
interviewing, and archival research. higher.
Conclusion History can provide anthropology with a chronological framework for understanding the past, while
anthropology can provide history with a deeper understanding of the cultures and societies of the past.

Examples:
Historical Study:
Event: The French Revolution.
Method: Examination of archival documents, letters, political pamphlets, and official records to understand the causes,
progress, and impact of the revolution.
Anthropological Study:
Community: The Yanomami people in the Amazon.
Method: Ethnographic fieldwork, participant observation, interviews with community members, and analysis of material
culture to understand their social organization, rituals, and daily life.
9
 B. Similarities and Differences between Economics and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Economics is a normative theory, while anthropology is a descriptive
Matter with the production, distribution, social science. This means that economics specifies how people
and consumption of goods and should act if they want to make efficient economic decisions, while
services. anthropology analyzes what people actually do and why they do it.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Economics focuses primarily on market exchanges, while anthropology
methods, including participant encompasses the production, exchange, and consumption of both
observation, interviewing, and material objects and immaterial services.
archival research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested Economic anthropologists dispute the idea of “rational economic man,”
in understanding the behavior of while economists generally accept this idea. Economic anthropologists
economic agents. argue that social, cultural, political, and institutional forces shape
everyday decisions, while economists believe that individuals are
primarily motivated by self-interest.
Social anthropologists are not scientifically interested in the operation
of the economy of one’s own society, while economists are extremely
interested in the operation of their own economy. This is because
economists believe that understanding the economy of their society is
essential for making informed economic decisions.

Conclusion Economics can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding economic behavior,
while anthropology can provide economics with a more nuanced understanding of the social and cultural
factors that shape economic behavior.

Examples:
Economics Study:
Topic: The impact of minimum wage laws on employment.
Method: Statistical analysis of employment data before and after the implementation of minimum wage increases to
determine their effects on job creation and wages.
Anthropological Study:
Topic: The role of kinship in economic transactions in a rural community.
Method: Ethnographic fieldwork involving participant observation, interviews, and analysis of social networks to
understand how kinship ties influence economic behavior.

C. Similarities and Differences between Sociology and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned with the Sociology is typically focused on the study of modern, Western
Matter study of human societies. societies, while anthropology is more interested in the study of
traditional, non-Western societies.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of methods, Sociology tends to use quantitative methods, while anthropology
including participant observation, tends to use qualitative methods.
interviewing, and archival research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Sociology is more focused on the study of social structure, while
understanding the social and cultural anthropology is more focused on the study of culture.
factors that shape human behavior.

10
 Sociology is typically focused on understanding the present, while
anthropology is more interested in the past and the future. This
is because anthropology is concerned with understanding the
evolution of human societies, while sociology is more concerned
with understanding the current state of human societies.

Conclusion Sociology can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding social structure, while
anthropology can provide sociology with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that shape
social structure.

Examples:
Sociological Study:
Topic: The impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
Method: Surveys and statistical analysis of data from a large sample of adolescents to identify correlations between
social media use and mental health outcomes.
Anthropological Study:
Topic: Marriage rituals among the Maasai people in Kenya.
Method: Ethnographic fieldwork involving participant observation, interviews, and documentation of rituals to understand
the cultural significance and social functions of marriage practices.

D. Similarities and Differences between Psychology and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Psychology is typically focused on the study of the individual, while
Matter with the study of human behavior. anthropology is more interested in the study of the group.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Psychology tends to use quantitative methods, while anthropology
methods, including participant tends to use qualitative methods.
observation, interviewing, and
archival research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Psychology is more focused on understanding the present, while
understanding the cultural and anthropology is more interested in the past and the future. This is
social factors that shape human because psychology is concerned with understanding the development
behavior. of the individual, while anthropology is concerned with understanding
the evolution of human societies.

Conclusion Psychology can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding individual behavior,
while anthropology can provide psychology with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that
shape individual behavior.

Examples:
Psychologists might study how cultural norms impact mental health, while anthropologists investigate cultural practices
and rituals.
Clinical psychology applies psychological theories and methods to diagnose and treat mental health disorders, while
applied anthropology may work on cultural adaptation programs in international development.

11
 E. Similarities and Differences between Political Science and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned with Political science is typically focused on the study of modern,
Matter the study of human societies. Western societies, while anthropology is more interested in the
study of traditional, non-Western societies.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Political science tends to use quantitative methods, while
methods, including participant anthropology tends to use qualitative methods.
observation, interviewing, and archival
research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Political science is more focused on the study of political institutions,
understanding the political and social while anthropology is more focused on the study of culture.
factors that shape human behavior. Political science is more focused on understanding the present,
while anthropology is more interested in the past and the future.
This is because political science is concerned with understanding
the current state of political institutions, while anthropology is
concerned with understanding the evolution of political institutions.

Conclusion Political science can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding political
institutions, while anthropology can provide political science with a more nuanced understanding of the
cultural factors that shape political institutions.

Examples:
A political scientist might study how cultural values influence democratic participation, while an anthropologist might
examine how cultural practices affect social hierarchy.
Political Science applies realism or liberalism to analyze international relations, whereas, Anthropology uses structuralism
to understand the deep structures of myths in a society.

F. Similarities and Differences between Anthropology and Life Sciences

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Anthropology is a social science, while life sciences are natural sciences.
Matter with the study of living organisms. This means that anthropology is concerned with understanding the
social and cultural aspects of human behavior, while life sciences
are concerned with understanding the biological aspects of human
behavior.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Anthropology is more holistic in its approach, while life sciences
methods, including participant are more specialized. This means that anthropology is interested in
observation, interviewing, and understanding the whole person, while life sciences are interested in
archival research. understanding specific aspects of human biology.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Anthropology is more interested in understanding the past and
understanding the biological and present, while life sciences are more interested in understanding the
cultural factors that shape human present and future. This is because anthropology is concerned with
behavior. understanding the evolution of human behavior, while life sciences are
concerned with understanding the current state of human biology.

Conclusion Anthropology can provide life sciences with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that
shape human biology, while life sciences can provide anthropology with a more rigorous understanding of
the biological factors that shape human behavior.

12
Examples:
Both disciplines may study human evolution, but anthropology focuses on cultural and behavioral aspects, while life
sciences (like evolutionary biology) examine genetic and biological changes over time.
Anthropologists studying ancient civilizations might collaborate with geneticists to analyze DNA from archaeological
remains to understand population migrations.

G. Similarities and Differences between Anthropology and Medical Science:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Anthropology is a social science, while medical science is a natural science.
Matter with the study of humans. This means that anthropology is concerned with understanding the social
and cultural aspects of human health and disease, while medical science
is concerned with understanding the biological aspects of human health
and disease.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Anthropology is more holistic in its approach, while medical science is more
methods, including participant specialized. This means that anthropology is interested in understanding
observation, interviewing, and the whole person, while medical science is interested in understanding
archival research. specific aspects of human health and disease.

Approach Both disciplines are interested Anthropology is more interested in understanding the past and present,
in understanding the cultural while medical science is more interested in understanding the present and
and social factors that shape future. This is because anthropology is concerned with understanding the
human health and disease. evolution of human health and disease, while medical science is concerned
with understanding the current state of human health and disease.

Conclusion Anthropology can provide medical science with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that
shape human health and disease, while medical science can provide anthropology with a more rigorous
understanding of the biological factors that shape human health and disease.

Examples:
Geneticists studying inherited diseases and developing genetic therapies, whereas Anthropologists study traditional
medicine practices in indigenous communities.
Anthropologists apply symbolic anthropology to understand the cultural meanings of diseases, whereas Medical Science
uses biochemical pathways to explain disease mechanisms.

H. Similarities and Differences between Anthropology and Earth Sciences:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Anthropology is a social science, while earth sciences such as Geography
Matter with the study of the past. and Geology are natural sciences. This means that anthropology is
concerned with understanding the social and cultural aspects of the
natural world, while earth sciences are concerned with understanding the
physical aspects of the natural world.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Anthropology is more holistic in its approach, while earth sciences are more
methods, including participant specialized. This means that anthropology is interested in understanding
observation, interviewing, and the whole person, while earth sciences are interested in understanding
archival research. specific aspects of the natural world.
Approach Both disciplines are interested Anthropology is more interested in understanding the past and present,
in understanding how humans while earth sciences are more interested in understanding the past and
interact with the natural world. future. This is because anthropology is concerned with understanding
the evolution of human societies, while earth sciences are concerned with
understanding the evolution of the natural world.
13
 Conclusion Anthropology can provide earth sciences with a more nuanced understanding of the social and cultural
factors that shape the natural world, while earth sciences can provide anthropology with a more rigorous
understanding of the physical aspects of the natural world.

Examples:
Anthropologists investigate how ancient civilizations adapted to environmental changes and resource management,
similarly, Earth Scientists study past climate changes and their impact on ecosystems and human evolution.
Archaeologists study ancient civilizations and their technological advancements, whereas, Paleontologists study fossil
records to understand evolutionary history.

Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and relevance:

Four-field approach: This approach was started by Franz Boas. He provided four-field classification of anthropology: Cultural
(Social) Anthropology, Physical (Biological) Anthropology,
Archaeology and Linguistics. Biological Anthropology
Applied
Anthropology was traditionally broad, covering many Physical Anthropology, Forensic Anthropology, Anthropology
Paleoanthropology, Human Anatomy, Human Anatomy,
subjects. Now it is more specialized due to vast accumulation Human Taxonomy, Paleopathology Primatology, Ethology, Forensic
of information. Population Genetics, Human Ecology, Bioarchaeology, Anthropology
Anthropometry Cultural Resource
Two main branches: biological (physical) anthropology Manangement
and cultural (Social) anthropology. Archealogy Applied
Cultural
Cultural anthropology has three subfields: Prehistoric Archaeology, Historical Archaeology,
Anthropology
Classical Archaeology, Demographic Archaeology,
Archaeology - studies past cultures through artifacts, Biblical Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology, Underwater
fossils, remains Archaeology, Urban Archaeology, Ethnoarchaeology,
Industrial Archaeology, Cognitive Archaeology Cultural
Linguistics - studies language evolution, structure, Resource Management
usage Linguistic Anthropology
Ethnology/Cultural/Social anthropology - studies Structural Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Phonology, Morphology, Comparative
modern human cultures and societies Syntax, Ethnosemantics, Cognitive Linguistics, Pragmatics, Sociolinguistics

Applied anthropology involves application of anthropological Cultural Anthropology | Ethnology

knowledge to solve real-world problems. Ecological Anthropology, Demographic Anthropology, Economic Anthropology,
Social Anthropology, Political Anthropology, Legal Anthropology, Anthropology of
So the major fields in anthropology are physical Religion, Psychological Anthropology, Medical Anthropology, Urban Anthropology,
anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, cultural Applied Anthropology, Ethnomusicology, Anthropology of Art, Ethnopoetics,
anthropology, and applied anthropology. Specialization
has occurred due to vast growth of information.
Four-field tendecies in Anthropology ANTHROPOLOGY IS BOTH A SCIENTIFIC AND
Dee
HUMANISTIC DISCIPLINE
pen
in g Pur ing
Physical alis
m is m en Anthropology as science employs scientific methodologies
Anthropology ral De
ep
Pu
nin
g
Biological Archaeology
to explore various facets of human existence and some
de
oa
Br
Anthropology Bro
aspects of anthropology are far more firmly rooted in hard
Holism
ad
en
Bioanthropology in g
science.
Pu History art
ral
Medicine is Patrimony
m
m Empirical Research: Anthropologists often conduct
paediatrics alis
Pur
public Health fieldwork, observing and documenting human
Environments Sociolinguistic
Bro
Cultural
Linguistics Semiotics behaviour in its natural context. For example, Malinowski
Politics
ade
n Anthropology
Sociology
ing
Biological nin
g used participant observation among fieldwork in
De de
oa
Economy Anthropology ep
en
in g
Br Trobriand islanders.
ening
Deep
Interdisciplinary Approaches: Anthropology takes
the help of other scientific disciplines, such as
Figure: Forces or tendencies (arrows) experienced by the biology, geology, and genetics. For instance, Physical
four fields in Anthropology. Pluralism is the basic force anthropology shows that certain populations developed
(inwards arrows) to develop interdisciplinary studies and lactose tolerance due to a genetic mutation, a trait that
it is based in the principle of holism. The force of specific emerged in response to the cultural practice of dairy
knowledge is deepening the field (green outwards arrows). farming.
The force bringing to work in the affinity areas is knowledge
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods: While qualitative
broadening (blue arrows), this force is shaping a wider field:
research is predominant, anthropologists also employ
Bioanthropology.
quantitative methods to analyse data and draw
statistical inferences. For instance, dating methods are
14 used for the identification of fossils etc.
Anthropology as Humanistic studies provides more insight into how humans function in our societies.
Holistic cultural understanding: Anthropologists strive to comprehend the complexities of different cultures, including
their values, beliefs, and worldviews. For example, in healthcare, anthropologists have contributed to the development of
culturally sensitive and appropriate healthcare practices.
Cultural Sensitivity: Anthropologists strive to interpret cultural practices within their contexts rather than imposing
external judgments. This sensitivity is rooted in a humanistic commitment to respecting and valuing diverse ways of
life. For instance, While Greeks believed that burning the dead was the proper way to dispose of the body, the Callatians
believed that eating the dead was the correct course of action. (James Rachels 1999)
Culmination of various humanistic subjects: Anthropology took the help of various humanistic sciences in devising
concepts etc. For instance, Kroeber called anthropology and sociology as ‘twin-sisters’.
By integrating scientific rigour with humanistic insight, anthropology provides a comprehensive understanding of humanity
that respects both the objective and subjective dimensions of human life.

CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

(A) Biological or Physical Anthropology:
Evolution of the discipline
1. Definition: Physical/biological anthropology is the study
of the past and present evolution of the human species Ancient Beginnings:
and is especially concerned with understanding the Human classification originated in ancient Greece, with
Plato and Aristotle making early observations on human nature
causes of present human diversity. and anatomy.
Scope: There are three main branches of Physical
Anthropology:
Scientific Roots:
Paleontology: Formal study began in the 17th-18th centuries, with racial
Study of extinct primates (Science of Old Life). classification by scholars like Blumenbach.
Reveals foundations of human biological and
cultural evolution. Craniometry and Environment:
Neontology: 19th-century anthropologists focused on craniometry (Broca) and
Study of living primates and human variation the impact of environment on the human
body (Virchow).
(Science of New Life).
Examines comparative anatomy, physiology,
genetics, and adaptation. Cultural Influence:
Franz Boas emphasized cultural impact on human form,
Ethology: challenging fixed “racial" traits.
Scientific study of animal behavior, including
primates.
Combines knowledge of behavior with language "New Physical Anthropology":
In 1951, Washburn shied focus to human evolution, expanding
development and cultural capacity. to paleoanthropology and primatology.
Relevance:
Helps trace the origin and evolution of human
Modern Advancements:
species and its varieties 20th-century synthesis of evolution and genetics, DNA
Provides insights into human migration patterns understanding, and chronological dating enriched the field.
and genetic relationships
Studies adaptations to differing environments
Analyzes hereditary characteristics of human The Journey from Physical to Biological Anthropology
populations 1. Physical Anthropology (Early Stage): Focused
Contributes to individual characterization, including on anatomical observations, measurements, and
age and sex determination. classifications during the early development of
human anatomy as a science.
Applies knowledge of osteology, dermatoglyphics,
and serology for forensic analysis. 2. New Physical Anthropology (1951): Introduced
by Washburn, this marked a shift towards an
Assists in analyzing human body form, function,
evolutionary study and a more analytical approach.
and growth dynamics
It emphasized understanding complex features and
Useful in medical and industrial research related to their interrelated factors.
human physical characteristics.
3. Biological Anthropology (Modern Stage):
Advancements in genetics and biology led to the
integration of genetic, biochemical, and physiological
perspectives. This expanded the scope, allowing for a
comprehensive understanding of human diversities. 15
 CASE STUDY

Biological anthropology and emerging diseases

Biological anthropology takes into account cultural, social, and behavioral dimensions of health and disease. It sees
beyond the established factorial model of disease.
For example, during COVID-19 pandemic, in Serbia, cultural thought process was studied to understand vaccine
refusal. While some thought that the illness did not exist, others were holding on to the myth that leading a healthy
lifestyle would not expose them to any infections (Žikić, B, 2022)

CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

(B) Socio-Cultural Anthropology:
Definition and Meaning: Socio-cultural anthropology is Evolution of the discipline
the study of social behavior and human societies, with a
focus on systematic comparative analysis of social forms 1. Ethnology (Late 18th Century):
and institutions. Scholars like Sir Edward Tylor and
Comparative study of human
Scope: cultures and societies. Lewis Henry Morgan contributed to
1. Detailed study of various aspects of ancient societies. the development of ethnology.
2. Understanding the customs, traditions, religious, and Ethnography (19th Century):
political institutions of human societies.
3. Study of social structures and the relationships Detailed, systematic study of Anthropologists like Bronisław
between individuals and social institutions. a specific culture or society. Malinowski & Franz Boasemphasized
ethnographic research.
4. Comparative analysis of different cultures to eliminate
ethnocentrism.
Social Anthropology (Late 19th to Early 20th Century - Britain):
5. Investigation of culture contact and its processes.
6. Reconstruction of social history. Study of social behavior Anthropologists like A.R. Radcliffe-Brown
and institutions in human and E.E. Evans-Pritchard were key figures
7. Search for universally valid social laws.
societies. in the establishment of social anthropology
Relevance:
1. Provides insights into diverse human cultures and Cultural Anthropology (Early 20th Century - United States):
societies.
Study of cultural traditions, Prominent figures like Franz Boas and
2. Helps understand the origin and development of social beliefs, and customs in Margaret Mead contributed to the
organizations. societies. development of cultural anthropology in
3. Allows comparisons between different societies, the United States
enabling a broader understanding of human behavior.
Socio-cultural Anthropology (20th Century):
4. Offers perspectives on the complex interactions
between culture, society, and individual behavior. Integrated approach Scholars like Clifford Geertz and
5. Helps counter ethnocentrism and promote cultural combining social and Claude Lévi-Strauss played significant roles
understanding and tolerance. cultural aspects. in promoting a socio-cultural perspective.
6. Contributes to social development and policymaking,
especially in multicultural societies.
7. Facilitates the preservation of vanishing social systems
and traditions.

(C) Archaeological Anthropology: How Does Archaeology relate with Anthropology?

Archaeological anthropology is the study of past
humans and cultures through material remains. It I can obtain material facts directly from the past
and i can study those facts in their
involves the excavation, analysis and interpretation of chronological order
artifacts, soils, and cultural processes.
I can write books
Branches of Archaeological Anthropology: ab out how people I can examine
behave modern &
1. Pre-Historic Archaeological Anthropology: Studies ancient DNA.
cultures before the development of writing.
2. Text-Aided Archaeological Anthropology: Focuses on
16 ancient civilizations with written records.
3. Text-Free Archaeological Anthropology: Concerned
with non-literate societies. “Ancient Horseman Syndrome: Unraveling the First
Horseback Riders in History”
4. Salvage Archaeological Anthropology: Rescues and
gathers information from threatened sites. Archaeologists found skeletal evidence of “horseman
syndrome,” indicating early horseback riding in
Scope: kurgans across eastern Europe. The remains analyzed
1. Reconstructing past cultures and tracing their belonged to the Yamnaya people, dating back to
development over time. around 3000 B.C.E. The syndrome involves changes
2. Analyzing material remains to understand ancient to the thigh bones, pelvis, and lower spine, resulting
societies and human behavior. from repeated movements during horse riding. The
discovery provides crucial insights into the early use
3. Studying prehistoric periods and cultures before the
of horses by humans and their historical interactions
advent of writing.
with these animals.
4. Utilizing written accounts for understanding ancient
civilizations.
5. Investigating non-literate societies in Old and New
World archaeology.
Relevance:
Enhancing our knowledge of human history and
cultural evolution.
Fostering cultural identity and connecting communities
to their heritage.
Providing insights into ancient human adaptation to
environmental changes.
Enriching the field of anthropology with valuable
historical data. An Egyptian graffito of goddess Astarte on horseback, Nineteenth
Promoting preservation efforts and appreciation of Dynasty Egypt. This depiction dates about 1500 years later than
the Yamnaya riders. Note particularly the rather stockily built,
cultural heritage.
smaller, and shorter horse when compared to modern horse.
Credit: S. Steiß, Berlin

Role of archaeological anthropology in the reconstruction of the past:

Construction of cultural chronologies: By examining and dating artefacts, structures, and ecofacts recovered
from archaeological sites, anthropologists can establish a sequence of events and cultural changes over time. For
instance, de Terra and Patterson excavated the Sonian tradition, collecting stone artifacts from various terraces.
Using stratigraphical and typological considerations, they established the Soan culture sequence, which includes the
Pre-Soan, Early Soan, Late Soan, and Evolved Soan stages.
Reconstruction of extinct lifeways: Archaeological anthropology yields important insights into extinct lifeways. By
meticulously examining the material remains of past societies, archaeologists can piece together a comprehensive
picture of how people lived, worked, and interacted with their environment. For instance, the identification of various
artefacts in IVC such as the Proto-shiva seal, and the Great Bath, give insight into the religious life of IVC people.
Insights into interplay of biological and cultural factors: Archaeological anthropology uncovers the complex interplay
between biology and culture over time by examining material remains, revealing how human biology has been shaped
by cultural practices and environmental factors. For instance, Neolithic revolution led to shift to a diet based on
softer, cultivated foods leading to softer chewing muscles, smaller jawbones and teeth.
Insights into variations in human behaviour:- Archeological anthropology allows researchers to trace the evolution
of technology, cultural exchanges, and environmental adaptations. For example, the recognition that the Acheulean
tradition is not uniformly repeated at La Micoque (Micoquian).
Understanding ideological aspects of past societies: Lewis Binford’s work on “mortuary analysis” emphasised the
relationship between burial practices and social organisation, highlighting how Archaeological Anthropology can
reveal the ideological aspects of past societies.

17
 CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

(D) Linguistic Anthropology:

Evolution of the discipline
Definition and Meaning:
Linguistic anthropology is the study of speech and 1. Anthropological Linguistics (Pre-1950s):
language as socio-cultural phenomena across space
1. Pioneers like Franz Boas and
and time. 1. Focused on language
Edward Sapir emphasized cultural
origin and classification.
It goes beyond linguistics by exploring language within diversity and linguistic relativity.
its cultural and social contexts.
Linguists focus on language history, structure, variation,
and meaning apart from social and cultural aspects. Shift to Linguistic Anthropology (1950s):

Branches of Linguistic Anthropology: 1. Field transitioned to 1. Dell Hymes and Charles Hockett
studying language within contributed with concepts like
1. Historical Linguistics: Studies language emergence, communicative competence and
cultural contexts.
divergence, and evolutionary development from local language universals.
to world languages.
2. Structural Linguistics: Analyzes the rules governing
language construction, including sound systems, Contemporary Linguistic Anthropology:
grammar, and meaning. 1. Incorporates 1. Explores topics such as Universal
3. Socio Linguistics: Examines actual speech in different interdisciplinary approaches Grammar, language endangerment,
social and situational contexts, revealing how people to language research. revitalization, and globalization.
categorize experiences and order social relations.
4. Ethnosemantics: Explores how people perceive and
classify material and social phenomena based on their “ The Whistling Language of La Gomera: An
cultural criteria. Anthropological Endeavor to Preserve Silbo Gomero “
5. Psycholinguistics: Investigates the processes
underlying language acquisition and use.
Scope and Relevance:
Linguistic anthropologists employ specialized
techniques to reconstruct language history and
relationships.
They analyze languages spoken across diverse
cultures, revealing cultural aspects tied to speech.
Understanding the role of language in human life and
its connection to cultural processes is a significant
focus.
Linguistic anthropology contributes to cultural Archaeologists found skeletal evidence of “horseman
anthropology’s comprehension of language syndrome,” indicating early horseback riding in
transmission, idea dissemination, and cultural kurgans across eastern Europe. The remains analyzed
preservation. belonged to the Yamnaya people, dating back to
around 3000 B.C.E. The syndrome involves changes
to the thigh bones, pelvis, and lower spine, resulting
CASE STUDY from repeated movements during horse riding. The
discovery provides crucial insights into the early use
of horses by humans and their historical interactions
William Labov’s studies on linguistic change
with these animals.
in Philadelphia demonstrate how social factors
influence the adoption of new language forms.
Labov found that the linguistic variable (r) was
an indicator of social stratification in New York.
Overall, the employees with higher socioeconomic
status pronounced the rhotic /r/ more frequently.
Variations in pronunciation can spread across
social groups, eventually becoming the standard.

18
 Invention of writing allowed recording and
HUMAN EVOLUTION AND EMERGENCE OF dissemination of knowledge.
MAN
c. Social Organization:
Kinship and reciprocal altruism: Formation of
(A) Biological and Cultural factors in human social bonds based on genetic relatedness and
evolution: cooperation.
The hominization process marks the evolutionary Social hierarchies: Establishment of dominance
transformation from prehominid to hominid status during and leadership structures for cohesion.
human evolution. Hominization signify a crucial threshold Long-term pair bonding and nuclear families:
that prehumans had to cross to become human. This Provided a stable social structure for offspring.
process involves significant anatomical, physiological,
and behavioral changes. These changes can be broadly d. Art, Symbolism, and Rituals:
categorized into: Cave paintings and portable art: Early evidence of
symbolic thought and abstract representation.
A. Biological Factors in Human Evolution: Rituals and ceremonies: Facilitated group bonding
a. Genetic Mutations: and cultural transmission.
FOXP2 gene: Associated with speech and language Music and dance: Enabled emotional expression
development. and communication of cultural identity.
Lactase persistence: Enables the digestion of
lactose in adulthood. Important Biological factors in detail:
AMY1 gene: Related to the production of amylase, 1. Bipedalism:
aiding starch digestion.
Analysis of A. africanus, A. afarensis, A. ramidus, and
b. Natural Selection: A. anamensis fossils shows bipedalism as one of the
Bipedalism: Advantages in energy efficiency, oldest hominid characteristics.
thermoregulation, and tool use. The appearance of australopithecines like A. ramidus
Enlarged brain size: Increased cognitive abilities around 4.4 million years ago marks a significant step
and problem-solving skills. in hominization.
Skin pigmentation: Adaptation to UV radiation,
sunburn protection, and vitamin D synthesis.
“ The footprints of our predecessors “
c. Sexual Selection:
Facial and body hair reduction: Possibly linked to
reduced parasite loads.
Permanent breast size: May signal fertility and
reproductive potential.
Long-term pair bonding: Facilitated provisioning of
resources and parental care.
d. Gene-Culture Coevolution:
Dairy farming and lactase persistence: Spread of
dairy farming led to lactase persistence.
Agriculture and amylase gene copy number: Rise
of agriculture favored individuals with more amylase
gene copies.
Cooking and jaw size: Advent of cooking led to a
reduction in jaw size.
3.6 million years ago in Laetoli, Tanzania, three early
B. Cultural Factors in Human Evolution: humans walked through wet volcanic ash. When the
a. Tool Use and Technology: nearby volcano erupted again, subsequent layers of
Oldowan tools: Early stone tools for cutting and ash covered and preserved the oldest known footprints
processing food. of early humans. The footprints show a “heel-strike”
Acheulean handaxes: Advanced bifacial tools for and “toe-off” gait similar to modern humans. The close
butchery and woodworking. spacing suggests they had short legs. These footprints
Controlled use of fire: Enabled cooking and are the oldest known evidence of early human
expanded dietary options. locomotion and behavior. Fossils of Australopithecus
afarensis found nearby further confirm their presence
b. Language and Communication: in the area at the time of the footprints’ formation.
Ability to represent objects and concepts abstractly. 19
 2. Hand Manipulation and Tool Use: 5. Changes in Vocal Tracts, Language, and Speech:
A. afarensis displayed hand proportions more similar Hominid supralaryngeal airways evolved differently
to humans than apes, suggesting increased manual from other primates, allowing complex speech patterns.
dexterity. The region surrounding the sylvian fissure of the left
Evidence of modified stone tools dating back 2 million hemisphere contains areas specialized for speech and
years found with Homo habilis indicates early tool use language, which evolved around 1.8 million years ago.
and making.
MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS IN HUMAN EVOLUTION
Power and Precsion grip
-4.2 m.y. bipedalism
Power grip
-2.5 m.y. early tools
Note the Following
-400 000 y early burials
Power grip: Fingers
& thumbs wrap around
the object
-35 000 y artistic expressions

Precision grip:
Forefingers and thumb
hold the object. (B) Theories of Organic Evolution:
Importance: Organic evolution, also known as biological evolution,
We can do finer
work compared to refers to the process of change and diversification of
Precision Grip nonhumanprimates. living organisms over successive generations. Organic
evolution is a fundamental concept in biology and provides
3. Modification of Jaws and Teeth: the framework for understanding the diversity of life on
Hominid dental morphology, with a gradual reduction Earth and the relationships between different species
in cusp height and sizes of teeth, indicates adaptation through common ancestry.
to changing habitats. Pre-Darwinian Theories of evolution:
Climatic changes around 2.5 million years ago 1. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis:
influenced hominids like Paranthropus, resulting in
Ancient belief that life arose from non-living matter.
larger cheek teeth for processing low-quality food.
Disproved by Redi, Spallanzani, and Pasteur.
Dentition 2. Theory of Eternity of Present Condition:
APE LAETOLI-HADAR HOMNID Proposes the unchangeableness of the universe.
Dental arcade & diastema Australopithecus & Homo
Incisors
Organisms remain unaltered and will continue
Canine unchanged.

Premolars
3. Theory of Special Creation or Creationism:
Living organisms were created by divine power in
Molars six days.
Organisms remain unchanged since their creation.
Chimpanzee upper A. afarensis upper Human upper 4. Theory of Catastrophism:
jaw jaw jaw
Earth subjected to periodic catastrophes that
Comparison of dentition in ape, uman, and A. afarensis plates destroyed and created new life forms.
5. Lamarckism:
4. Enlargement of Brain:
Proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck.
Brain evolution progressed alongside other changes in Four Principles:
hominids. H. habilis exhibited a significant increase in
a. Internal urge: Organisms tend to increase in
brain volume compared to australopithecines.
size and every part up to its function.
Relative and absolute brain sizes increased during b. Direct environment and new desires: Organs
hominid evolution between 4 to 2 million years ago, form as a response to new desires.
suggesting the hominization
c. Use and disuse: Organ development is
proportional to its use or disuse.
d. Inheritance of acquired characters: Changes
acquired during life are inherited.
Criticism of Lamarckism:
Many principles were proven incorrect.
The inheritance of acquired characters was refuted by
Austalopithecus Homo Homo Homo Homo
20 africanus habilis erectus neanderthalis sapiens experiments.
 Changes in somatic cells do not affect heredity, only chances.
changes in reproductive cells do. e. Modifications of Species: Gradual modifications
6. Neo-Lamarckism: occur over long periods of geological time.
Neo-Lamarckism is a modified version of Lamarckism Criticism of Darwinism:
developed by a group of evolutionary biologists. Neo- Lack of mechanistic explanation for variation and
Lamarckism suggests that acquired traits can be inherited heredity.
by subsequent generations, contrary to Darwin’s theory of
Inability to explain the origin of useless or non-adaptive
natural selection which emphasizes inherited variations.
organs.
Some evidences for inheritance of acquired characters: Difficulty explaining overspecialized organs and
i. McDougall’s experiments with rats: Rats were trained degeneracy of certain characters.
to escape from a tank with electric shocks. Their Doubt regarding the intensity of the struggle for
offspring showed increased learning speed, suggesting existence.
the learning habit was inherited.
Questioning the idea that superiority or inferiority is
ii. Kammerer’s experiments with Proteus anguinus: This solely due to specific characteristics.
blind amphibian developed normal eyes and skin color
when exposed to daylight. These somatic characters Ecology
were inherited by the next generation. Observation 1
Populations have the
iii. Griffith and Detleofson’s experiments with rats: Rats potential to increase
Inference 1
placed on a rotating table for months adapted to exponentially. Not all offspring that are produced survive
& reproduce, because of a struggle
the condition and exhibited signs of dizziness. The but for resources
Observation 2
offspring also showed dizziness and irregular gait, and
Populations generally
indicating inheritance of acquired traits. remains stable once they Inference 2
reach a certain size Some individuals are more likely to survive
iv. Sumner’s experiments with white mice: Exposure to and reproduce than others because of
and
higher temperatures led to increased length of body, their herritable traits.
Observation 3
hind limbs, and tail in mice, and this character was Natural resources are
transmitted to their offspring. limited

Heredity Inference 3
Criticism of Neo-Lamarckism:
Differences in survival and reproduction
Observation 4
Lack of mechanistic explanation for the inheritance of among individuals are non- random,
Individuals in a with some traits being passed on at a
acquired characteristics. population are not higher rate than others and increasing
identical, they vary in in proportion in the population from one
Insufficient empirical evidence supporting the many Characteristics generation to the next.

transmission of acquired traits to offspring. and

Evolution
Observation 2 by natural selection
Contradiction with the principles of modern genetics
Many charateristics are
and inheritance. heritable (i.e., are
passed on from parent
Emphasis on natural selection as the prevailing to offspring)
mechanism of evolution.
Conclusion: Neo-Lamarckism lacks substantial evidence
6. Neo-Darwinism:
and a mechanistic basis, and it is not widely accepted in
the scientific community. The theory of evolution that fuses Darwin’s concept
of natural selection with information from the fields of
7. Darwinism: genetics mathematics, embryology, paleontology, animal
Darwin’s Voyage and Observations: behavior, and other disciplines.
HMS Beagle expedition from 1831 to 1833.
Malthusian Variation Mutation
Important findings in the Galapagos Islands, a living competition (breeds, races, (small changes in
(geometric population subspecies) individual characteristics)
laboratory of evolution. growth, limited resources)

Five Principles of Darwinism: 19th Centure

a. Prodigality of Overproduction: More individuals are
born than can survive. Natural selection Genetic variation Mendelian
("survival of the fittest") (alleles of individual genes, inheritance
b. Variation and Heredity: Natural variation among combining to give
continuous variation)
(2 copies of each gene,
1 from each parent)
individuals and hereditary transmission.
c. Struggle for Existence: Three-fold struggle-
intraspecific, interspecific, and with the
environment. Early 20th Centure
Modern
d. Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with favorable synthesis
traits have better survival and reproduction 21
 Transition to Neo-Darwinism:
DARWINISM
VERSUS
Efforts to rejuvenate and modify Darwin’s views by
later scientists.
NEO DARWINISM Contributions of Neo-Darwinists like Weismann,
DARWINISM NEO DARWINISM Huxley, and Wallace.
Evidences Supporting Neo-Darwinism:
A modern version of Darwin's
The theory of the evolution of Fossils: Geology and paleontology show gradual
theory of evolution by natural
species by natural selection changes in life forms over geological time.
selection, incorporating the
advanced by Charles Darwin
findings of geneties Embryonic Similarities: Embryos of related species
reveal similarities reflecting evolutionary history.
A modification based on the Adaptations in Living Organisms: Examples of
The original theory Mendelian genetics and modern
structural variations and behaviors advantageous
synthesis of natural selection
for survival.
Major Driving Force: Major Driving Force: Difference between Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism:
Accumulation of phenotypic Accumulation of genetic Evolution, as per modern synthesis, can be expressed
variations variations
simply as a change in frequencies of alleles in the
Describes the reason for gene pool of a population. The modern theory of the
Does not describe the reason variation as mutation, genetic mechanism of evolution differs from Darwinism in the
for variation recombination, natural selection, following three significant aspects:
and reproductive isolation i. It recognises several forces of evolution in addition
to natural selection, of which gene drift is equally
Natural Selection: Natural Selection: important.
The survival of the fittest and The differential amplification
the removal of the unfitted ii. It recognises that characteristics are inherited as
of the fittest genes and
organisms during a course of discrete entities known as genes and that variation
genotypes
time within a population is due to the presence of
multiple alleles of a gene.
Does not believe isolation as a Believes isolation as a major
iii. It suggests that formation of new species is usually
major component of evolution component of evolution
due to the gradual accumulation of small genetic
changes.

22
Value Addition: Industrial Revolution:
1. The Galápagos Finches: A Case Study in Darwinism: Environmental Change: Industrial pollution
Background: darkened the tree bark by killing the lichen, making
the light-colored moths more visible to predators.
Charles Darwin’s observations of finches on the
Galápagos Islands during his voyage on the HMS Rise of the Dark Morph: The dark-colored
Beagle provided critical evidence for his theory of carbonaria morph, previously rare, became more
natural selection. These finches, now known as common as it provided better camouflage against
Darwin’s finches, exhibit a variety of beak shapes and the soot-darkened trees.
sizes adapted to different ecological niches. Genetic Basis:
Observations: Mutation: The dark coloration in peppered moths
Beak Variation: Darwin noted significant variation is due to a single gene mutation. The allele for dark
in beak shapes among the finches, correlating with coloration is dominant, while the allele for light
their food sources. For example, finches with large, coloration is recessive.
strong beaks were able to crack open large seeds, Allele Frequency: The frequency of the dark allele
while those with slender, pointed beaks were better increased in polluted areas due to the survival
suited for eating insects. advantage it conferred.
Adaptive Radiation: The finches had diversified Post-Industrial Revolution:
from a common ancestor into multiple species, Environmental Recovery: With pollution control
each adapted to different ecological roles. This measures, the environment began to revert to
phenomenon, known as adaptive radiation, is a its pre-industrial state, favoring the light-colored
hallmark of Darwinian evolution. morph once again. The frequency of the light
Mechanism: allele increased as the trees regained their lichen
Natural Selection: The variation in beak shape covering.
provided some individuals with a survival advantage Implications for Neo-Darwinism:
in specific environments. Finches with beak shapes Genetic Variation: The existence of different color
better suited to available food sources were more morphs in the moth population provided the raw
likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their material for natural selection to act upon.
advantageous traits to the next generation.
Natural Selection: Environmental changes directly
Environmental Influence: The diverse environments influenced which morphs were more likely to survive
of the Galápagos Islands, with varying food and reproduce, demonstrating natural selection.
sources, exerted selective pressures that drove the
Reversibility: The shift back to light-colored moths
diversification of beak shapes.
with environmental recovery illustrates the dynamic
Conclusion: nature of evolutionary processes in response to
The Galápagos finches exemplify Darwin’s principle changing conditions.
of natural selection. The adaptive radiation observed Conclusion:
among the finches underscores how environmental
The case studies of the Galápagos finches and the
pressures can lead to the evolution of distinct species
peppered moths illustrate the principles of Darwinism
from a common ancestor.
and Neo-Darwinism. The finches demonstrate adaptive
radiation and natural selection as envisioned by Darwin,
while the peppered moths highlight the integration
2. The Peppered Moth: A Case Study in Neo- of genetics with natural selection, central to Neo-
Darwinism: Darwinism. Both examples underscore the importance
Background: of environmental pressures in shaping evolutionary
The peppered moth (Biston betularia) is a classic trajectories and provide compelling evidence for the
example of natural selection in response to mechanisms of evolution.
environmental changes, integrating principles of
genetics with Darwinian theory.
Pre-Industrial Revolution: CLIFF NOTE
Light Morph Dominance: Before the Industrial
Revolution, the light-colored typica morph of the
peppered moth was predominant. Their coloration
provided camouflage against predators on lichen-
covered trees.
23
 (C). Brief outline of terms and concepts of (b) Cope’s Rule:
evolutionary biology: Cope’s Rule, proposed by Edward Drinker Cope, states
(a) Dollo’s Rule(Irreversibility): that organisms tend to increase in size during evolution.
In 1893, Louis Dollo, a palaeontologist, proposed Dollo’s Examples of Size Increase
Law of Irreversibility. Gigantism in Herbivores: Evolution of camel, horse,
Definition: Once an organism undergoes certain etc.
evolutionary stages, it cannot return to previously Other Examples: Crocodiles, tortoises, and dinosaurs
expressed forms. Exceptions to Cope’s Rule
New form Flying Bats: Size limitations due to flight requirements
Mammalian Lineages: Not all show gigantism
Insectivorous Mammals: Physical constraints on size
Reasons for Size Increase
Survival in Ice Ages: Large size conserves heat
Fecundity in Egg-laying Mammals: More offspring with
larger bodies
Examples of Exceptions:
Improbable Decline in Size: Carnivores in Pliocene and Pleistocene
reverse
evolution
Planktonic Foraminifera: Newer species are smaller
Cope’s Rule holds true for many examples, but exceptions
highlight diverse evolutionary trends.

Old form
Recent

Irreversibility in Structures Foreleg

If a structure changes during evolution, it will not revert Tooth
back to its earlier form.
Pleistocene

Equus
Dentition as an Example
In primate evolution, dentition (teeth) is used as crucial
evidence of ancestral or descendant status between
forms. 3 million yr.ago
Once a tooth of a specific series (e.g., incisor, canine, Pliohippus
premolar, molar) is lost in a form, it does not reappear
Pilocene

in the same series in that form.

Irreversibility as a Descriptive Generalization 3 million yr.ago
Irreversibility is a descriptive generalization and not a
law of nature.
It is not a property of living organisms but a pattern
observed in evolutionary changes.
Miocene

Repeated Structures in Evolution

Although certain structures may not revert, similar
structures or adaptive patterns can arise independently Merychippus
in different lineages in the evolutionary record. 25 Million yr. ago
For example, after flying reptiles became extinct, wings Miohippus
Oligocene

and adaptations to airborne life evolved separately in

birds and mammals.
Conclusion
Dollo’s Law of Irreversibility highlights the one-way 40 million yr. ago
nature of evolutionary changes in organisms.
Eocene

While structures may not return to previous forms,

evolution can lead to the development of similar
adaptations in different lineages. Eohippus 60 million yr. ago
24
(C) Gause’s Rule: Parallelism Old World
Gause’s Rule, also known as the Competitive Exclusion and New World
Principle, posits that when two species compete for limited monkeys had a
common origin in
resources within an ecosystem, they cannot coexist at Africa. Aer raing to
constant population values. One species with even a slight South America, the
advantage will dominate in the long term, leading to either New World monkeys
evolved along lines
the extinction of the weaker competitor or a shift to a
similar to those of Old
different ecological niche. World monkeys
because of the
Competition within Ecosystems:
common origin and
Species at the same trophic level compete for similarities in
resources like food, space, light, or shelter. ecological niches.
To minimize competition, species occupy separate
niches.
Strongly overlapping niches can lead to one species’
decline and eventual extinction, observed in laboratory
conditions like Paramecium Aurelia and P. Caudatum.
Survival of the Fittest:
Gause’s Rule supports “the survival of the fittest.”
Species with superior adaptive traits have a higher
chance of survival and dominance.
Weaker competitors are gradually eliminated,
promoting natural selection.
Application to Humans:
The principle applies to human societies.
Hunter-gatherer groups may engage in conflict when
surrounded by similar groups, but coexist peacefully
with different subsistence-based groups.
Universal Acceptance and Organic Evolution:
Gause’s Rule is widely accepted and offers insights into
organic evolution.
adaptive features in animals that are related, such as
It emphasizes the struggle for existence and natural
those belonging to the same order. These resemblances
selection.
likely result from a shared genetic potential present
Competitive Exclusion in Paramecia throughout the group.
In separate containers In container Example: Brachiation, locomotion by swinging arm over
arm through the trees in some monkeys of both old
world and new world and in certain apes.
Relative poulation

Convergence: Convergence occurs when similar

density

adaptive relationships or structures emerge in two

P. aurelia P. aurelia animal species or major groups that are not closely
P. caudatum P. caudatum related.
Example: Tasmanian wolf and Gray wolf of America.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Days Days

(D) Parallelism & Convergence:

In the study of evolutionary biology, similarities in
Tasmanian wolf
structures, behaviors, or adaptive relationships among Gray wolf
different animal groups raise intriguing questions. These
similarities may be examples of parallelism or convergence,
indicating whether a close phylogenetic relationship exists
between organisms or not. Understanding these concepts
and distinguishing between them can shed light on the Sperm whale
evolutionary history of various species.
The similarities between the Tasmanian wolf and the gray
Parallelism and Convergence Defined: wolf result from convergent evolution. Actually, the gray wolf is more
closely related to the sperm whale. 25
Parallelism: This refers to the development of similar
 Homologous and Analogous Structures:
Examples of Adaptive Radiation:
Homologous: Structures related by evolutionary
descent and divergence. For example, the wing of a Mammals: During the geological revolution marking
bat and the forelimb of a monkey are homologous, the end of the Mesozoic era, mammals experienced
originating from the same ancestral structure. adaptive radiation. As previously stable climates
Analogous: Structures with similar functions and forms changed, dinosaurs became extinct, while mammals
but not related by descent from the same ancestral diversified into distinct lines. Rodents specialized
structure. For instance, the wing of a bat and the wing for gnawing, carnivores for hunting, hoofed animals
of a butterfly are analogous. for grazing, primates and sloths took to the trees,
whales, seals, and sea cows adapted to life in the
oceans, and bats took to the air.
Primates on Madagascar: Isolated from monkeys
The wings of the and apes, earlier primates on the island of
butterfly, the bird, and Madagascar underwent adaptive radiation. They
Bat the bat are analogous occupied new niches and evolved into various
structures. They serve
species with contrasting dietary habits, such
the same function,
flying, but were as insect-eating, seed-eating, leaf-eating, and
Butterfly independently evolved in omnivorous genera.
different evolutionary Galápagos Finches: The finches of the Galápagos
lines.
Islands provide a classic example of adaptive
radiation. A single mainland species evolved into
13 new species upon reaching the islands, each
Bird adapting to specific niches, resulting in distinctive
characteristics and new species.

Perhaps thinking of parallelism as homologous evolution

and convergence as analogous evolution would help us
distinguish the two processes.
Homology Parallelism Convergence Analogy

Ancestor
Ancestor had initial More
had the feature that distant No known
same led to later common common
feature similarity ancestor ancestor

(E) Adaptive Radiation:

Definition: Adaptive radiation refers to the rapid increase
in the numbers and diversity of any evolving group Gene mutation Natural
selection
Hybridization
Genetic Adabtative
New
Chromosomal changes
Species
of animals. It occurs when a group of animals, such as Recombination of genes
Reproductive
isolation Migration
Variability Radiation

a species or a genus, takes advantage of environmental

changes and explores various new niches in the living Factors Influencing Adaptive Radiation:
space. Physical Access: The ability to disperse into new
Concept: According to Simpson (1953), adaptive radiation niches depends on physical barriers and accessibility
involves the rapid proliferation of new species from a to new habitats.
single ancestral group. As species evolve, they become Habitat Diversity: Habitats must provide a variety of
progressively dissimilar from their common ancestor. niches to support adaptive radiation.
This phenomenon occurs when the descendants of
a single species exploit numerous environments and Pre-Adaptation: Individuals entering new niches
opportunities. Rapid changes in the external environment should be pre-adapted to some degree.
or the evolution of traits that open up new possibilities can Competition: The new niche must be unoccupied or
also lead to adaptive radiation. the entering individuals must outcompete existing
populations.
Adaptive radiation leads to the rapid diversification and
proliferation of species, as organisms exploit various niches
in response to environmental changes or evolutionary
26 innovations. This process plays a vital role in shaping
biodiversity and the rich variety of life forms we observe
today. Primates
(F) Microevolution, Macroevolution, and Mosaic Evolution:
(A) Primates &Primate Characteristics:
Microevolution and Macroevolution:
Introduction to Primates:
Microevolution: Small-scale changes within a population
Primates are a diverse group of animals (>500),
over short periods, altering allele frequencies due to
including lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.
factors like genetic drift and natural selection.
Primates reside at the initial stage in the series of
Macroevolution: Large-scale changes over longer
evolution of man and therefore constitute the first
periods, leading to new species and higher taxonomic
footstep of man’s origin.
groups, influenced by major environmental shifts.
Primates are primarily mammals possessing several
Mosaic Evolution: Concept from paleontology,
basic mammalian features such as presence of
evolutionary change in some body parts without
mammary glands, dense body hair; heterodonty,
simultaneous changes in others.
increased brain size, endothermy, a relatively long
Interplay between Microevolution, Macroevolution, and gestation period followed by live birth, considerable
Mosaic Evolution: capacity for learning and behavioural flexibility.
Speciation and Adaptive Radiation: Microevolutionary Primate Evolution:
changes over time can lead to the formation of new
Proto-Primates: Early primate-like mammals,
species, initiating adaptive radiations where mosaic
resembling squirrel and tree shrews, appeared around
evolution drives the emergence of multiple species in
55 million years ago.
diverse niches.
True Primates: The first true primates emerged in
Punctuated Equilibrium: Mosaic evolution helps
the Eocene Epoch in Africa, Asia, and North America,
explain periods of stasis, where species show
resembling present-day prosimians like lemurs.
little morphological change, interrupted by rapid
morphological innovations during macroevolutionary Anthropoids Evolution: Anthropoid monkeys evolved
events. from prosimians during the Oligocene epoch, leading
to the appearance of monkeys in both the New World
(South America) and Old World (Africa and Asia).
Example: Adaptive Radiation in Darwin’s Finches
Apes Emergence: Apes evolved from catarrhines in
Microevolutionary process: Variations in beak size
Africa during the Miocene epoch, around 25 million
and shape within the population of Darwin’s finches
years ago.
on the Galápagos Islands.
Macroevolutionary event: Adaptive radiation of Primate Definition & Characteristics:
Darwin’s finches resulted in multiple species with St. George J Mivart (1873) defined Primates (as an
distinct beak morphologies suited to different food order) as “unguiculate, claviculate, placental mammals,
sources. with orbits encircled by bone; three kinds of teeth, at
Mosaic evolution’s role: Mosaic changes in beak least at one time of life; brains always with a posterior
morphology allowed different finch species to lobe and calcarine fissure; the innermost digits of at
exploit various ecological niches, facilitating their least one pair of extremities opposable, hallux with a
coexistence on the islands. flat nail or none; a well-developed caecum; pendulous
penis; testes with scrotum; two pectoral mammae.”
However, many primatologists have pointed out that
Mosaic evolution plays a pivotal role in the interplay no single feature on this list is unique to primates.
between microevolution and macroevolution, driving Also, nails appear twice. Taken together, perhaps it is
species diversification and adaptive radiations. a useful list. Unfortunately, some of these traits (e.g.,
three types of teeth) are neither clear nor true of all
primates. Other traits, like nipple number and location,
are quite variable among primates. Still others, for
CLIFF NOTE example the pendulousness of the penis, can be
assessed in only males.

27
 Primates cannot be defined by a single trait due Clark’s Ten Evolutionary Trends:
to their diverse nature. However, a set of general 1. Elaboration and perfection of the visual apparatus,
tendencies characterizes the entire primate order. developing varying degrees of binocular vision.
Limbs and Locomotion: 2. Reduction of the apparatus of smell.
Tendency toward an erect posture, variously 3. Loss of certain elements of the primitive mammalian
associated with sitting, leaping, standing, and dentition and preservation of a simple cusp pattern
occasionally bipedal walking. of the molar teeth.
Generalized limb structure allows for various 4. Progressive expansion and elaboration of the brain,
forms of locomotion and facilitates activities particularly the cerebral cortex.
beyond movement.
5. Progressive and efficient development of gestational
Prehensile hands (and sometimes feet) for
processes for foetal nourishment.
skilled manipulation. This ability is enhanced
by features like retaining five digits, opposable 6. Prolongation of postnatal life periods.
thumbs, nails instead of claws, and tactile pads 7. Preservation of generalized limb structure with
on the digits. pentadactyly and retention of certain skeletal
elements (such as the clavicle) which tend to be
Diet and Teeth: reduced or to disappear in some groups of primates.
Lack of dietary specialization, making most
8. Enhanced free mobility of digits, especially the
primates omnivorous and capable of eating
opposable thumb and big toe for grasping.
various food items.
Generalized dentition not specialized for 9. Replacement of sharp compressed claws with
processing only one type of food. flattened nails and sensitive tactile pads.
10. Progressive abbreviation of the snout or muzzle.
The Senses and the Brain:
Diurnal primates rely heavily on vision and have
color vision, while nocturnal primates lack color
vision.
Primates possess stereoscopic vision, allowing
them to perceive objects in three dimensions.
This is facilitated by features like forward-facing
eyes and visual information transmitted to both
hemispheres of the brain.
Decreased reliance on the sense of smell,
correlated with reduced olfactory structures
and snout size.
Expansion and complexity of the brain, especially
in the visual and association areas of the
neocortex.
Maturation, Learning, and Behaviour: Landmarks in the Life Cycle of Primates
Efficient foetal nourishment, longer gestation
Gestation Age of First Life Span
periods, reduced offspring numbers (single Species
(days) Birth (years) (years)
births are common), delayed maturation, and
Ring-tailed lemur 134-138 3 27
extended lifespans. Lemur catta
Greater dependence on flexible, learned Rhesus macaque
behavior, leading to longer periods of infant and 164 4.5 29
Macaca mulatta
adolescent dependency on at least one parent. Yellow baboon
175 5.5 40
Tendency to live in social groups, with adult Papio hamadryas cynocephalus
males permanently associated with the group. White-handed gibbon
205 9.3 44
Most primates are diurnal, except for a few Hylobates lar
nocturnal species. Borneo orangutan
244 12-15 59
Pongo pygmaeus
Western lowland gorilla
256 9-11 50
Gorilla gorilla gorilla
Chimpanzee
240 11.5-15 53
Pan troglodytes
Humans
270 16-20 80-90
Homo sapiens
28
(B) Primate Taxonomy:

(C) Primate Behaviour: Communication:

Introduction: Primates communicate through a combination of
Primate behaviour is a rich field of study in anthropology behaviors, such as:
and primatology, offering insights into the social structures, Vocalizations: Different species have specific calls
communication methods, mating systems, and cognitive for various purposes, such as alarm calls, mating
abilities of our closest biological relatives. Understanding calls, and food discovery calls. Vervet monkeys,
primate behaviour helps anthropologists make inferences for example, have distinct alarm calls for different
about human evolution and the origins of human social predators.
behaviour. Facial Expressions: Primates use facial expressions
to convey emotions and intentions. For instance, a
Social Structures:
“play face” in chimpanzees signals that their rough-
Primates exhibit a variety of social structures influenced
and-tumble behavior is non-threatening.
by factors such as species, habitat, and ecological
pressures. Body Postures and Gestures: Dominance can be
expressed through standing tall and puffing up the
Solitary: Some primates, like the orangutans, are
body, while submission might be shown through
primarily solitary, with males and females coming
crouching or presenting the back.
together only for mating.
Pair-living: Species like the gibbons form Grooming: Social grooming is vital for establishing
monogamous pairs and maintain small family units. and maintaining social bonds. It serves both a
hygienic function and a social function, reinforcing
Multi-male, Multi-female Groups: Many primates,
alliances and hierarchical structures within the
such as baboons and macaques, live in large groups
group.
with multiple males and females. These groups
often have complex social hierarchies.
One-male, Multi-female Groups: In species like the
gorilla, groups typically consist of one dominant
male and several females with their offspring. CLIFF NOTE
Fission-fusion Societies: Chimpanzees and
bonobos exhibit this type of social organization,
where the size and composition of the group
change throughout the day based on activities and
resource availability. 29
 Mating Systems: “ Primate Case Studies “
Primate mating systems are diverse, influenced Rhesus Monkeys (Macacamulatta):
by social structure, environmental factors, and Live in large multimale-multifemale groups with
evolutionary pressures. complex social structures.
Monogamy: Found in species like gibbons, where Females show genital swellings during oestrus to
one male mates with one female and they typically signal mating availability.
form long-term bonds. Social grooming and reconciliatory behaviors are
Polygyny: Seen in gorillas, where one male mates common.
with multiple females. The dominant male usually Baboons (Papio):
has exclusive mating rights within his group.
Live in multimale-multifemale groups with strong
Polyandry: Rare among primates but observed dominance hierarchies.
in some New World monkeys like marmosets and
Males fiercely defend the group.
tamarins, where one female mates with multiple
males. Communication includes facial expressions and
vocalizations.
Promiscuity: Common in species like chimpanzees
and bonobos, where both males and females have Hanuman Langurs (Presbytis):
multiple mating partners. This system can lead Mostly active in the early morning and late afternoon.
to complex paternity scenarios and emphasizes Various social structures observed: one male-
sperm competition. multifemale, multimale-multifemale, all females
with infants, all-male groups.
Communication involves vocalizations, presenting
Parental Care: behavior, and head-shaking.
Parental care varies widely among primates, from
species with extensive maternal investment to those
with significant paternal involvement. Aggression & Cooperation:
Maternal Care: For all primate species, the primary Aggression and cooperation are two sides of social
social link is the mother-infant bond. Females make interaction in primate societies.
a substantial commitment of time and energy to Aggression: Aggressive behaviors help establish
pregnancy and lactation once they have conceived. and maintain social hierarchies, defend territories,
Paternal Care: In species like marmosets and and compete for resources and mates. Dominance
tamarins, males participate actively in rearing hierarchies are often established through displays
offspring, often carrying and grooming them. This of aggression and submission.
shared responsibility helps reduce the burden on Cooperation: Cooperation is essential for social
the mother and enhances offspring survival. cohesion and survival. Activities like hunting in
Alloparenting: In some primate groups, non- groups, defending against predators, and sharing
parental individuals, such as older siblings or other food require cooperative behaviors. Primate species,
group members, assist in caring for the young. especially those with complex social structures,
often exhibit high levels of cooperation.

Cognitive Abilities:
Primates demonstrate advanced cognitive abilities,
such as: CASE STUDY
Tool Use: Chimpanzees are known for their ability
to use tools. They use sticks to extract termites
from mounds. According to a recent study published in the
American Journal of Primatology, Primates show
Problem-Solving: Primates exhibit sophisticated
a remarkable ability to modify their behaviours
problem-solving skills. Experiments have shown
to accommodate their physical disabilities and
that they can understand cause-and-effect
impairments. Whether the disabilities are the
relationships, use insight to solve novel problems,
result of congenital malformations or injuries,
and even plan for future events.
many primate species exhibited behavioural
Social Learning: Primates learn behaviors from flexibility and innovation to compensate for their
observing others. This cultural transmission of disabilities. They also benefited from flexible and
knowledge includes learning foraging techniques, innovative behavior by their mothers early in life
social behaviors, and tool use. Young primates often and from their peers within their population
learn from their mothers and other group members group as they aged.
through imitation.
30
Primate behavior provides a window into the evolutionary roots of human sociality, communication, and cognition. By
studying primates, anthropologists gain insights into the fundamental aspects of behavior that are shared across primate
species, including humans. The diverse social structures, communication methods, mating systems, cognitive abilities,
and cooperative behaviors of primates underscore the complexity and adaptability of these animals, highlighting their
significance in understanding the broader tapestry of life on Earth.

Few specific behavioral patterns among primates:

Primate Ecology Social Behavior Reproduction Locomotion

Tarsiers Nocturnal, Southeast Solitary and territorial, Slow reproductive Excellent climbers and
Asia vocalizations and scent marking rate, single offspring leapers
Lemurs Native to Madagascar, Social, varying group sizes, diverse Breeding season, Mostly arboreal, various
diverse diet social structures one to six offspring gaits

Monkeys Widespread, varied Highly social, large groups with Diverse reproductive Climbers and
diet complex structures, vocalizations patterns quadrupedal walkers
and body language
Lesser Apes Monogamous, small Territorial, emigrate from natal Slow reproductive Arboreal, move through
family groups, hooting groups around adolescence rate, monogamous forest canopy via
calls mating pattern brachiation

Orangutans Borneo and Sumatra, Relatively solitary, avoid Low reproductive Arboreal, swing through
predominantly confrontations using long calls rate, one offspring trees and walk on all
frugivorous every 3-8 yrs fours

Chimpanzees Diurnal, frugivorous Complex social groups based on No distinct breeding Knuckle-walkers, upright
permanent relationships among season, one walking on two legs
males, use grooming and gestures offspring when needed
to maintain bonds
Gorillas Folivorous, largest Structured family groups, Slow reproductive Knuckle-walkers,
primates dominant male leads, can display rate, offspring every primarily terrestrial but
aggression when provoked four yrs can climb

Humans & Shared traits with Some primates used in scientific Varied reproductive Varied locomotion
others primates research, high genetic similarity patterns depending on species
with chimpanzees and

Locomotor Pattern Definition Found Among

Vertical clinging and The animal rests on a tree trunk in a clinging position,
leaping keeping its body in an orthograde posture. In moving
from one tree to another, it uses its long, powerful
legs to leap, landing vertically on a new trunk. On the
ground, it hops or moves bipedally.

Nocturnal prosimians
(Tarsiers, galagos)

Branch running and The primate walks, climbs, jumps, and leaps on
walking and among the branches, using its hands and feet
to grasp the branches. Legs are longer than arms.
Relatively short limbs bring the body close to the
branch for stability. Relatively long fingers and toes
facilitate grasping branches.
Arboreal monkeys (Lemurs, tamarins, guenons,
mangabeys)
31
 Ground running and Terrestrial primates are larger than arboreal ones.
walking They do not grasp the ground and seldom leap or
climb as they move along a relatively flat surface.
They possess shorter fingers and toes. Arms and
legs are of nearly equal length.
Terrestrial monkeys (Baboons, mandrill)

Old World A form of branch running and walking where the

semibrachiation animal spends a considerable amount of time
suspended under branches to reach food below.
Characterized by a great deal of leaping.

Colobus monkeys, langurs

Slow climbing Slow climbing involves cautious and deliberate

movement through branches. The body is suspended
from above and propelled by arm swinging.

Nocturnal prosimians (Lorises, potto)

True brachiation Hand-over-hand locomotion along a branch with the

body suspended underneath the branch by the arms.

Lesser apes (Gibbons, siamang)

New World Similar to Old World semibrachiation, but the animal

semibrachiation uses a prehensile tail for suspending its body under
branches.

New World monkeys (Spider monkeys, howler

monkeys, woolly monkeys)

Quadrumanous Locomotor pattern found among orangutans, who

locomotion often suspend themselves under branches and move
slowly using both forelimbs and hindlimbs.

Orangutans

Knuckle walking Semierect quadrupedalism, found in chimpanzees

and gorillas, with upper parts of the body supported
by knuckles as opposed to palms.

Chimpanzees, gorillas
32
 Erect bipedalism Although many primates can walk upright on
their legs for short periods of time, habitual erect
bipedalism is found in only one primate species -
humans. The heel of the foot strikes the ground first;
the cycle ends when the individual pushes off with
the big toe. This is called the heel-toe stride.

Humans

(D) Living Major Primates and their distribution:

With few exceptions, nonhuman primates inhabit tropical
or semitropical regions in both the New and Old Worlds. In
the New World, these areas encompass southern Mexico,
Central America, and various parts of South America.
Old World primates, on the other hand, are distributed
across Africa, India, Southeast Asia (including several
islands), and Japan. While many nonhuman primates are
adapted to arboreal life and dwell in forest or woodland
environments, certain Old World monkeys like baboons
and African apes such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and
bonobos spend significant periods of their day on the
ground. Nonetheless, all nonhuman primates utilize trees, (E) Comparative Anatomy of Man and Apes:
especially for sleeping, as a part of their lifestyle. A. Skull:
Human brain size is much larger than any living apes,
Primate Species Distribution with a brain volume ranging from 1300cc to 1450cc,
whereas apes’ brain sizes range from 365cc to 550cc.
Homo sapiens (Humans) Worldwide, inhabiting all
The human cranium is larger and more protruding,
continents
with a smaller facial portion compared to apes, who
Pan troglodytes Central and West Africa, in have larger facial portions relative to their cranium.
dense forests and savannas Humans have a more vertical face and a prominent,
Pan paniscus (Bonobos) Democratic Republic of the arched forehead, whereas apes lack a forehead.
Congo, in dense forests Foramen magnum position is anterior in humans,
Gorilla spp. (Gorillas) Central and Eastern Africa, allowing for an upright posture and better balance,
in tropical forests while in apes, it is posterior, causing the skull to hang
on the vertebral column.
Pongo spp. (Orangutans) Sumatra (Pongo abelii) and
Borneo (Pongo pygmaeus) Gorilla Skull Human Skull
Diagram of a gorilla skull: Diagram of a human skull:
Hylobates spp. (Gibbons) Southeast Asia, including
Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia G3
H1
H3

G1
H2
G2
Macaca spp. (Macaques) Various parts of Asia,
G4
including India, China, Japan
H4

Cercopithecus spp. Central and Eastern Africa,

in rainforests and mountains G5
H5

H7
H6

Saimiri spp. (Squirrel Central and South America, Discription of a gorilla skull: Discription of a human skull:

Monkeys) including Brazil, Bolivia, Peru 1.

2.
no forehead
large and distinctive brow ridge, called the "supraorbital
1.
2.
high forehead
small brow ridge
torus" 3. larger braincase (than in gorillas to enclose larger
3. small braincase (for smaller brain than in humans) human brain)

Callithrix spp. South America, including 4.

5.
face projects forwards "projecting face", i.e. it is
prognathous
large canine teeth/prominent canine teeth.
4. "flattened" rather than "projecting" face, mouth sits
behind rather than forward of the tip of the nose but
chin projects forward of mouth.

(Marmosets) Brazil 6. large zygomatic arch (surface and points of attachment

for facial muscles whose purpose is to operate the jaw
5.
6.
teeth include small molars and vertical incisors
smaller zygomatic arch than in gorillas
bones and perform chewing actions) 7. shallow lower jaw.
33
 B. Teeth and Lower Jaw: E. Leg:
Humans have comparatively smaller teeth than apes, Human femurs are placed at an angle from the hip to
with reduced canines used less for tearing flesh. the knee, allowing for more efficient striding during
Apes have larger canines, which are sharp and bipedal walking.
projecting. Apes have femurs almost parallel to one another.
Posterior teeth in apes are larger and arranged in Human femurs are slightly curved to bear the weight
parallel, giving their dental arcade a U shape, while in of the body.
humans, it is parabolic.

Changes in dentition

Valgus
angle

Centre of
gravity
C. Vertebral Column and Thorax:
Human vertebral column has an S-shaped curve,
allowing for better balance and a center of gravity
between the feet.
In apes, the vertebral column has a single C-shaped
curve.
Gorilla Human
The human thorax is barrel-shaped, with a broader
shoulder girdle and longer clavicles, while apes have an
F. Foot:
inverted cone-shaped thorax.
Human feet are adapted for efficient striding and
weight-bearing, with a robust big toe and two arches
to support the body weight.
Apes have prehensile feet with opposable big toes and
no transverse arch.

D. Pelvis and Birth Canal:

Human pelvis is basin-shaped, facilitating abdominal
organ support and bipedal locomotion.
Apes have a long and flat ilium on their back.
Human pelvis is narrower to accommodate a narrower
birth canal, making childbirth more difficult than in
34 apes.
G. Arm: (Dryopithecus), and Proconsul found in Africa and
Human arms are no longer used for walking and have Eurasia.
become free to carry objects and make tools.
Apes’ arm bones are more robust for weight-bearing
during walking.
Overall, the differences between human and ape anatomy
are primarily driven by bipedalism, erect posture, and
changes in dietary habits. These adaptations have led to
significant variations in the skeletal structure and overall
body morphology between the two.

(F) Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates:

Tertiary Period Fossils:
1. Paleocene fossils (65.5 - 55.8 million years ago):
Oldest primates found in regions of France and
North America.
Classified into three families: Carpolestidae,
Phenacolemuridae, and Plesiadapidae.
5. Pliocene fossils (5.3 - 2.6 million years ago):
2. Eocene fossils (56.0 - 33.9 million years ago): Limited fossils found, mainly regarding monkey
True primates or Euprimates found in North America families.
and some parts of Asia. Considered the time when human lineage began to
Resemble lemurs and tarsiers. form in central and east Africa.
Monkey-like primates arose in China. Quaternary Period Fossils:
Divided into two families: Adapidae and Omomyidae.
1. Pleistocene fossils (2.6 million years ago):
Ice age with ice sheets covering land masses.
Extinction of many animals, including mammoths,
ground sloths, mountain goats, etc.
Fossils of dwarf mammoths found in California.
Holocene epoch (11,700 years ago to present):
Ongoing epoch, no fossils available yet.
Time when humans have spread globally and caused
various environmental disturbances.

(F) Skeletal changes due to erect posture and its

implication:
Australopithecus afarensis, exemplified by “Lucy” around
3 million years ago, showed a transition from quadrupedal
3. Oligocene fossils (33.9 - 23.0 million years ago): to bipedal locomotion.
Separation between primitive and advanced
Selection for bipedalism was driven by environmental
primates.
changes in eastern Africa around 4 million years ago. Shifts
Fossils of the skull of Rooneyia found in Texas with a
from continuous forest to wooded savannah created more
mixture of features.
Most fossils of anthropoids found.
Divided into three taxonomic groups:
Parapithercidae, Propliopithiescidae, and Platyrrhini.
Fossils found in Egypt, Europe, and Cairo.
4. Miocene fossils (23.0 - 5.3 million years ago):
Formation of huge grasslands during this epoch.
Development of new types of primates which were
terrestrial and ground walking.
Fossil evidence of ancestors of orangutans
(Sivapithecus) found in Eurasia.
Ancestors of humans, gorillas, chimpanzees 35
 open habitats with dispersed food resources, favoring Improved ability to carry food, tools and infants during
bipedal movement’s energetic efficiency. their period of dependence
Human walking is more energetically efficient than These adaptations are likely to be secondary to the drive
most animal locomotion forms, supporting the adaptive for selection based on energetic efficiency, and could have
advantage of bipedalism. arisen from the initial adaptation of standing upright and
Other arguments that have been put forward for the adopting a bipedal gait. While bipedalism was selected for
origin of bipedalism include: and therefore had adaptive advantage, it also had adaptive
costs that resulted from the structural changes that are
Improved thermoregulatory efficiency, leading to the associated with the upright posture and bipedal gait, as
ability to forage through the heat of the day shown in the table below.
Improved ability to see and therefore avoid predators

None

36
 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and
geographical distribution of the following
fossils:

(A) Australopithecines
Australopithecus, meaning “southern ape,” is a genus of
hominins that evolved in eastern Africa approximately
four million years ago and became extinct about two
million years ago. It includes several different fossil
species, most of which were found in East Africa. The
genus Homo evolved from a common ancestor shared
with Australopithecus about two million years ago.
Australopithecus had characteristics more similar to great
apes than to modern humans.
Geographical Distribution:
Australopithecus fossils have been primarily discovered
in eastern Africa, with significant finds in regions like
Ethiopia, Tanzania, and South Africa.
Classification/Types:
There were several species within the genus
Australopithecus. Some of the notable ones include:
Australopithecus anamensis (about 4.2 million
years ago)
Australopithecus afarensis (about 3.9 - 2.9 million
years ago)
Australopithecus africanus (about 2 - 3 million years
ago)
Australopithecus sediba (about 1.95 - 1.78 million
years ago)
Paranthropus robustus (included within the genus
Australopithecus)
Characteristics:
Australopithecus had a cranial capacity slightly in
excess of 400 cubic centimeters.
Their teeth were more similar to the great apes,
with larger canines and molars than in modern
humans.
The skull showed ape-like features, such as a
U-shaped jaw, prominent brow ridges, and a sloped
forehead.
They demonstrated sexual dimorphism, with males
being up to 50 percent larger than females.
Australopithecus was bipedal but likely spent some
time in trees as well.
Their limb bones, hip bones, and big toe arrangement
indicate adaptations to upright posture and bipedal
walking.
They had a reduced dentition and jaw size
compared to earlier hominins, showing a trend in
human evolution.
Phylogenetic Status:
Australopithecus is considered an early hominin genus
that predates the genus Homo. While they share 37
 some features with modern humans, Australopithecus
at the time.
did not lead directly to the human lineage. The
genus Homo evolved from a common ancestor with Paleo-environmental Context:
Australopithecus about two million years ago and The discovery of Taung Child helped scientists
represents a separate branch of hominin evolution. understand the paleoenvironment of early
hominins, indicating that they lived in savannah-
like habitats rather than dense forests.
Impact on Anthropology:
The Taung Child spurred further research and
discoveries in paleoanthropology, leading to the
recognition of Australopithecus as an important
genus in human evolutionary history.
Cultural Significance:
The discovery highlighted Africa as a crucial
region for studying human origins and evolution,
challenging Eurocentric views prevalent in early
20th-century anthropology.

(B) Homo Habilis

Homo habilis, meaning “handy man,” is an early
hominin species that lived during the early Pleistocene,
Phylogenetic Trees Showing Possible Relationships among Fossil approximately 1.75 to 2 million years ago. The discovery of
Hominin Species (a) Published in 1994 and (b) published in 2001. fossils in Kenya and Tanzania indicated that Homo habilis
individuals had cranial capacities ranging from over 650
Describe the discovery, physical features and cubic centimeters to close to 800 cubic centimeters.
significance of Taung baby. Geographical Distribution:
Discovery: Fossils of Homo habilis have been found in East Africa,
Date: The fossil was discovered in 1924 by specifically in regions of Kenya, Tanzania, and Olduvai.
quarrymen working at the Buxton-Norlim Limeworks Characteristics:
near Taung, South Africa. Homo habilis was named “handy man” because it was
Discoverers: It was discovered by workers who believed to be a tool-maker. Its hands were similar to
were quarrying limestone when they came across those of modern humans, and it showed early signs of
a fossilized skull. developing manual dexterity.
Physical Features: Compared to Australopithecus africanus, Homo habilis
Age: The Taung Child is estimated to be about 2.8 had a larger head, shorter and rounder neck, a relatively
million years old, placing it in the early Pleistocene flat and less protruding face, and teeth that were less
epoch. massive than those of southern apes.
Species: It belongs to the species Australopithecus The cranial capacity of Homo habilis ranged from over
africanus, a small-brained bipedal hominine species. 650 to close to 800 cubic centimeters, indicating
Cranial Capacity: The skull has a small cranial some advancement in brain size compared to its
capacity, indicating a brain size similar to that of Australopithecus predecessors.
modern chimpanzees. They were likely omnivorous, incorporating meat into
Features: Key features include a small face, large their diet and showing signs of early tool use, such as
brow ridges, and a forward-projecting face typical simple stone tools used for hunting and scavenging.
of early hominins. Stone Tools and Cultural Behavior:
Significance: Homo habilis is associated with the first evidence of
Early Hominin Evolution: stone tool usage in the archaeological record. The
The Taung Child provided early evidence stone tools were crude choppers, made by removing
of hominin evolution in Africa, suggesting flakes along one side of a pebble to create an irregular
bipedalism (walking on two legs) as an early cutting edge. These tools were likely used for
adaptation among hominins. butchering and processing animal carcasses.
Controversial Hypothesis: The use of tools for hunting and processing meat
Raymond Dart controversially proposed that suggests a shift towards more advanced hunting
Australopithecus africanus was a direct ancestor and scavenging behaviors, which might have played
of modern humans, challenging prevailing ideas a significant role in the evolutionary success of Homo
38 habilis.
 They likely lived in small bands or groups with stable
camp sites, showing some degree of social organization.
Chimpanzee Homo sapiens Homo

Homo habilis showed early signs of cultural behavior, Present neanderthalensis

including the division of labor based on sex and Homo erectus

communication through visual signals and simple 1 Paranthropus

Paranthropus boisei
audible sounds. robustus Homo habilis

2
Phylogenetic Status: Australopithecus

Millions of years ago

garhi
Paranthropus
Homo habilis is considered a transitional species aethiopicus Australopithecus
africanus

between Australopithecus and early members of the 3

genus Homo. Australopithecus afarensis

Its fossils represent the first appearance of the human 4

Ardepithecus Australopithecus anamensis
ramidus
genus Homo and are significant in the evolutionary
history of hominins. 5

The discovery of stone tools in association with Homo

habilis fossils suggests a shift in behavior, with a greater 6
Hominin ancestor

reliance on technology and adaptation to changing

environments.

Coexistence with Other Hominins:

Homo habilis likely coexisted with other hominin species, such as Australopithecus africanus and Paranthropus robustus,
in Africa during the early Pleistocene.
The coexistence of these species might have led to competition for resources and ecological niches, contributing to
evolutionary changes and adaptations in the human lineage.

Cultural Advancements:
The use of stone tools and hunting behavior
demonstrated by Homo habilis marked a significant
step in cultural and technological advancements in
early human evolution.
The development of stone tools was a critical milestone
in human history, leading to further innovations and
cultural complexity in later hominin species.

39
 (C) Homo erectus:
Homo erectus is an extinct species of early hominins that
first appeared about 1.6 million years ago and is believed
to have lived for at least 600,000 years. Homo erectus
emerged during the Pleistocene interglacial period. This
species is considered an important transitional form
between Australopithecus and Homo sapiens.
Biological Features
Homo erectus displayed several distinctive biological
features:
Brain Size: Homo erectus had a larger brain compared
to earlier species, with cranial capacities ranging
from 775 to 1,100 cubic centimeters, closer to the
size of modern human brains (1,130 to 1,260 cubic
centimeters).
Nasal Structure: They possessed a nose with
downward-facing nostrils, similar to modern humans,
which might have been an adaptation to colder
climates, warming cold air before it entered their lungs.
Sexual Dimorphism: Although there was sexual
dimorphism in Homo erectus, it was less pronounced
than in earlier species, with males being only 20 to 30
percent larger than females.
Facial Features: Homo erectus had a prominent brow,
a face that pointed downward, and a more primitive
skull compared to Homo sapiens.
Homo erectus Javanicus (Java Man)
Fossils of Homo erectus javanicus were found in Java,
Indonesia.
Their cranial capacity ranged from 775 to 900 cubic
centimeters.
They were approximately five feet tall and weighed
around 70 kg.
Physical characteristics included a low and slanting
forehead, prognathic face, massive jaws with large
teeth, and heavy bony eyebrow ridges.
Homo erectus javanicus used stone tools for hunting
and butchering animals.
Homo erectus Pekinensis (Peking Man)
Fossils of Homo erectus pekinensis were discovered
near Peking (Beijing), China.
They had a larger cranial capacity, ranging from 850 to
1200 cubic centimeters, compared to Homo erectus
javanicus.
Lived approximately 1.5 to 5,00,000 years ago.
Similar to Homo erectus javanicus, they also used
stone tools for hunting and butchering animals.
Cultural Development
Homo erectus populations were hunters and gatherers,
and evidence of organized hunting has been found in
Europe.
They learned to use fire for cooking purposes, as
evidenced by findings in Hungary and China, which
improved their diet and provided warmth.
40
 Nomadic in nature, they roamed widely in small
groups or extended families, adapting to changing
environments.
Some Homo erectus groups began to use animal skins
for clothing, providing protection from adverse weather
conditions.
They likely used rudimentary visual signals and simple
audible sounds for communication.
Tool-Making Ability
Homo erectus displayed advanced tool-making abilities,
representing a significant technological advancement
compared to earlier hominin species.
The chopper tradition, witnessed in Java and Peking
Man, involved striking stone flakes from a core and
shaping them further by chipping on one side.
Development of the biface core tool, or hand axe,
was another significant advancement, enabling more
efficient skinning of animals and preparation of skins.
Homo erectus used stone tools for hunting and
butchering various animals, including deers, antelopes,
bears, wild oxen, and elephants. They also used bone
and wooden tools.
Two main stone tool industries, the Olduwan and
Acheulian industries, characterized their tool-making
culture.
Phylogenetic Status of Homo erectus:
Homo erectus, an important transitional species in
human evolution, emerged around 1.6 million years ago
and lived for about 600,000 years. It bridged the gap
between Australopithecus and Homo sapiens.
4. The presence of home bases and organized campsites
With a larger brain size, reduced sexual dimorphism, indicates a level of social organization and territorial
and advanced tool-making skills, Homo erectus showed behavior in Homo erectus populations.
significant biological and cultural advancements. They
5. Natural selection likely acted on specific traits in Homo
were hunters, used fire, and made sophisticated stone
erectus, favoring increased body size, longevity, and
tools.
the development of cultural adaptations such as the
Phylogenetic studies suggest that Homo erectus is use of fire and advanced tool-making.
a direct ancestor of later hominin species, including 6. Homo erectus’ intelligence was intermediate between
Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Their migration out apes and modern humans, suggesting cognitive
of Africa was facilitated by their adaptive abilities. developments over earlier hominin species.
Although no longer extant, Homo erectus’s impact on
7. Their skills as efficient tool-makers and cooperative
human evolution and cultural development remains
game hunters set them apart from their predecessors,
profound. Understanding this species sheds light on
contributing to their success and long-lasting existence.
our ancient past and the origins of our species.
8. Homo erectus is considered the characteristic species
Significance of Homo Erectus of the Lower Paleolithic age, representing a significant
1. Homo erectus fossils provide evidence of the transition stage in human evolution.
from opportunistic scavenging to cooperative and 9. By the time Homo erectus started to decline around
organized big-game hunting, marking a crucial 275 thousand years ago, many of the salient features
development in human behavior. found in modern humans had already become
2. They are the first hominin species known to have established in this species.
discovered and used fire, which had profound 10. Homo erectus is the first hominin species known to
implications for their survival and cultural development. have migrated out of Africa, spreading to various
3. The development of systematic tool-making skills in regions across the globe. Their successful migration
Homo erectus marked a major advancement in human and adaptation to different environments demonstrate
technology, enhancing their ability to interact with and their capabilities as a highly adaptable species.
manipulate their environment.
41
 DISPERSAL OF H. ERECTUS
Dispersal of species happens for many reasons but essentially H. erectus probably drifted across northern Africa, across
the Sinai Peninsula into Asia, when environmental changes meant suitable habitats and food sources stretched that far.
For example, sabre-toothed cat remains were found alongside H. erectus fossils in Georgia. The cats apparently
dispersed from Africa. These specialised carnivores lacked the teeth to strip a carcass clean of its meat, so might have
provided scavenging opportunities for early humans following them out of Africa.
It is likely that the spread of H. erectus as far as Java, across what are now islands of Southeast Asia, was possible
because these were connected at the time.
42
(D) Neanderthal Man:
Neanderthal man lived during the late Pleistocene
period and was found in the Neanderthal Valley,
Germany.
Their existence began around 150,000 years ago,
thriving in Europe, Asia, and North America until they
went extinct approximately 25,000 years ago.
Key Fossil Discoveries:
Significant Neanderthal fossil findings include Le
Moustier, Shanidar 1, La Ferrassie 1, La Chapelle-aux-
Saints, and Mt. Carmel (Tabun Cave, Skhul Cave, El-
Wad Cave).

Diversity:
Recent studies indicate the presence of three distinct
Neanderthal sub-groups, with minor variations, and a
potential fourth group in western Asia.
Migration between these sub-groups occurred, and
the size of the Neanderthal population fluctuated over
time.
Interbreeding with Modern Humans: Environment:
Analysis of the Neanderthal genome confirms limited Neanderthals inhabited diverse environments across
interbreeding with early modern humans. Europe and the Middle East, coexisting with changing
Europeans and Asians share about 1-4% of climatic conditions.
Neanderthal DNA, while Africans do not possess any Ice Ages and full glacial conditions occurred around
Neanderthal genetic contributions. 40,000 years ago.
The interbreeding most likely took place in the Levant Tool Culture:
region between 50,000 to 90,000 years ago.
Neanderthals transitioned from the Abbevillian and
Physical Characteristics: Acheulian cultures to the Mousterian tradition.
Neanderthals exhibited human-like features with They crafted symmetrical and sharp tools made from
distinctive facial attributes and a robust physique, well- stone flakes and utilized long wooden spears with
adapted to cold climates. stone tips for hunting.
Their average height was shorter than modern Evidence suggests group hunting, butchering of
humans, and they had larger brain sizes, around 1500 animals, and use of fire for cooking and warmth.
cubic centimeters.
Cultural Development:
Notable features included a thick, low and slanting
Neanderthals demonstrated cultural advancement by
forehead, prominent brow ridges, no chin, and a
using animal hides for clothing and burying their dead.
rounded brain case.
Evidence of symbolic abilities, such as cave paintings
They had strong limb bones with large joints, indicating
and flower cultivation, points to concepts of life and
a powerful musculature.
death and rituals.
43
 Extinction:
Fossil and climatic evidence indicates a decline in Neanderthal diversity and inbreeding.
Challenging environmental conditions and limited adaptability contributed to their extinction.

Controversies Regarding Classical and Progressive Varieties:

Feature La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Classic Type) Mount Carmel (Progressive Type)

Brow Ridges Pronounced ridges over eye sockets Less pronounced brow ridges
Facial Features Robust facial structure Transition towards modern human
Nose Shape Flatter and broader noses Less flat and refined noses
Cranial Capacity Larger brain size (around 1600 cc) Brain size similar to modern humans (around 1400-1600 cc)
Chin Receding chin, lacks definition Less pronounced receding chin, showing some development
Geographical
Europe (Correze, France) Mount Carmel region, Palestine, Middle East
Distribution
Late Pleistocene (around 40,000 years Earlier periods (some remains dating back to 250,000 years
Time Period
ago) ago)
Mousterian culture (stone tools like Levalloiso-Mousterian industry with evidence of cultural
Cultural Artifacts
scrapers and points) sophistication (burial practices and rituals)

The variation in physical features between the Neanderthals were less different from modern humans
Classic and Progressive Neanderthals is a significant compared to Classic Neanderthals. Some suggest that
controversy. Classic Neanderthals from Europe Progressive Neanderthals may represent a transitional
exhibited pronounced brow ridges, robust facial phase in human evolution towards modern humans,
features, a muscular build, flatter noses, and larger while Classic Neanderthals adapted to Ice Age Europe’s
brains than modern humans. In contrast, Progressive harsh climate. However, climate and morphological
Neanderthals from the Middle East had less pronounced studies indicate coexistence and intermingling of both
features, a less massive build, and less prominent brow varieties in the same region.
ridges. Phylogenetic Relationship: The evolutionary relationship
44 The controversy arises from whether Progressive between Neanderthals and modern humans has sparked
speculation and debate. Originally considered intermediate
ancestors between Homo erectus and modern humans,
Neanderthals’ distinctive features and limited geographic provides evidence of altruistic behavior. It suggests
range led to their exclusion from this category. that these prehistoric humans could extend
compassion and support to more vulnerable
Three interpretations of their relationship exist:
members of their societies. This indicates a
a. Unilinear Evolution, viewing Neanderthals as capacity for empathy and community care.
intermediate ancestors;
b. Separate Lineages, where Neanderthals are Homo
sapiens with unique features, yet selective pressures
remain unclear; and
Significance of Tina in Understanding
c. Pre-Neanderthals, suggesting a pre-existing
Homo sapiens population migrated and underwent Neanderthal Social Structure
natural selection in Europe, leading to Neanderthal The fact that despite severe hearing loss, frequent
characteristics. vertigo, and significant mobility challenges, Tina lived
for at least six years, points to following inferences:
Group care and support:- Given the high mobility
lifestyle of Neanderthals, survival of a disabled child
suggests continuous and extensive care from the
community, apart from the mother.
Compassion:- Group care for Tina went beyond
reciprocal selfishness, suggesting a genuine sense
of compassion among Neanderthals, since Tina
had not been able to reciprocate.
Sedentary lifestyle possible:- Survival of Tine
indicates presence of more or less sedentary life
as nomadic life would have not allowed survival of
Recent genetic testing of Neanderthal DNA supports a Tina
shared common ancestor with modern humans about Social diversity:- Tina being the oldest known case
500,000 years ago. While the Neanderthal genome is of Down’s syndrome suggests that the diversity
almost identical to modern humans, ongoing research observed in modern humans were already present
continues to shape our understanding of their precise in prehistoric times.
phylogenetic status.
The discovery of “Tina,” alongside findings like Shanidar
and La Chapelle-aux-Saints, has reshaped our
CASE STUDY understanding of Neanderthal social structures,
emphasizing their cognitive and social capabilities and
their significance in human evolution.
Recently, the skeletal remains of a Neanderthal
child were unearthed at Cova Negra. This cave,
located in Valencia, Spain, has a rich history of
(E) Rhodesian man:
significant Neanderthal discoveries. The child is The Kabwe cranium, also known as the Broken Hill
affectionately named “Tina.” cranium, is a fossilized human head discovered in 1921
Micro-computed tomography scans of a near Kabwe, Zambia. It was the first premodern Homo
small fragment of Tina’s right temporal bone, fossil found in Africa and is often referred to as Rhodesian
containing the ear region, were used to construct man.
a comprehensive three-dimensional model for Composition: The Rhodesian man skull closely resembles
measurement and analysis. the Neanderthal skull but exhibits some unique features.
The findings showed Tina suffered from a The presence of a prominent forward nasal spine
congenital pathology of the inner ear associated characteristic of modern humans suggests it may be a
with Down syndrome, leading to severe hearing new species, Homo rhodesiensis.
loss and disabling vertigo.
Characteristics:
Despite this, Tina survived to at least 6 years of
Greater average brain volume (1212 cm3)
age, a feat that would have required substantial
care from other group members. Rounded parietal bones giving the skull a barrel-like
appearance
This discovery is even more remarkable as it
Cranial capacity ranging between 1250 and 1400cc
Inflation of maxillary bones leading to midfacial 45
 prognathism and large noses The cranial capacity of Cro-Magnon Man was about
1600 c.c. They were swift-footed, cave-dwelling forms,
Formation of a retromolar gap in the mandible
considered expert hunters.
Significance of Discovery: The discovery of Rhodesian Their stone tools demonstrated high technological
man provided valuable insights into the early stages of precision, and they were known for their art, creating
human evolution in Africa. It prompted discussions about cave paintings, ornaments, and engravings.
the relationship between Neanderthals and modern
humans and whether Neanderthals could be considered Grimaldi:
ancestors of Homo sapiens. The Grimaldi fossils, discovered in France and Italy, are
Conclusion: The Rhodesian man, represented by the around 45,000 to 35,000 years old.
Kabwe cranium, is an important fossil find that sheds light They display a cranial capacity of 1530 c.c. and exhibit
on the phylogenetic status and characteristics of early physical features with affinities to the Negroids.
hominids. Its unique combination of features indicates The Grimaldi people were conversant with art, creating
it may be a new species in the human evolutionary tree. stunning cave paintings of animals, and practiced
Further research and discoveries are needed to fully ceremonial burials.
understand the significance of Rhodesian man in the
broader context of human evolution. Chancelade:
The Chancelade fossil, found in France, dates back to
(F) Homo sapiens—Cromagnon, Grimaldi and the Upper Paleolithic age.
Chancelede.
This specimen exhibits a long and narrow skull, a cranial
The transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens,
index of 70.9, slightly marked supraorbital ridges, and a
marking the emergence of modern humans, is a
vertical forehead.
significant event in human evolution. While the exact
timeline of this transition remains uncertain, the first The Grimaldi and Chancelade fossils are considered to
Homo sapiens fossils date back to at least 300,000 have resemblances to modern Eskimos.
years ago.
Homo sapiens sapiens:
Early Homo sapiens populations were initially identified The fully modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens,
under different names like Homo neanderthalensis, originated in Africa around 200,000 years ago, later
Homo heidelbergensis, and Swanscombe man. spreading to West Asia and beyond.
However, due to their striking similarities, these
populations are now classified under Homo sapiens. They exhibited adaptability to various climates, allowing
them to colonize different regions across the globe.
Fossils of Homo sapiens exhibit reduced brow ridges, These modern humans introduced innovations such
a steep forehead, a high rounded cranial vault, a short as cave art, advanced tools, tailored clothing, and
face, and a pronounced chin. They were robust but not controlled use of fire.
as tall as Neanderthals.
They marked the completion of morphological
Transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens: evolution, with further progress related to culture and
language.
Several fossils have provided insights into the transition
from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. For instance, The journey from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens
the Steinheim skull from Germany displays a cranial represents a remarkable transformation in human
capacity of about 1,000 c.c. and features puffy eyebrow evolution. Fossil findings provide valuable insights into this
ridges with a low forehead, showing characteristics of transitional phase, showcasing a blend of characteristics
both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. from different species. The emergence of modern
Similarly, the Swanscombe skull, with a cranial humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, marked a turning point
capacity of approximately 1,320 c.c., exhibits traits in human history, as they demonstrated a higher level of
resembling Homo sapiens. Another crucial discovery cultural advancement and adaptability that allowed them
is the Ehringsdone skull from Germany, with a cranial to thrive in diverse environments. Their art, tools, and
capacity of 1450 c.c., displaying features akin to both social practices highlighted their cognitive capabilities,
Neanderthal man and Homo sapiens, indicating an making them distinct from their predecessors and paving
intermediate phase. the way for the development of complex societies and
civilizations.
Cromagnon Man:
Around 33,000 years ago, Homo sapiens close to
modern humans lived in Europe and other parts of the
world, known as Cro-Magnon Man. They were about
180 cm tall with a large skull, broad face, rounded
forehead, narrow nose, and a prominent chin. Unlike
their predecessors, they lacked eyebrow ridges.
46
 Brain size Known date
Species Characteristics Height Physique Skull form Jaws/teeth
(ml) (years ago)

Homo habilis Relatively small 1 c.1.5 Relatively long 500-650 Small face; nose Thinner jaw; 2.1-1.6 million
face; nose arms developed smaller, narrow
(small)
developed molars

Homo habilis Larger, flatter face c.1.5 Robust but 600-800 Flat, thick skull with Robust Jaw; 2.1-1.6 million
‘human’ skeleton large occipital and large narrow
(large)
brow ridge molars

Homo Robust but ‘human’ 1.3-1.5 Robust but 750-1250 Flat, thick skull with Robust jaw 1.8-0.3 million
skeleton ‘human’ skeleton large occipital and in larger
erectus
brow ridge individuals;
smaller teeth
than H. habilis

Neanderthals Reduced brow 1.5-1.7 Robust but 1200-1750 Small or no ridge; Teeth smaller 150000-30000
ridge; thinner skull; ‘human’ skeleton; shorter, high skull except for
large nose; mid Adapted for cold incisors; chin
face projection development in
some

Early modern Small or no ridge; 1.6-1.85 Modern skeleton; 1200-1700 Small skull Shorter 130000-60000
shorter, high skull adapted for jaws than
Homo
warmth Neanderthals:
sapiens teeth may be
smaller

Human evolution path as per current stage of research

Approaches to Understand Modern Human Origin: 2. Partial Replacement Model:

1. Complete/Total Replacement Model: Majority of scholars believe modern humans evolved
Proposed by British Anthropologists Christopher in Africa and later migrated to other regions.
Stringer and Peter Andrews (1988). Unlike complete replacement, this model suggests
Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 200,000 some interbreeding occurred between African
years ago. emigrants and pre-modern populations in other
Anatomically modern humans emerged exclusively regions.
in Africa through a speciation process. Supporters argue that no speciation occurred,
Migrated Homo sapiens did not interbreed with and resident pre-modern populations were also
non-African human populations in other continents. members of H. sapiens.
Populations in other continents, like Neanderthals, Proponents include Günter Bräuer, John Relethford,
were considered different species (e.g., H. and Fred Smith (Relethford, 2001).
Neanderthalensis). 47
 3. Regional Continuity Model/Multiregional Evolution
Model:
Proponents argue that local indigenous populations
in Africa, Europe, and Asia continued their
evolutionary development from Middle Pleistocene
to modern human.
Anatomical and genetic similarity among different
population groups is explained by gene flow during
the Pleistocene period.
Mixing and gene flow prevented speciation, leading
to the evolution of H. sapiens as a polytypic species.
All hominins following H. erectus are classified as H.
sapiens.
Accepts the influence of African emigrants
throughout the world.
Critical Appraisal of the Models of Modern Human
Evolution:
Recent discoveries, palaeoanthropological findings,
and data from sequenced ancient and contemporary
human DNA suggest a consensus view is emerging.
The strong multiregional model is inadequate to
explain modern human evolution.
Evidence supports the potential for at least some
amount of interbreeding between African emigrants
and indigenous populations in other regions.
Both complete replacement and multiregional
models are insufficient to fully explain modern
human evolution.

The biological basis of Life: The Cell, DNA structure

and replication, Protein Synthesis, Gene, Mutation,
Chromosomes, and Cell Division:

Important Note:
This is to inform all students that Chapter 1.7 in our
Anthropology course covers topics that have been
extensively addressed in other sections of our course
material. Hence, no separate coverage is required here.

48
Chapter: 2
THE NATURE OF CULTURE &
SOCIETY
SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
The Nature of Culture:
The concept and characteristics of culture and William Ogburn and Cultural Lag (10 M, 2023)
civilization;
Critically evaluate different types of social
Ethnocentrism vis-a-vis cultural relativism.
stratification with suitable examples (20 M, 2021)
Human rights and cultural relativism (10 M,2020)
Discuss Erving Goffman’s concept of total
institutions and its relevance in contemporary
society (15 M, 2020)
Discuss Social stratification according to any three
major approaches. (20 M,2019)
Short notes on Cultural Relativism (2019, 2016,
1995, 1987)
Is culture unique to human beings? Critically
examine (15 M, 2014)
Why the concept of Culture Relativism been so
dear to Anthropologists? (20 M,2013)
Bring out the distinguishing features of culture and
civilization. (15 M, 2013)
Cultural relativism and subsequent violation of
Human rights?(15 M, 2010, 2006)
Components of culture vast and varied”. Explain
this statement. (2002, 2007)

SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
The Nature of Society:
Concept of Society; Society and culture (10 M, 2015)
Society and Culture; Define Status & Role. Distinguish between Ascribed
Social Institutions; and Achieved Status. (15 M 2014,2017)
Social groups; and What is the basis of social stratification? Discuss
Social stratification. with examples (20 M 2012)
Explain the concept of status and role in
anthropology (20 M,2012)
Write a detailed note on polyandrous societies,
citing Indian examples (20 M, 2009)
Social stratification (2000)
49
 Is learnt - Kroeber and Kluckhohn have defined culture
Culture and Civilization as the totality of learnt human behaviour, transmitted
by social inheritance.
The concept and characteristics of culture and Is a system - As per Tylor, culture is a complex whole
civilisation consisting of elements integrated with each other.
Definition: Is symbolic-Culture is based on symbols. As per McIver,
a symbol for humans is something representing
Clifford Geertz in his book, The Interpretation of
something else by arbitrary human invention and
Cultures (1973) has defined culture as “Culture is a
understanding. Example: Use of symbols is language
system of symbols and meanings that people use to
which is an essential part of culture.
construct their world and to communicate with each
other.”
Enculturation
E.B. Tylor, in his book, ‘Primitive Culture (1871),
defined culture “as that complex whole which includes It is the process of learning one’s own culture. It is
knowledge, beliefs, customs and any other capabilities similar to the process of socialisation (process through
and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” which an organic human being is transformed into a
Nature of Culture: social human being).
Is unique to human beings: Herskovits has defined The process of enculturation has two kinds of people
culture as the man-made part of environment. Animals taking part:
do have societies, but their behaviour is based on 1. Carrier: The carrier can be parents, grandparents or
instinct, and is not learnt. They lack the capability to distant relatives or peers or caretakers. In case of
change their environment purposefully. tribes, these carriers are not only the eldest group
Our bipedal locomotion is also responsible for our but also the immediate elders like elder brothers
spinal structure by which we were able to hold and sisters and even caretakers.
our head, freeing our larynx and thus, allowing us 2. Receiver: The receiver usually a child or any culturally
the power of speech. This is the beginning of our inexperienced member of the group or society.
cultural journey. Language has been called as the
Youth dormitories among tribes play an important
vehicle of transmitting human culture, as it has
role in enculturation.
made communication between two human beings
comprehensible Subculture
Is diverse: As per Franz Boas, culture is present in all Refers to the culture of homogenous unit within the
human societies, but each society has its own unique heterogenous whole.
cultural elements adjusted to its own particular set of 1. Each culture is a compound of subcultures. They
circumstances. This makes it diverse, and gives rise to are distinguishable from one another and from the
the concept of cultural relativism. dominant culture forms by characteristics such as
Is universal: It was postulated in the theories of language, clothing, gesture and etiquette.
evolution by the early anthropologists like Herbert 2. There are also differences in norms and values.
Spencer and E.B. Tylor who had stated it as ‘the psychic The differences are usually because of ethnic,
unity of mankind’. This view regarded the similarities occupational or regional heterogeneity over a
indifferent cultures as owing to the similar capacities large area. Despite such differences at micro-level,
of human beings. For example in almost all cultures subcultural units of each culture exhibit enough
be it a preliterate or developed society the institutions similarities to put them into one culture.
of family, marriage and kinship are seen, though the
patterns may vary. Ideal, Real Culture and Culture Construct
Is shared - Culture is of the society, and not of an
Concepts developed by Ralph Linton of the Culture-
individual. It is the manifestation of the historical
Personality School of thought
processes the entire society has undergone.
1. Ideal Culture - Is the standard of the society, i.e.
Is not genetically inherited: Culture is a process that
reflects the philosophical traditions of the society
is acquired via learning and understanding symbols.
embedded in its ethics and epics.
For example: If an Indian origin child is brought up in
Japan by a Japanese couple, the language that the 2. Real Culture - Refers to the cultural processes that
child would learn to speak would be Japanese and s/he the society actually follows in reality
would learn the Japanese tradition and be a part of the 3. Culture construct - Refers to the idea of culture of
Japanese culture. Thus, culture is learned behaviour any society as presented by a scholar. It is usually
and not genetically transmitted, it is inherited and extracted from both ideal and real culture
passed on from one generation to the other via the
medium of learning and symbols wherein, language
50 plays an important role.
 CASE STUDY

Malinowski while studying Trobriand people National Culture

enquired elders about incest taboo and got
the ideal definition (‘ldeal Culture’). Later some
youngsters too gave the ideal definition, but
afterwards they got informal with Malinowski. Sub-culture
When Malinowski asked them whether it really
entails the sanctions as prescribed, they told
him that not necessarily and that youngsters Occupation
do repeatedly indulge in it as it is romantic and
spicy. This is “Real culture.” What Malinowski
Familly
presented in his book, ‘The Argonauts of the
Western Pacific (I922),’ would be equivalent
to ‘Culture Construct.” Self

Figure: Sub-culture
Culture Trait and Complex
As per Hoebel, a cultural trait is the smallest irreducible
unit of learnt behaviour pattern or material product Summing up with the thoughts of Mclver, it is fairly
thereof. A culture complex meanwhile is a larger reasonable to say that the nature of culture is such
cluster of cultural traits organised about some nuclear that it is a manifestation of what we are as human
point of reference. beings.

Complex Acculturation and contra-acculturation

Multi-ethnic Acculturation:
Culture The concept of acculturation was first developed by
Subcultures R. Redfield, Linton and Herskovits in their joint paper
entitled, ‘Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation
(1936)’.
Figure: Cultural complex They defined it as the process of cultural change and
adaptation that occurs when individuals or groups
from different cultures come into direct continuous
contact.
ENCULTURATION VS.
It results either due to self-interest or under pressure.
ACCULTURATION For peaceful acculturation, both the groups
Must have close and continuous contact
Enculturation is the Acculturation is the Should have similarity in their culture pattern
acquisition of one's amalgamation of two
own culture. cultures. Should have similarity in their objective
Key Aspects of Acculturation
It involves a two-way exchange where both cultures
Enculturation is an Acculturation is not an influence each other.
essential requirement essential requirement
for survival. for survival. It can occur at individual, group, or societal levels,
affecting personal identities, community practices, and
broader social structures.
Enculturation is the Acculturation is not Stages of Acculturation
very first familiarization the first but second or
process to a particular third familiarization to Contact: Initial interaction between different cultures.
culture. various cultures. Conflict: Possible friction and resistance to new
cultural elements.
Crisis: A period of adjustment and possible identity
struggle. 51
 Adaptation: Gradual acceptance and integration of
cultural elements. CASE STUDY
Assimilation or Integration: Long-term incorporation
of new cultural traits, either blending into a new culture
(assimilation) or maintaining distinct cultural identities Tribal revolts like Birsa Movement were a
while coexisting (integration). reaction against the cultural contact with
Christian missionaries and Hindu outsiders.
Maori people of New Zealand and Native
CASE STUDY American tribes of the United States
have adopted some aspects of Western
culture, such as Christianity and Western
1. The Kubu tribe is a forest-dwelling tribe education. However, they have also resisted
in Indonesia that has been traditionally some aspects of Western culture, such as
hunter-gatherers but after coming into the loss of their traditional land and the
contact with mainstream Indonesian erosion of their cultural identity.
society have started wearing clothes and
going to school
2. The San Tribe of Botswana were
traditionally nomadic but have started
working as wage labourer after contact CASE STUDY
with mainstream society.

The Santal tribe has experienced

Outcomes of Acculturation significant acculturation due to interaction
with mainstream Indian society. Santals
Assimilation: Full adoption of the dominant culture’s
have adopted agricultural techniques,
traits, often leading to the loss of the original culture.
educational practices, and religious beliefs
Integration: Blending of cultural elements where from neighbouring communities. Many
individuals maintain their cultural identity while Santals have converted to Christianity or
participating in the dominant culture. Hinduism, integrating elements of these
Separation: Rejection of the dominant culture in favour religions with their traditional animist
of preserving the original culture. beliefs. Despite these changes, they
Marginalization: Loss or rejection of both the original continue to celebrate traditional festivals
and dominant cultures, leading to social isolation. like Sohrai and maintain their unique
musical and dance traditions.
Contra-Acculturation
If a common agreement is not reached between the
cultural norms and values, one group may develop hatred,
jealousy or rivalry against the other. This process is known
as contra-acculturation. It is essentially a revolt against CASE STUDY
acculturation. Thus, acculturation may or may not be
advantageous.
The Jarawa tribe of the Andaman Islands
represents a case of forced acculturation
CLIFF NOTE due to increasing contact with the outside
world. Traditionally isolated, the Jarawas
have faced significant changes due to
infrastructure development and tourism
in the Andaman Islands. Government
policies and interactions with settlers have
led to shifts in their subsistence practices,
health, and social structures. Efforts are
being made to balance integration with
the preservation of their unique cultural
identity, but the impact of acculturation
remains a critical concern.

52
 Contemporary Significance: The Superorganic(Summary)
Today, both the terms are used to describe the near
one-way influence of modern societies on simple/ Pertains to the structure of cultural elements
native populations, along with its implications on within society conceived as independent of and
applied anthropology. superior to the individual members of society

Individuals have very little, if any, impact on

culture's development and change
Super Organic View of culture
The term “superorganic” was probably first used by Culture plays a determining role in human
the early sociologist Herbert Spencer in the late 19th behavior
century, in contrast to “inorganic” or “organic.”
Culture has an existence outside of people and
The superorganic view of culture was first put forward
compels us to conform to patterns
by Emile Durkheim. However, it is A.L. Kroeber whose
name is most recognised with this view of culture.
The notion of the superorganic was brought into
anthropological discourse in 1917 in a debate between This concept was also adopted by other American
two students of Franz Boas viz. Alfred Kroeber and anthropologists like Lowie and White and in British
Edward Sapir, in the American Anthropologist. anthropology by the structural functionalists.

Underlying Concept:
This view argues that culture and cultural change cannot
be explained by reference to any other discipline. such as CASE STUDY
biology

Alfred Kroeber Totemism among indigenous cultures,

such as the Australian Aboriginals,
Understanding Culture as
Superorganic demonstrates the super organic aspects
of cultural beliefs and practices.
Historical Approach
Clifford Geertz’s study of Balinese
Deterministic
cockfighting illustrates the super organic
First American Textbook in
nature of cultural symbols and meanings.
anthropology (1923)

For Kroeber, culture constitutes a separate realm of

phenomena and as such it should be explained only in
terms of its own laws. This does not mean culture is
CASE STUDY
inorganic, but that it is simply more than organic, that
is, super organic.
It develops in an organic structure, but since it The caste system in India is an example of
possesses qualities like changeability, collectivity, a super organic cultural system that has
value pattern and transferability, therefore it should persisted for centuries, influencing social
be called superorganic. structure and individual behavior.
Thus, to Spencer, and other cultural-determinist Example: Despite various social and
sociologists and philosophers like Durkheim and Comte, political changes, the caste system
human society is superorganic since it exists at a higher continues to impact social interactions,
level of complexity than physical things or biological marriage patterns, and occupational
organisms. roles. It is a cultural framework that
Criticisms: individuals are born into and navigate,
but it operates as an overarching
It is argued that since cultural phenomena occur in
structure independent of any single
association with other psychological or ecological
person.
phenomena, it is untenable to separate them
analytically.
Critics suggest that cultural phenomena do not have
an independent existence and cannot be studied as if
they had.
The superorganic view of culture continues to evoke
regular debates in anthropology even to this date. 53
 Culture Pattern Example
Example of of cultural
cultural pattern
pattern
Definition: Culture Pattern: American Music
A culture pattern is formed when many traits and
complexes of culture become integrated into a functional Culture Complex: Culture Complex:
whole. Reggae Rap

History: Trait: colorful clothes, Trait: baggy/tight

dreadlocks pants, chains, tattoos
The concept of culture pattern has been known since Trait: Sean Paul, Bob Trait: Jay Z
long. Eminent scholars like B. Malinowski and A.L. Kroeber Marley Trait: bass, track
have dealt with universal patterns of culture. However, it Trait: Rasta lifestyle
was Ruth Benedict, who for the first time, attempted to
study the culture patterns of a particular group.
Culture Complex: Country
Ruth Benedict explanation of cultural pattern: Trait: Cowboy hats, boots
In her famous book, Patterns of Culture (1934),’ she Trait: Blake Shelton
has described the concept of culture pattern through Trait: slow bass/piano
the lens of configuration of culture.
Integration in any culture is due to the arrangements Benedict concludes that cultural patterns determine the
of its content in a particular style or design. This behaviour of human beings and culture pattern of a group
arrangement is called pattern by Benedict. is always contrasted to another group’s pattern. Thus, any
These separate culture patterns together present study on the development of culture has to factor in the
a grand design of culture as a whole, called the culture patterns of the group.
configuration of culture.
Is culture unique to human beings?
Example:
Definition of culture by different anthropologists:
Indian cultural pattern consists of spiritualism, joint
family system, caste system etc. Each of these is a culture Bronislaw Malinowski defined culture as “the integral
complex consisting of several cultural traits. whole consisting of implements and consumers’
goods, of constitutional charters for the various social
The Levels of Culture groupings, of human ideas and crafts, beliefs and
customs.”
Leslie A. White’s definition, from his work “The Science
of Culture” (1949), highlights the symbolic nature of
culture and its role in organizing human behavior and
thought.
Ruth Benedict has defined culture “as is the lens
through which man sees the world.”
Thus, as evident from above definitions, anthropologists
for a long-time defined culture as unique to humans.
However, Scholars like McGrew (1998) observed that
non-human primates engage in social activities that show
Culture all basic characteristics of human culture.
Several studies till date have shown that higher primates
Culture Pattern have the capacity to learn symbols.
Culture Complex Studies include:
Culture Trait Tool usage by Apes
Figure: cultural pattern Gestural Communication in Chimpanzees, by Jane
Goodall (1986)
Japanese Monkey Potato Washing, by Kawai (1965)
Ai Project of Kyoto University (Japan) observed
CLIFF NOTE
chimpanzees who were able to play computer games
and even help others to learn
Combining these and more such observations, it can
be said that apes are showing the prevalence of several
characteristics of culture, such as its acquired and learnt
54 behaviour, transferability, symbolic nature.
Yet, it does not mean that apes or any other animal is a
cultured being: How apes use gestures
As per Leslie White the ability to symbolise does not
simply mean to learn a few symbols but to freely
and arbitrary bestow meanings upon things and to
comprehend such meanings.
Thus, animals including apes, lack symbolic
interpretation of things and phenomena. They often
express themselves in sign language which is more
instinctive than learned. "Groom me" "Let's mate"
Michael Tomasello has observed that humans are the Scratching their chest Shaking a tree
only ones capable of pooling their cognitive resources
both in contemporary and historical time, bringing
about modifications in their cultural traditions.
All the studies done on apes are carried under lab
conditions. If the results of the lab can hold true in
natural surroundings and that too after considerable
long gaps in between the studies then only can this
discussion be taken forward. "Come here"
Beckoning with fingers pointing down

Leslie White (1900-1975)

Student of Sapir -
Unilineal evolutionary theory was
fundamentally sound.
Evolutionary development from simple
to complex, with increasing
specialization of the parts was just as
valid for cultures as it was for biology.
Problem was to develop a universal
standard of measurement.
1943 - Energy and the Evolution of
Culture

Figure: Tool Usage by Apes Thus, it is best to conclude that PRESENTLY culture is
unique to human beings

Comparison between Cultures with Civilísation

Definition:

Definition of culture: Definition of civilization:

Edward B. Tylor in his book, “Primitive Culture” (1871) J.L. Gillin (An Introduction to Human Culture, 1948):
has defined “Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, “Civilization is a more complex and evolved form of
ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which culture”.
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and Arnold Toynbee (A Study of History, 1934–1961):
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a “Civilization is a state of society in which the chief
member of society.” concern of the people is not to live but to live well.”
Max Weber (A Study of History, 1934–1961): “Civilization
is the rationalization of life.”
Lewis Mumford (City in History,1961): “Civilization is the
art of living”
Relationship between the culture and civilization:
They are both interdependent and interactive. Culture needs civilisation for further growth and civilisation needs culture
as its vital force and thus, its survival.
As per evolutionists like Tylor, Morgan and Frazer civilisation is the apex stage of cultural development.
55
 The objects of civilisation, after a period of time,
acquire a cultural significance. Example: Articles like CHARACTERISTICS OF A
coins, tools., clothes etc. become symbols of a society’s CIVILIZATION
culture. Early cities slowly developed into
civilizations. Civilizations had all of the
Civilisation tries to put t certain limitations on culture, following characteristics:
by determining the degree to which cultural activities
can be pursued.
Art and Architecture Specialized Workers
Civilisation is the driving force of society, and culture is
its steering wheel. This means that change in culture Social Classes Organized Government
results in change in civilisation.
Formalized Religion Record Keeping and Writing
Differences:
Developed Cities
Following Mclver, the differences include:
Figure: Elements of Civilization
Civilisation has a precise standard of measurement,
but not culture. This means that we can compare the
Summing up by the words of Mclver “civilisation is
products of civilisation, but not of culture. Example: We what we have, and culture is what we are.”
can say that a car runs faster than a bullock cart. But
we cannot say conclusively whether modem paintings
are better than those of earlier times. Culture as extra corporal behaviour of man is
dependent on the biological preconditioning
Civilisation is always advancing, but culture may or may
Language Acquisition: Broca’s and Wernicke’s
not. Example: We cannot assert that thoughts of today
Areas in the brain are biologically preconditioned to
are superior to those of the past.
facilitate language production and comprehension.
Elements of civilisation can be borrowed without This neurological basis allows for the complex cultural
change, loss or protest. The same is not applicable development of languages. Noam Chomsky’s theory
to cultural elements. Example: Railway system was of a “universal grammar” suggests that the ability to
borrowed as it is from one country to another, but acquire language is biologically ingrained, but the
certain elements of culture such as art or religion, have specific languages and linguistic structures we learn
never been borrowed in their original character. are culturally determined.
Civilisation is transmitted without efforts, but not Tool Use: The development of the first stone tools by
culture. The transmission of culture across generations Homo habilis was influenced by the species’ anatomical
depends on the personality and nature of the people, features, such as opposable thumbs and increased
and thus needs efforts. brain size, which allowed for precision grip and complex
Civilisation is external and mechanical, while culture is thought. Variety of tools in different regions represents
internal and organic. cultural innovation, but the ability to create and use
them was preconditioned by biological evolution.
Cognitive Abilities: The human brain’s complex
structure allows for abstract thinking, language, and the
Attitudes ability to create and transmit culture. Anthropologist
Art/
Drama/ Clifford Geertz emphasised the “symbolic nature” of
Beliefs
Music human thought, which is a result of our neurological
capacity.
Food
Bipedalism: The evolution of bipedalism freed the
Language hands for tool-making, a critical cultural development.
Culture The work of Raymond Dart and subsequent
anthropologists on Australopithecus africanus
Faith/ demonstrated how bipedalism and tool use are linked
Religion to cultural advancements.
Customs
Food Preferences: Humans have taste receptors that
prefer sweet and fatty foods which provide essential
Behaviour Rituals nutrients in the human evolutionary past. However,
cultural factors determine which foods are considered
desirable or taboo, leading to diverse culinary practices.
Figure: Elements of Culture Example: Biological adaptation of lactase persistence in
adults has led to cultural prominence of dairy products
such as cheese in European cuisines.
Social Behaviour: Human social behaviour is
56 profoundly influenced by biological factors such as
 genetic makeup, hormonal regulation, and neurological inculcates tolerance.
structures. However, these biological foundations are Understand human differences: It has helped
moulded and expressed through cultural practices. For understand the diversity among us, and thus busts
example, the biological response to grief, such as crying, sever myths like racism and the supposed ‘savage
is universal, but cultural practices around mourning nature of tribes.
differ widely. In some cultures, public displays of grief Applied anthropology: Anthropologists having a
are encouraged, while in others, they may be restrained cultural relativistic view can understand issues such
or even discouraged. (Rosenblatt P. C., 1976) as tribal unrest and Left-Wing Extremism in a better
Mating and family structures: Mating behaviours and manner. Their developmental solutions are often more
family structures are influenced by a combination of efficient, as they are compatible with the culture of
biological and cultural factors. Human reproductive their target groups.
strategies, such as monogamy or polygamy, are not Preserve human culture: Cultural relativists
solely determined by biology but are shaped by cultural understand that every culture is a treasure house of
norms and economic conditions. Example: Monogamy, knowledge. For instance, they insist on conservation
widely practised, is often seen as a cultural adaptation of tribal languages, irrespective of the number of
that ensures parental investment in offspring. While speakers.
humans may have a biological inclination toward pair
Help reform societies: Paul Rosenblatt says cultural
bonding, the cultural institution of marriage formalises
relativists are aware of values and understanding of
and regulates this behaviour.
a society. Thus, they know what arguments may work
Culture is a complex phenomenon that emerges from the in order to persuade a society’s members to give up
interaction between biological and environmental factors. practices that violate basic human rights.
While humans share common biological traits, cultural
Criticism:
diversity arises from the unique ways in which these traits
are expressed and adapted to different ecological and Elizabeth Zechenter has criticised cultural relativists,
social contexts. saying that they justify traditional practices that often
violate human rights, all in the name of cultural uniqueness.
Cultural relativism and why it is dear to
anthropologists.
CASE STUDY
Definition of Cultural relativism:
Franz Boas (The Mind of Primitive Man 1911): “Cultural
relativism is the principle of understanding another 1. Yanomami tribe of Venezuela and Brazil
culture on its own terms. believe that they are the only true people,
Ruth Benedict (Patterns of Culture 1934): “Cultural and that all other tribes are inferior. They
relativism is the attempt to understand the values and often refer to other tribes as “those who
standards of another culture in terms of that culture eat monkeys” or “those who eat fish.
itself, rather than evaluating them in terms of one’s 2. Massai tribe of Kenya and Tanzania believe
own culture. that they are the chosen people of God,
Margaret Mead (Coming of Age in Samoa 1928): and that all other tribes are inferior. They
“Cultural relativism is the recognition that all cultures often refer to other tribes as “the dirty
are equally valid and that no one culture is superior to ones” or “the foolish ones.”
another.”
History:
The concept originated with the emergence of the
historical particularism school of thought led by Franz ETHNOCENTRISM VERSUS
Boas, in the late 19th century. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Boas argued that every culture owes its particular state ETHNOCENTRISM CULTURAL RELATIVISM
to the historical processes through which the society William Graham Sumner, in his Cultural relativism is the notion
evolves. book Folkways (1906) refers that a culture should be
Ethnocentrism to “judgement of understood on its own terms,
Since these processes are unique, therefore every other people’s cultures, values not using standards of another
culture must be seen independently, and not in the or customs through the prism culture
context of another. of one’s own.” It arises due to
each group considering its Involves looking at another
culture as the most natural and culture by its own perspective
The first use of the term is believed to be done by Alain instead of one's own culture
Locke in 1924. best way of living.
Involves looking at another A person who believes in
Why it is dear to Anthropologists: culture from the perspective of cultural relativism understands
one's own culture that one culture is not better
Promote tolerance: Cultural relativism promotes than another
observation of different cultures from their perspective An ethnocentric individual will
believe that his culture is better,
and not ours. It adds an impartial objectivity, and thus 'correct' and 'normal 57
 Example Studying indigenous Criticizing non-
CASE STUDY rituals with respect Western traditions
as backward
Implications Can foster global Can foster conflict
Case studies of Cultural relativism:
tolerance and and cultural
1. Nuba tribe of Sudan has a tradition of body coexistence dominance
scarification which may seem strange to
people from other cultures, but it is an Similarities:
important as scarification is seen as a way Both present an extremist view: While ethnocentrism
to show beauty and to mark important life leans toward intolerance, cultural relativism leans
events. towards incredibly high tolerance of cultural features.
2. Mosuo tribe of China practices matrilineal Both have negative connotations: Extreme
society as it is seen as a way to ensure that ethnocentrism gives rise to racism, while extreme
women have a strong role in society. cultural relativism justifies traditional practices that
often violate human rights, all in the name of cultural
uniqueness.
Due to issues in both approaches, anthropologists
Comparison between cultural relativism and employ what is sort of a middle ground. This is
ethnocentrism. because it is almost impossible to be unbiased while
Cultural relativism is an anthropological approach that comparing cultures. This biasness may be due to one’s
emphasises on understanding any particular culture own cultural affiliation or due to one’s understanding
through the logic and meanings of that culture only, and perception of human rights and ethics. Hence, it
which is under observation. is important for anthropologists today to understand
In contrast with cultural relativism, ethnocentrism another culture without the need to approve or
refers to judgement of other people’s cultures, values disapprove of it.
or customs through the prism of one’s own. Human Rights and Cultural Relativism:
Understanding through an example: Human rights and cultural relativism are two important
but often conflicting concepts in anthropology and
Khasa tribe of Jaunsar-Bawar region of Uttarakhand
international discourse. Human rights refer to the
practice polyandry. An ethnocentric view from the
universal rights and freedoms to which all humans are
mainstream society would view this practice as derogatory.
entitled, while cultural relativism is the view that cultural
Reasons for practice: norms and values are context-specific and should be
Khasas live on hill slopes and their agro-productivity is understood within their own cultural framework.
very low. They practice polyandry to lower the economic Tensions between Human Rights and Cultural Relativism:
costs involved in marriage.
The conflict between human rights and cultural
A cultural relativist view would look at this perspective relativism arises when practices that are culturally
of Khasas and understand their practices. sanctioned come into direct conflict with universal
Comparison: human rights standards. For example, practices such
as female genital mutilation (FGM), child marriage,
Aspect Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism and certain forms of punishment can be deeply
rooted in cultural traditions but are condemned by
Definition Understanding Belief in cultural international human rights law.
cultural practices in superiority Cultural relativists argue that imposing universal human
context rights standards can lead to cultural imperialism,
Attitude Tolerant and non- Judgmental and where dominant cultures impose their values on less
judgmental often dismissive powerful cultures. They caution against a one-size-fits-
all approach to human rights, advocating instead for
Approach Contextual and Comparative and
a more nuanced understanding that respects cultural
empathetic biased
differences.
Focus Cultural diversity Cultural On the other hand, human rights advocates emphasize
and specificity homogeneity and that certain rights are fundamental and should be
superiority protected regardless of cultural context. They argue
Outcome Promotes Leads to prejudice that cultural relativism should not be used as a shield
understanding and and discrimination to protect practices that cause harm or perpetuate
respect inequality and discrimination.
58
 lag occur when there is a delay between the introduction
CASE STUDY of new technological innovations (material culture) and
the adjustments in societal norms, values, beliefs, and
institutions (non-material culture) that are necessary to
The Maasai and Female Genital Mutilation accommodate these innovations.
(FGM): Material vs. Non-material Culture:
Background: The Maasai, an indigenous Material Culture: Physical objects, resources, and
ethnic group in Kenya and Tanzania, have spaces that people use to define their culture. These
traditionally practiced FGM as a rite of include technology, tools, buildings, and all other
passage for girls. tangible cultural elements.
Conflict: International human rights Non-material Culture: Intangible aspects of a culture,
organizations consider FGM a violation of such as beliefs, practices, aesthetics, values, and
women’s and girls’ rights to health, security, norms.
and bodily integrity. Examples of Cultural Lag:
Resolution Efforts: NGOs and local activists Technological Advancements: The rise of the internet
have worked within Maasai communities to and social media has outpaced the development of
educate about the health risks of FGM and appropriate regulations, privacy norms, and ethical
promote alternative rites of passage. These considerations.
efforts aim to respect Maasai culture while
Medical Innovations: Advances in medical technology,
protecting girls’ rights.
such as genetic engineering and cloning, have led to
Outcome: Increasingly, Maasai ethical and legal debates that society has struggled to
communities are abandoning FGM in favor resolve.
of alternative ceremonies, demonstrating
Environmental Changes: The development of
how cultural practices can evolve to align
industrial technology has significantly impacted the
with human rights standards.
environment, but societal adjustments to mitigate
these impacts, such as the adoption of sustainable
practices and policies, have been slow.
Balancing Human Rights and Cultural Relativism:
Achieving a balance between respecting cultural diversity CASE STUDY
and upholding universal human rights requires dialogue
and a context-sensitive approach.
Interventions to promote human rights should be In the early 2000s, India experienced a
culturally sensitive and involve local communities in rapid increase in the availability and use of
the process. Efforts should be made to understand smartphones. This technological advancement
cultural practices and find culturally appropriate ways significantly impacted various aspects of
to advocate for change. Indian society, highlighting the concept of
One approach is to work with local leaders and cultural lag as non-material culture (norms,
communities to reinterpret cultural traditions in ways values, regulations) struggled to keep pace
that align with human rights principles. For example, with the new material culture (smartphones).
promoting alternative rites of passage that do not
involve harmful practices can help bridge the gap
between cultural traditions and human rights.
Implications of Cultural Lag:
The interplay between cultural relativism and human rights Cultural lag can lead to social problems and conflicts
is complex, requiring a nuanced approach that respects as society grapples with the implications of new
cultural diversity while advocating for the protection technologies and innovations.
of fundamental human rights. Through intercultural
It highlights the dynamic nature of culture and the
dialogue, culturally sensitive advocacy, and the contextual
challenges in achieving equilibrium between material
application of human rights, it is possible to navigate these
and non-material aspects of society.
tensions and promote a more inclusive and respectful
global human rights framework. Criticisms and Relevance:
William Ogburn and Cultural Lag: Some critics argue that the concept of cultural lag
oversimplifies the complex interactions between
William Fielding Ogburn was an American sociologist different elements of culture.
known for his concept of “cultural lag.” Cultural lag refers
Despite criticisms, the concept remains relevant in
to the period of adjustment when the non-material culture
contemporary discussions about the impact of rapid 59
is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. Cultural
 technological advancements on society. underscores the challenges that arise when non-material
William Ogburn’s concept of cultural lag provides a useful culture struggles to keep pace with material culture,
framework for understanding the temporal gap between leading to social tensions and the need for ongoing
technological innovations and societal adaptation. It adjustments in norms, values, and institutions.

The Nature of Society Concept of Society

Definition:
George H. McGee (Society: An Introduction to Sociology, 2006): “Society is the largest indistinguishable unit of
interacting individuals who share a pattern of social organisation that regulates their interaction.”
Bronislaw Malinowski Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922): “Society is the way of life of a people, the totality of
their learned and transmitted behavior patterns, their customary ideas and values.”
Edward Tylor (Primitive Culture, 1871).: “Society is a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Clifford Geert (the Interpretation of Cultures, 1973): “Society is a system of symbols and meanings that people use
to construct their world and to communicate with each other

Development of the Society:

Classical evolutionists did not differentiate between
society and culture, using them interchangeably.
It was the development of social anthropology in Britain,
and cultural anthropology in America, that led to the
distinction between the two.
Functionalists believed that the necessity of fulfilling
needs makes us social, and thus gives rise to the concept
of society.

Characteristics: Value addition:

Mclver has called society a web of social relations. There
is always a mutual recognition of the members’ status
Caste
and actions. System
Likeness among members is an essential prerequisite
for a society. However, differences too are vital, for there
to be interaction. Cultural Joint
Lag Family
Members of a society are interdependent on each other. Characteristics
Cooperation is an integral element of society. of Indian Society
Parsons and LaPiere have remarked that society
consists of groups involved in reciprocal relationships,
Patriarchal Marriage
enabling them to fulfil their needs. Society System

Figure: Characteristics of Indian Society

It is today agreed that society, as a concept goes beyond the human world and is prevalent in several species of living
beings.

60
Comparison between society and culture:
Introduction:
The first to study culture and society were the classical evolutionists, who did not differentiate between the two and
used them interchangeably. With the gradual development of anthropology, in particular social anthropology in Great
Britain, and cultural anthropology in America, three main views emerged:

1. Culture as an all embracing phenomena

Anthropologists who define culture as an all-embracing
phenomenon, encompassing social organisation, Culture
structure and society as a whole.
Leading proponent of this view was Malinowski.
It means that culture not only includes but is largely Society
responsible for all human behaviour.
Environment

Economy

2. Culture as distinct from society As per Radcliffe-Brown, society deals with interpersonal
Anthropologists who dichotomise between the culture and inter-group relationships, while culture is the overall
and society. design of human behaviour.
This includes mostly British anthropologists like Radclife- As per Nadel, culture is a way of life of the people, while
Brown, Evans-Pritchard and S.F. Nadel. society is an organised and interacting aggregate of
individuals who follow a given way of life, that is, their
culture.

3. Culture and Society as two aspects of social realities Strauss defined society as “a system of relations between
Anthropologists who steer a middle course by accepting individuals” and culture as “the totality of the learned
both as two aspects of social realities viewed from and shared behavior patterns of a society.” He argued in
different dimensions. Culture mainly relates to action his theory of structuralism that society and culture are
and behaviour, while society to relationship and grouping. inseparable, and that they can only be understood in terms
of each other.
Leading proponent of this view was Levi-Strauss.

Today, it is widely agreed that culture and society are interwoven and interdependent concepts which cannot exist
without each other.

Social institutions:
Definition:
Mclver and Page, “Social institutions refer to established forms or the condition of a procedure characteristic of group
activity”.
Melville J. Herskovits (Man and His Works: The Science of Cultural Anthropology): “A social institution is a set
of customary ways of thinking, feeling, and acting in relation to one or more aspects of social life that have been
established in a society over a period of time.”
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (Structure and Function in Primitive Society): “A social institution is a complex of customary
activities, organized for the satisfaction of some recurrent social need.”
Clifford Geertz (The Interpretation of Cultures): “A social institution is a system of established meanings and symbols,
organized for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, for the regulation of status and
role relationships, and for the socialization of new members.”
61
 Importance:
The functionalist view that institutions operate to Social Institutions
satisfy biological and psychological needs of individuals,
and society as a whole. Family Education Religion
The structural functionalist view that institutions
operate to maintain continuity and unity of the society. Government Economics

Characteristics:
Functions of a Social Institutions
Every institution has a definitive objective to be achieved
by its members.
1 Maintain order and security
They are a means of controlling individuals, and in this
effect, they are more stable than other means of social 2 Shape values and beliefs
control.
They are governed by rules and regulations. 3 Help society to function efficiently
They have some definite proceedings formed as per
customs and dogmas. 4 Act as agents of socialization
Their function and proceedings depend upon the
collective actions of the members.

Types of social institution:

1. Primary: Operate in five basic areas of life (shown in table). These are deeply rooted in human nature, and thus exist
almost everywhere, at least in rudimentary form.
2. Secondary : Are derived from each of the primary institutions

Primary Institution Area of operation of the primary institute Secondary Institutions corresponding to the
primary institution
Family Determining kinship Marriage, Divorce
Government/State Providing for legitimate use of power Democracy, Parliament
Religion Directs our relationship to the supernatural Temple, Church
Economy Regulating distribution of goods and services Trade and commerce
Education Transmitting knowledge School, College

According to Lester F. Ward, social institutions are the means for controlling and utilization of social energy. Thus, they
are the backbone of any society and its culture.
Understanding Mclver and Page’s definition: It means that institutions provide for systematic way of group activity, due
to their organised nature and defined set of proceedings.
Example: The institution of marriage is governed by certain norms and principles, which direct the way two families
associate with each other and the way the couple live thereafter.

CLIFF NOTE

62
Social groups
Definition:
Mclver (Society: A Textbook of Sociology): “A social group is any collection of human beings brought into social
relationships with one another”.
George H. Mcgee (Society: An Introduction to Sociology). : “A social group is a collection of people who interact with
each other on a regular basis and share a common identity.”
William Ogburn (Social Change With Respect to Culture and Original Nature) “A social group is a collection of people
who are bound together by common interests, values, and norms.”
Charles Horton Cooley (Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind): “It is a collection of people who are aware
of each other’s existence and who have some sense of shared identity.”
Characteristics: Value addition:
Members are involved in reciprocal relationships and
thus there exists interdependence. Characteristics of Social Groups
There is a sense of unity among the members, a type of Permanence beyond meetings of members.
“WE” feeling. Means for identifying members.
It is sustained due to the need to fulfil common interests Mechanisms for recruiting new members.
of the members. Goals or purposes.
It is governed by certain norms of the group, acceptable Norms for behavior.
to the members.
Means for controlling members' behavior.
It is dynamic and changes with the changing needs and
behaviour of the members.
Types of Social Groups: The most used classification has
been given by Cooley, who has divided social groups into: Differences between Primary
1. Primary social group:
and Secondary Groups
It comprises a small number of people, engaged in Primary Secondary
face-to-face intimate association and cooperation. Size Small Large
Example: family, childhood friends.
Relationships Personal, Impersonal, aloof
Primary groups are the nucleus of any social intimate
organisation. They are like a nursery where an Communication Face to face Indirect
individual’s behaviour and personality are shaped.
Duration Permanent Temporary
The individual’s need to remain in primary group is a
Cohesion Strong sense Based on
major factor in the maintenance of social order. of loyalty self-interest
2. Secondary: Decisions Traditions and Rules and
Such groups provide experiences lacking in intimacy. personal feeling rational thought
Membership is based on rules and norms, and Social Structure Informal Formal
is voluntary. These are characterised by formal
interactions, and generally, the aim of membership is
personal benefit. Example: class, workplace, political
parties
Due to the complex modern social life, the prominence of secondary social groups has increased. They are taking up
functions that were previously the exclusive domain of primary ones. Studies show that primary groups get formed even
in secondary groups. This is a further testament of the social nature of human beings. Example: workplaces.

Social stratification
Definition:
Melville J. Herskovits: “The hierarchical arrangement of people into social categories based on their access to wealth,
power, and prestige.
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown(Structure and Function in Primitive Society): “The division of society into a hierarchy of social
positions, each with its own rights and duties
Clifford Geertz (The Interpretation of Cultures): “The unequal distribution of resources, power, and prestige in
society.
63
 Characteristics: Value addition:
It has its roots in social inequality. Perspectives of anthropologists:
These inequalities are institutionalized and legitimized Functionalists like Durkheim, Parsons and Merton opine
by the society itself. that stratification ensures group solidarity, political
Basis of inequality varies from time to time, and consolidation and economic cooperation. It thereby
geography. Example: India, caste is the said basis, while enhances the efficiency of operations within a society.
in West, it is often class. Marxists regard stratification, in particular class
It is always social in nature, not biological. stratification, to be the source of all conflict and
Members of a stratum tend to have common life style, revolution in a society. Stratification is often the source
distinguishable from other strata. of economic, social and political inequality, due to denial
of equal opportunities to all.
Power plays an important role in maintaining social
stratification.
Social stratification has its positives and negatives, but there is no doubt that it is a reality in almost all societies, even
amongst those which were previously nearly egalitarian.
Basis of Stratification:
Caste: A hierarchical, endogamous social group, whereby
a person’s rank and associated rights/obligations are
Brahmins
ascribed on the basis of birth in a particular group. In Priests,
the Indian society, caste has two connotations - Varna Academics
and jati.
Kshatriyas
Class: A group of individuals sharing the same economic Warriors, Administrators,
Rulers
status. Class has an orientation towards achieved
status. Ranking is value dependent. Example: In some Vaishyas
societies, prestige is more valued over money, and thus Artisans, Merchants,
Tradesmen, Farmers
they rank classes accordingly.
Estate - Associated with medieval European feudal Shudras
Commoners, Peasants, Servants
society.

Dalits (Untouchables)
Street Sweepers, Latrine Cleaners

Figure: social stratification on caste

There were three estates:
Clergy
Nobility
others (commoners) Aristocracy

Whose set of relationships revolved around the three

concepts of land (fief), lord and vassal. The system is not Clergy
existent today

Serfs

Estate Systems
Characterizes the status hierarchies found in Europe
prior to capitalism.
Membership in the Church (clergy) was not based on
ascribed characteristics.
However, highest rankings within clergy come from first
estate (aristocracy).
Like the caste system, position in an estate system is
determined at birth. Contact is permitted, but generally
impersonal.

64
Status and role
Status and role are two integral concepts related to society, which were first systematically detailed by Ralph Linton, in
his book, The Study of Man (1936).
Definition of Status:
ASCRIBED ACHIEVED
Ralph Linton: “A position in a social structure with its
accompanying rights and duties”. Daughter Friend
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown: “A collection of rights and duties.”
It has two connotations : Sister Worker
1. A person’s social position without reference to any
contrasting higher or lower ones Female Student
2. Designation of one’s ranking in the social system as lower
or higher than others
17 years Team
old member

African
American Classmate

Linton gave two types of status :

Ascribed Status Achieved Status

Definition Based on birth in a group, sex, age etc. It is Based on personal achievements.
accorded to an individual without any of his/her Example: class
efforts.
Example: caste system
Criteria Age, sex, race, caste etc. Qualities, capabilities, abilities
Nature Is rigid and stable. Its basis does not change Is flexible and fast-changing
easily. E.g. Indian caste system has been almost
unchanged since centuries
Pre-conditions for None Exist.
attaining status Example: Qualification is needed to become a
doctor.
Mobility Limits put on mobility from one status to Freedom of mobility
another
Issue (Davis) Rigidity and restricted mobility Excess specialisation, leading to uncontrolled
individualism, and thus loss of social cohesion

MASTER STATUS
In every society there is always one status that tends to overshadow all other statuses or is given more importance
by others. This is called the master status.
Gender, race and caste for instance often become master statuses in highly stratified societies. Conflict sociologists
often engage with ascribed statuses of gender and race as they argue that these often shape the individual’s life
chances including income, occupation, education, social networks and so on.
Similarly, mental or physical disability can also become a master status and govern the everyday behaviour of the
society towards the disabled.

65
 Definition of Role:
1. Ralph Linton: “The dynamic aspect of status; the part played by an individual occupying a status.”
Linton distinguished role from status by calling it the dynamic aspect of status. When one puts his/her rights and
duties associated with his/her status into effect, he/she is performing a role. Thus, role is a pattern of behaviour
associated with a particular status
2. Talcott Parsons: “The organized set of expectations (norms) defining the rights and duties of a given position
3. Banton (1965):- Roles are a “cluster of rights and obligations” and what is one individual’s obligation is his/her partner’s
right. So in a restaurant a waitress is obliged to serve and the customer has the right to be served. This way, “the
concept of role”, Banton writes, “provides one of the available means for studying elements of cooperation
”Meaning of a role is only found in interaction with other roles.
Example: father-son, teacher-student
Types:
Role is of two types: achieved and ascribed on the exact same lines as status.
Like ascribed statuses, the ascribed roles are the ones that are given at birth.
From the time an individual is born, role learning begins which is a part of what we know as socialization. These roles
pertain to one’s sex (gender), age, kinship, caste, class, and so on.
The achieved roles on the other hand are the ones that are largely acquired over a lifetime on the basis of merit such
as occupational roles of a farmer, salesperson, banker, shopkeeper, driver, lawyer, professor et cetera.
Scholars View:
Honigmann opines that role plays an important part in personality formation, through the interactions, expectations
and conflicts associated with a role.
Slotkin has further added that society regulates behaviour by establishing customary relationships between roles.
The structuralists (Linton, Banton, Parsons and Merton) view roles as norms and expectations associated with
statuses in the social structure where individuals are socialized into “role taking”. Linton (1936) writes: “…the more
perfectly the members of any society are adjusted to their and roles the more smoothly the society will function”. This
way the functionalist also assume consensus on part of the individuals.
The social interactionists (Mead, Turner) on the other hand argue that individuals though bound by the structure and
its given expectations interpret and evaluate their roles and engage in negotiation. For interactionists this is a creative
process of “role making” rather than just unquestioning internalization of given expectations.

Contemporary Significance:
No society is purely of ascribed or achieved status type.
Social interaction are not concerned with persons but their social status. Thus, social interaction is essentially ‘status
interaction.”
In today’s society, role conflicts have increased due to confusion over one’s status. This is due to modernisation, new and
conflicting cultural values and weakening kinship ties.

66
BASIC, GENERAL AND INDEPENDENT ROLES Social structure
Banton (1965:33) developed a scale giving a comparison Introduction:
of the extent to which particular roles are independent of
Social structure along with social organisation is one of
other roles.
the two main components of a social system. There is no
s 0 l universal definition for it.
0 100
independent
Basic roles general roles
roles Social Status
Social Structure
s = sex roles a = age roles o = occupational roles 1= leisure roles Institutions Role
a) Basic roles: Basic roles are mostly determined by sex
and age, ascribed to individuals at birth and these roles Definition:
shape conduct in a large number of social contexts. • Marxists define social structure as “a mechanism
b) General roles: General roles are mostly assigned on ensuring social continuity or conservation.”
the basis of merit of the individual. • Radcliffe-Brown (Structure and Function in Primitive
c) Independent roles: Independent roles are determined Society 1952),’ defined social structure as “the total
by merit and have very less implications for other network of social relationships in a society”. He called it
roles and on the way people respond to the person a continuing arrangement of persons and groups.
who occupies the independent role. Examples
It is generally accepted that social structure includes
of independent roles are leisure roles and many
institutions, status and role.
occupational roles.
Radcliffe-Brown opined that social structure has to be
Usually an individual’s sex role shapes the individual’s seen from the perspective of institutions, as institutions
conduct and the response of others towards him or her control and define status and roles.
more than any other role. Occupational roles also shape
the way people respond to an individual particularly in
work space or social gatherings. The leisure roles are
more independent and have limited influence outside of a CASE STUDY
particular setting for example, golfer in a golf club.
In Bathonga of Eastern Africa, the institution
of family is such that there exists an
CASE STUDY asymmetrical joking relationship between the
mother’s brother and sister’s son. The latter
Role of women in India’s National Security behaves in an utterly disrespectful manner
and Combat: An In-Depth Study (Financial with the former. Tradition demands the uncle
Express, Feb 2024) to not retaliate. Contrastingly, one must
show great respect to one’s father’s brother.
India has long opposed allowing women Radcliffe-Brown explains that this ensures
to serve in combat roles, citing concerns maintenance of the patrilineage and thus the
about their vulnerability if caught. Bathonga social structure as a whole.
Women’s roles within the Indian Army
have evolved over time. Initially admitted
as nurses, their responsibilities expanded
as demand grew. In 2020, women officers
were granted permanent commissions CLIFF NOTE
in the Army, with the added benefit of
eligibility for command postings.
Recently, the Indian Army has taken
significant steps towards gender inclusion
by considering enlisting women as jawans,
thereby broadening their representation
in the military. This shift in perspective
comes after the successful integration of
women into the Corps of Military Police.

67
 Reference groups Value addition:
Role repertoire - Sum total of all roles performed by
Mclver has defined a social group as “any collection of an individual. Each individual has multiple set of roles
human beings brought into social relationships with one associated with his/her status.
another”. The members of the group identify and interact Role expectations and role conflict - Role expectation refers
with each other in a personal manner. Several types of such to a person’s understanding of how to enact a given role
groups have been classified, one of which is a reference by himself or by others. If these expectations are unmet, it
group. leads to role conflict.
Evolution of reference group: ROLE CONFLICT AND ROLE STRAIN
The concept of reference group was originally given by While role conflict takes place between roles associated
Hayman. It was then developed by R.K. Merton. with two different statuses of an individual, role strain is
experienced when different responsibilities associated
Explanation of reference group: within a single status are incompatible.
At times, some or all members of a group may conform People try to manage role conflict by role
to the norms of a different group than the one they compartmentalization or separating Status and Role
belong. The group with which they want to be identified where they try to keep what they do in one role distinct
with, becomes their reference group. from what they do in another and giving priority to one
A reference group may be derived from several reasons, role over the other
such as economic position or occupational role of a Composite Model of Caste Mobility
person or the entire group itself. Upward mobilization Downward
mobilization
Application in India: Sanskritization Tribalization
Brahmin
Westernization upper caste
The concepts of Sanskritisation and Westernisation carry Kshatriya Peasantization
Politicization
the concept of reference group at their very core. Vaishya
lower caste De-sanskritization
Modernization
Sudra
According to M.N. Srinivas, sanskritisation is the Neo-globalization Untouchables
Untouchables
process by which lower castes or tribal groups emulate a Hinduisation Tribal
dominant caste, preferably a dvija (twice-born), to claim Religious Conversions
a higher social status. Thus, the higher castes become a
reference group for them.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND
SOCIAL ORGANISATION (Firth, 1956)
CASE STUDY
SOCIAL STRUCTURE SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Social structure Refers to the choices and
Surajit Sinha had observed that for the tribe encompasses the more decisions made within
Bhumij of Barabhum, the Rajputs have always fundamental social social relationships.
been the reference group due to their high relations that shape a
social status. society's basic form.
These underlying Focuses on the dynamic
structures act as aspects of society,
Similarly, in the case of Westernisation, the reference constraints on individual highlighting individual
group for the higher castes and other groups were the actions, reflecting the agency and the potential
Britishers or in general the Western society. They viewed more stable and enduring for change.
it as a symbol of power, modernity and progress. aspects of social life.
Hence, the concept of reference group has been It embodies the continuity Organisation embodies
instrumental in examining social change in India. principle, representing the variation principle,
the persistent elements of encompassing the
society. capacity for change and
individual choices within a
society.
Example- Caste system in Example- Within the caste-
Indian society represents based society, if a group of
a continuity principle and individuals from different
decides individuals' social castes form a trade
standing, occupations, and union, it reflects social
even marriage prospects organisation.
68 from birth.
 Major Scholarly Views of Social Structure
1. Structural Functionalism:
Scholars like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, P.G. Murdock, Talcott Parsons, and Robert K.
Merton, view social structure as the interrelated parts of society that function together to maintain social order and
stability. These parts, often referred to as social institutions (e.g., family, education, government, religion), are seen as
essential for fulfilling the basic needs of society and its members.
Structural functionalists often employ a biological analogy, comparing society to an organism where each organ (or
institution) plays a vital role in the overall well-being of the organism (society). For example-Radcliffe-Brown highlights
the significance of social morphology (structure) and social physiology (function) in understanding how societies
work.
They emphasize the importance of shared norms and values in maintaining social cohesion and integration
2. Structuralism:
Championed by Claude Levi-Strauss, this approach distinguishes between social structure and social relations,
arguing that social structure is not directly observable. Instead, it is a model built upon the analysis of existing social
relations.
Structuralists look for underlying patterns and structures that shape human thought and behaviour, often focusing
on kinship systems, myths, and rituals to uncover these hidden structures.
They are interested in the ways these structures shape social life even if individuals are not consciously aware of
them.
For example- Louis Dumont’s work on the caste system in India.
3. Marxism:
Grounded in the theories of Karl Marx, this perspective views social structure as primarily determined by economic
forces, specifically the relations of production.
Marxists argue that society is divided into classes based on their relationship to the means of production (owners
versus workers). This division leads to class conflict, which is seen as the driving force of social change.
They emphasize the concept of superstructure, which encompasses institutions like law, politics, and ideology, and
argue that these institutions serve to maintain and legitimize the power of the ruling class.

BREAKDOWN OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ANOMIE

Durkheim, first introduced the concept of anomie in his book, The Division of Labour in Society (1893).
He argued that societies require a certain level of social integration and regulation to function effectively. When these
structures – social integration and regulation – weaken or break down, individuals experience anomie. This state of
normlessness arises when society fails to provide clear guidelines for behaviour, leading to a sense of disorientation,
anxiety, and even deviance.
Robert K. Merton, built upon Durkheim’s concept of anomie, developing what he termed strain theory.
Anomie arises from a disconnect between culturally defined goals and the legitimate means available to achieve
those goals. He argued that societies often promote certain aspirations (e.g., economic success, material wealth),
but the opportunities to achieve these goals are not equally distributed.When individuals internalise these goals but
lack the means to achieve them through socially acceptable pathways, they experience strain or frustration, which
can lead to anomie and potentially deviant behaviour.

69
 Chapter: 3
MARRIAGE, FAMILY
AND KINSHIP
SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
Marriage:
Definition and universality; Discuss the role of marriage regulations in
Laws of marriage (endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, traditional societies in India for strengthening social
hypogamy, incest taboo); solidarity. (20 M. 2023)
Type of marriage (monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, Marriage Regulations and Alliance Theory (10 M,
group marriage). 2021)
Functions of marriage;
Ways of acquiring mate in Tribal society. 10 M
Marriage regulations (preferential, prescriptive and (2018)
proscriptive);
Discuss the Different forms of preferential marriage
Marriage payments (bride wealth and dowry).
with suitable examples from tribal societies in India.
15 M (2017)
Define marriage& describe the various types of
marriages in human societies. (15 M 2014)
Where do you situate ‘live-in relationship’ within the
institution of marriage? (15 M 2013)
Ways of acquiring a spouse in simpler societies (15
M 2012)
How does taboo serve as a means of social control?
(15 M 2013)
Incest Taboo (2006)

70
 SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
Family:
Definition and universality; Family, household and Household and domestic group (10 M,2022)
domestic groups;
Explain the impact of feminist movement on
Functions of family;
universality of marriage and family structure. (15 M,
Types of family (from the perspectives of structure, 2020)
blood relation, marriage, residence and succession);
Discuss the impact of urbanization and feminist
Impact of urbanization, industrialization and
movements on family in India. (15 M, 2016)
feminist movements on family.
Define family and critically examine Universality of
Family. (15 M ,2015)
Discuss the impact of urbanization and feminist
movement on family. (20M ,2013)
Is family a social institution? (12M ,2012)
What do you understand by Feminist movements?
Discuss their impact on family. (15 M,2002)
Critically comment on the forces and factors that
have brought about changes in the family structure
in recent times (1999)

SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
Kinship:
Consanguinity and Affinity; Critically discuss A.L. Kroeber’s contribution to
Principles and types of descent (Unilineal, Double, kinship studies. (15 M, 2023).
Bilateral Ambilineal);
Discuss how rules of descent contradicts the
Forms of descent groups (lineage, clan, phratry, principle of residence in matrilineal society,
moiety and kindred); mentioning suitable examples? (20 M, 2022)
Kinship terminology (descriptive and classificatory);
Descent group (10 M, 2021)
Descent, Filiation and Complimentary Filiation;
Explain the structural analysis of kinship as
Decent and Alliance.
proposed by Levi-Strauss (15 M, 2021)
Explain the structural analysis of Kinship as
proposed by Levi-Strauss (15 M, 2021)
How did Radcliffe-Brown and Lewis-Strauss study
kinship in terms of social structure (15 M 2019)
Kinship Terminology (10 M ,2018)
Elucidate the determinants of kinship terminology
(15 M,2017)
Bilineal and bilateral descents. (10 M,2017)
Short notes on Lineage and Clan (10 M,2016)
Describes the cardinal points of descent and
alliance theories(20 M, 2016)
Double Descent (10 M 2014)
Various types of descent (10 M 2013)
71
 MARRIAGE

Definition and universality of Marriage:

Scholars Definition Issues

Malinowski and A legal marriage is “one which He emphasized on legitimacy however he did not answer
Brown gives a woman a socially recognize what exactly marriage was.
husband and her children a socially
recognized father”.
Notes and Queries Defines marriage as a “union Objections by Edmund Leach :
(1951) between man and a woman such Union between a man and a woman does not
that the child born to the women is justifies:
recognized as a legitimate offspring Polygamy, Example: Fraternal-Todas of Nilgiri, Non-
of both parents” fraternal- Nayar
Polygamy, Example: Muslim tribe
Polygyny, Example: Khasa of Jaunsar and Bawar
Women to women marriage, Example: Nuer of South
Sudan
Ghost marriage, Example: British Columbia
Kathleen Gough Define marriage, “as a relationship One or more other person: The term “person” is
in "The Nayar and established between a woman gender- neutral.
the Definition of and one or more other persons, in Rules of relationship: Every society has different rules
Marriage (1959)" which the child born to the woman which must not be broken.
under certain circumstances not
Full birth status right: Rights can be social, political
prohibited by the rules of the
economical etc.
relationship, is accorded full birth-
status rights, common to normal Society or social stature: Society has common rights
members of the society or social for their members but societies like Indian Varna
stratum.” based society have different rights for different strata.
It excludes male to male marriage: which is
recognized by several European societies. Example:
Azande, Cheyne Indian.
Prince Peter According to him, “role of husband Does not account for legitimacy accounted to
and wife must be discussed in children.
terms of rights and obligation, thus,
he defined marriage in terms of
"role performed by couples"
Thus, Edmund Leach concluded that a single definition of marriage cannot be applied to all cultures.

CASE STUDY

Gender Pluralism and Same Sex marriage

Prominent lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) figures have argued that marriage is
an oppressive institution and that legalizing same-sex marriage would not benefit the most marginalized
members of the community, particularly Black people in USA. However, views are changing of late.
Supreme court of India’s Justice Sanjay Kaul in a judgement accepted non-heterosexual relationships as part
of the “pluralistic social fabric” and an “integral part of Indian culture”, yet the court refused to legalise same-
sex marriage in India.

72
Anthropological perspective on marriage: Universality of Marriage:

Anthropological Perspectives Universality of marriage can be explained via functions

and need it serves Edmund Leach (1955), give following
function of marriage:
David Schneider:
Functionalism:
Marriage as cultural According to Edmund Leach,
Bronislaw Malinowski
construct marriage includes:
Social identity of children (who is
Jane Goody: Relationship the legal father or legal mother?)
between marriages, Structuralism: Claude Regulating sexual intercourse
property, social Levi- Strauss
organization Rights to spouse's labor / sexual
division of labor
Rights over spouses' property
Margaret Mead: Gender Joint fund of property & rules of
and marriage practices inheritance
in various culture Establishing relations between
spouses & their relatives, or
relations of affinity

Marriage regulations:
Marriage regulations refer to the” norms that direct the nature, structure and functions of marriage in a society.”

According to Neelam, 1962, they are classified as:

1. Preferential marriage:
Preferential marriage norms promote a particular kind of relationship for marriage purposes. These preferences are
based on factors like kinship, social status or wealth. However, breaking these norms does not entail severe sanctions.
It includes cousin marriage (Example-Middle East), levirate and sororate.

Cousin Marriage: Levirate and sororate:

In societies with unilineal descent systems (patrilineal or A sororate marriage is one in which a member of the
matrilineal), the incest taboo is often defined based on the bride’s family, typically a sister or cousin, will be married to
distinction between two kinds of first cousins. the husband if the wife passes away.
Parallel Cousins: Children of two brothers or two sisters. Conversely, a levirate marriage is one in which a brother or
Cross Cousins: Children of a brother and a sister. other male member of the husband’s family will be married
to a husband’s widow.
Parallel and Cross Cousins
Levirate and Sororate
and Patrilineal Moiety Organization
Sororate

2 = 1 1 = 2 1 = 2 2 = 1 2 = 1
= Michael
Sarah

2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
Levirate

Cross cousins. Cross Egos.

, cousins belong to the ,
Sarah =
opposite moiety from ego.
Michael
Parallel cousins. Parallel 1, 2 Patrimoiety
, cousins belong to the same affiliation.
moiety as ego. Sarah's descent group

Michael's descent group

73
 Matrilineal Moiety Organization
CASE STUDY

1 = 2 2 = 1 2 = 1 1 = 2 1 = 2 For Mossi of Burkina Faso, the levirate

system provides widows and children with
financial and emotional support.
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Neur of Sudan (voluntary) and Yanomami
of Venezuela (mandatory), sororate is
considered ideal form of marriage in order
Cross cousins. Cross Egos. to take care for children and to continue
, cousins belong to the ,
opposite moiety from ego.
relationship between two families

Parallel cousins. Parallel 1, 2 Matrimoiety

, cousins belong to the same affiliation.
moiety as ego.

CASE STUDY

In Tlingit people of North America, cross

cousin marriage helps to maintain alliance
between families as the mother’s brother’s
daughter is considered to be the ideal wife.
(Matrilineal kinship system)

2. Prescriptive marriage:
Prescriptive marriage norms are too strictly followed in a society and breaking them entails strong sanctions.
It includes endogamy i.e. caste endogamy and exogamy i.e. gotra exogamy

Brahmins
Priests

Kshatriyas
Kings, Rulers, Warriors

Vaishyas
Merchants, Crafsmen, Landowners,
Skilled Workers

Shudras
Commoners, Peasants, Servants

Dalits (Untouchables)
Street Sweeper, Human/Animal Waste Removers,
Dead Body Handlers, Outcastes
74
3. Prospective marriage:
Prospective marriage norms forbid marriage between
specific social relations, so as to prohibit mating between
such relations. Prospective norms include incest taboo and The Incest Taboo
avoidance.
Example: Father-daughter incest is tabooed in all society.
Law
CASE STUDY
Biological
Laura Fortunato studied Kpelle people of Aversion
Liberia and found out they have complex
system of rules and regulations governing
prospective marriage

Inbreeding

CASE STUDY

The Mosuo of China does not practice incest

taboo due to matriarchal society where
men are not involved in child bearing and no
opportunity for incestuous relationship to
develop.

Live in relationship:
It refers to arrangement of living under which couples that are unmarried decide to live together on a long term or
permanent basis in an emotional or/ and sexually intimate relationship similar as in marriage.
Reasons for rise:
To test their mutual compatibility before committing to a legal union.
Immense personal freedom without having to worry about family responsibility.
Financial independence as there is no need to enter into a joint fund venture as in marriage.
To easily dissolve the relationship, without worrying about finances, family view and social norms.
To live with each other if marriage is allowed due to law restrictions. Example- homosexual couples.
Inclusion in ambit of marriage:
Depends upon social recognition and not legal recognition
Example-
Many Western European communities gave live- in- relation equal rights as bestowed upon same status as by marriage
whereas in India, it is recognized but as of now, society does not accept them in general.
Threat to marriage:
Live- in- relationships cannot replace marriage because they can never offer the kind of security and emotional
fulfillment that a marriage provides. Even in modern society, live- in- relationship are treated as precursors to marriage,
to check compatibility. it is not considered as an outright replacement of manage.

75
 FORMS OF MARRIAGE REGULATIONS
Murdock in his book, Social Structure (1949) has focused on laws of marriages such as:
Endogamy Exogamy
Endogamy is cultural rules emphasizing the need to marry Exogamy is cultural rules emphasizing the needs to marry
within a socially defined unit i.e. to marry within one’s own outside a socially defined unit but within an endogamous
group. group as there exist further the smaller groups within
Example: Indian Hindu societies follow caste endogamy. which one cannot marry. Example: Naga, Garo, Munda
follow village exogamy.

CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY

Ethnic groups like Amish and Hasidic Jews

Navajo of Native American tribe considers
in The United States practices endogamy.
a taboo for a Navajo person to marry
Marriages are arranged by families of bride someone who is also Navajo. It is to prevent
and groom in Japan to maintain strong inbreeding and to create alliances with
tradition of endogamy. another tribe.
Robbin Joel (2004), in his journey,
Becoming Sinners: Christianity and Moral
Torment in a Papua New Guinea Society:
Explains that Urapim, a small tribe practices
strict endogamy
Endogamy Exogamy

Family

Lineage
Religious

Ethnic
Gotra Exogamy
(maximum unit Tribal Exogamy
Endogamy
of exogamy) Exogamy

Endogamy
Caste (Maximim
unit of endogamy) Endogamy

Hindu Social System

In our view endogamy means that women are
forced to marry within the group.
In our definition exogamy means that women can
marry both within and outside the group.

76
Hypergamy: Hypogamy:
Hypergamy means “the act or practice of a person marrying It is “the act or practice of a person marrying another person
another person of a higher caste or social status than of a lower caste or social status than himself/ herself”.
himself/ herself.”

CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

A Hindu man does not lose his caste status Under the Hindu caste system, if a high-
by marrying a low- caste woman because caste woman marries is a low-cost man,
until marriage, a woman shares her father she loses her caste status and becomes
caste status but after marriage she shares impure.
her husband’s caste status. Traditional Chinese family, where the elder
In the United States, there is a strong son is heir to family property and marries a
correlation between education and income. woman of lower social status than himself
A woman with higher education is more in order to receive dowry to offset cost of
likely to marry a man with higher level of wedding and son’s inheritance.
education and income.

Anuloma: Pratiloma:
Manu has prescribed Anuloma i.e. “hypergamous marriage Manu forbade Pratiloma i.e. hypergamous marriage for a
for a woman, so that she marries a man higher in caste to woman, so that she cannot marry a man lower in her cast
her to avoid losing caste status and becoming impure. to her.

CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (Mahar caste, one M.N. Srinivas (1950) found that Pratiloma
of the lowest castes) marriage to Savita is relatively common in Lingayats in
Ambedkar (Brahmin, highest caste). Karnataka as it was a new caste and was
Rukmini Devi Arundale (Brahmin) married less concern to maintain traditional caste
to George Arundale (was an Englishman) system.
G.S.Ghurye (1960) found that Pratiloma
marriages were very rare in Mahar in
Maharashtra in order to maintain their
caste status.

CLIFF NOTE

77
 INCEST TABOO
Incest is “sexual intercourse between individuals related in certain prohibited degrees of kinship” (Notes and Queries
1951).
The most distinctive feature of the incest taboo is the regulation of erotic relationships, within the family and in relation
to the establishment of new families (Parsons 1954).
This social and cultural rule, regulation or norm of prohibition of sexual relations between primary categories of kin has
an implication on the organisation of the wider kinship system and social structure.
The prohibition of incest constitutes a rule, which, alone among social rules, possesses at the same time a universal
character (Levi-Strauss 1969).

Ancient Hebrew Incest Restrictions

CASE STUDY
= =
Ashanti tribe of Ghana punishes incest by
death as it is considered as a sin against God,
also a form of pollution that can contaminate = = =
entire community.

= =
EGO

= =

Key: Patrilineal Relation (only males are specified)

Forbidden Sexual Partner
Father Daughter Incest

Exceptions to Incest Taboo:

marriage within one’s clan (“kur”). This emphasis
CASE STUDY on marrying outside the clan reinforces the
Khasi system of matrilineal descent, where
lineage is traced through the mother’s line.
Royal family of kingdom of Hawaii, Egypt and Extending Beyond the Maternal Line: While
Inca were considered so sacred and separate clan exogamy is central, the incest taboo
from ordinary people that brothers and sisters extends beyond just maternal relations (“kur”)
(commonly, half- brothers and half- sisters) to encompass paternal relations (“kha”) as well.
could marry each other This reflects a deep respect for both sides of
the family and the importance of knowing both
one’s maternal and paternal lineage (“kheiñ-kur
khieñ-kha” or “tip-kur tip-kha”).
Prohibition on Marriage with Most Relatives:
CASE STUDY The incest taboo generally prohibits marriage
with almost all maternal relatives. However,
INCEST TABOO OF THE MATRILINEAL there’s a nuanced exception for cross-cousin
KHASIS (Davina Ropmay, 2017) marriage (marrying a parent’s sibling’s child).
Cross-Cousin Marriage is allowed but
The incest taboo, referred to as “ka sang ka
discouraged: While not strictly forbidden,
ma”, is of paramount significance in Khasi
marriage with one’s matrilateral cross-cousin
society. It’s considered a negative rule,
(mother’s brother’s daughter) is generally
meaning that violating it carries serious
discouraged and only considered permissible
consequences.
after the death of the maternal uncle.
Congruence with Exogamy and Patrilateral cross-cousin marriage (father’s
Matrilineality: The incest taboo aligns with sister’s daughter) is strictly tabooed.
the rule of clan exogamy, which prohibits
78
Theories of incest taboo and their criticism:

Scholars/ Theories Postulates Criticism

Psychoanalytic A male child has instinct for incest but he does Theory fails to explain as to why
Theory by Sigmund not put his thought into action due to fear of majority of children do not indulge
Freud elders of the same sex. in incest in a family where elders are
absent.
Family Cooperative States that early man, who lived in small mutually It fails to account why man did not
Theory by Levis hostile groupings, had two choices- either to choose to marry one or two members
Strauss marry outside the group as to reduce hostility, outside the group and rest within.
or to continue marrying within his group and
succumb to the larger group.
Family Disruption Malinowski and Freud argued incest taboo Opposite theory argues that people
Theory by Freud originated to direct sexual feelings away from are less likely to be sexually attracted
and Malinowski one’s family to avoid disrupting the family to those with whom they have grown
structure and relations. up.
The theory states that the role of a person as Theory does not account for brother-
a father, mother, daughter, son etc.is simply sister marriage in the ancient Egypt
incompatible with that of a husband or a wife. and Inca empires.
Inbreeding According to this theory “inbreeding results This theory was rejected because
Avoidance Theory in harmful successive genes and off-springs inbreeding was practiced in ancient
produced may have illness, weakness and later Egypt and there were no associated
die due to genetic diseases. harmful disease.
Cooperation Theory The theory states, “Incest taboo is necessary for The need for cooperation does not
By E.B. Taylor co-operation and healthy relationships among adequately explain why the incest
family members and if there is no restriction of taboo exists in all societies. In
sexual relations, it would lead to suspicious and particular, the cooperation theory
hostility among members.” does not explain the sexual aspect of
It enforces a person to marry outside one’s the incest taboo.
family and formation of alliance. Hence, the
bond of cooperation with another family will be
strengthened.

Types of marriage:

Marriage

Monogamy Polygamy

Sororal Polygyny
Serial Polygyny
Monogamy Non-Sororal Polygyny

Non-Serial Fraternal Polyandry

Polyandry
Monogamy Non-Fraternal Polyandry

Group Marriage
79
 Monogamy: Polygamy:
An individual is married to only one spouse at a given time. An individual is married to more than one spouse at the
Reasons to practice same time.
To control reproduction Subtypes:
To provide economic support Polygyny
To promote social stability Polyandry
Polygynandry or group marriage
Polygyny: A man is married to more than one woman at the
same time.
Example- Islamic community

CASE STUDY
Serial Monogamy:
It pertains to a state where a man has a series of wives one Abagusii tribe of Kenya, man is allowed to
after the other, but only one wife at any given point of time. marry as many wives as he can afford to
support due to economic reasons.
Example: In the United States where divorce rate is high but
only monogamy is legal, serial monogamy is widely noticed. The Fulani tribe of Nigeria practices
Significance: It is an egalitarian form of marriage as it Polygyny as a means to increase a man’s
gives both men and women the opportunity to have status.
multiple partners.
Non Serial Monogamy: The Hindu society of India
monogamy pertains to non-serial monogamy where
a man has a single wife throughout his life. In such
societies the divorce rate is rare and as such it is the Sororal Polygyny: The wives of a man if sisters or related
preferred norm. then such a marriage CASE
is knownSTUDY
as sororal polygyny.

CASE STUDY In some Australian Aboriginal societies,

the elder brother often marries the two
eldest sisters. While the younger sisters of
Matrilineal society of Nayar of Malabar practice the wives’ would also marry their sisters’
non- serial monogamy to allow women to have husband’s younger brother or brothers.
more control over their own lives. Swazi of Africa, practices sororal polygamy
because it is believed that two sisters have
better chances of getting along with one
another and it

Value Addition:
The rules of residence in sororal polygyny differ
from society to society. In some societies the
wives co-habits like among the Zulus of South
Africa, while in the Swazi society each wife sets
up separate residence.
Upon death of a husband, the marriage
does not come to an end. A blood relative of
the husband assumes full responsibility of
providing domestic, economic, and material
support for the women.

80
 Non- Sororal Polygyny: It is a type of Polygyny where a
man marries wives who are not sisters or not related.
Example-Coromo Islanders

CASE STUDY

Karimojong of Northeastern Uganda practices

non sororal Polygyny due to high bride wealth,
to maintain male dominance, to earn cattle to
settle debts.

Polyandry:
A woman is married to more than one man at the same
CASE STUDY
time.
Examples: In societies where polyandry is practiced,
Society of Tibet, Northern Nepal, Mosuo people in when a woman becomes pregnant the
China etc. paternity is not ascribed to the biological
father (genitor) but is accepted through a
In India- in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Uttarakhand,
ceremony wherein any one of the brothers
Theeyas and Todas of South India, and the Nishi of
as sociological father (pater) can assume
Arunachal Pradesh.
social responsibility of the child by paying
Subtypes: the midwife, as in the case of the Nayars of
Fraternal polyandry: Also known as adelphic polyandry. Southern India.
It means a woman is married to more than one man, who
is brothers.

Reasons for decline of polyandry:

CASE STUDY
Spread to Christianity and Islam which prohibits
polyandry
In Mahabharata, all the five Pandava brothers Rise of individualism
were married to princess Draupadi. Nuclear families.
Group marriage/Polygynandry:
A marriage where several men are married to several
women or a man has many wives and a woman has many
husbands at any given time.

CASE STUDY

Such marriages were prevalent among the

Marquesans of Polynesia and also among
the Todas of the Nilgiri hills and the Khasas
Non-Fraternal Polyandry: If woman marries more than of Jaunsar Bawar of India.
one man who are not related or brothers. Example: Oneida community of New York in 1848,
Todas of Nilgiris practiced both fraternal and non- practiced group marriage as they believed
fraternal polyandry. that this form of marriage was best to
Familial Polyandry: When the husbands of a woman achieve goals of love, unity and cooperation.
are father and son such a marriage is known as familial
polyandry. It is a very rare form of polyandry and has
been found prevalent among the Tibetians.
81
 Function of marriage: Subtypes:
Procreation: It is a natural way to have children and to Bride wealth: It is paid by the groom’s family or kin group
provide stable environment for children to be raised. as a whole to the bride’s family. It is common in simple
Economics Support: For both partners, earlier the society. Bride wealth is seen as compensation to the
husband was the breadwinner and wife was responsible bride family over the loss of two working hands as well as
for taking care of home and children. However, couples of the children to be born. It guarantees sexual rights to
are sharing financial responsibility nowadays. the groom, and cements the relationship between the kin
groups. If divorce occurs due to the fault of the bride, then
Social Status: It confers social status to both partners;
payment is returned to the groom.
marriage is sign as a sign of maturity responsibility. It
strengths ties between families Example- Cattle are given as bride wealth by the Neurs
Emotional Support: It is a source of love, companionship and Masai of Africa
and intimacy, sense of security and belonging.
Sexual Satisfaction: It provides sexual satisfaction CASE STUDY
while helping to regulate sexual behavior.
Marriage payments:
In rural Mozambique, bride wealth is seen as
All the transactions involving exchange of goods and/ or a way to ensure the bride’s obedience and
services between bride and groom’s kin group that take fidelity to her husband.
place before, after or at the time of marriage, are termed
as marriage payments.

Gift exchange: It is a way to understand social structure Suitor service: It is a replacement of bride wealth in poor
of a particular group, also is a powerful tool to use to build sections of societies. the groom or any of his kin work for
relationship. a specific period to acquire right over the bride and her
future children.
Example: Birhor, Purum tribe of India
CASE STUDY

CASE STUDY
Potlatch of British Columbia is a valuable
gift giving or exchange ceremony. It is a
way for hosts to demonstrate their wealth In Gond society, it is customary for the
and status. suitor to serve bride family for a period of
Kula ring which is a system of exchange time (cooking, cleaning, serving in fields)
involving two valuables i. e necklace (Mwey) before marriage.
and armshells (Soulava). It is a way for Neur of Sudan has suitor service (month/
Trobriand Islanders to build relationships years) as principal form of marriage
with other communities payments. Once his service is completed
he is considered to be married to the
women.

Groom's Group Bride's Group

Bride wealth is not bride price:

Movement Bright price is a gift of money or goods given by the groom

of bride and his family to the bride’s family.

Bride wealth
Dowry CASE STUDY
Suitor
Service Jie tribe of Kenya and Sudan, bride price is
seen as compensation to bride family, it is paid
Gi
in livestock depending upon social status of
exchange family.
Marriage Payments in a Patrilocal Society
82
 Dowry:
It is given by the bride’s family to the bride (indirectly the Exchange
of females
groom’s family) at the time of marriage, meant to establish 6%

her new home or help the groom to establish himself Gi exchange Bride service
professionally (Goody, 1973). It is found in patrilineal and 11% 19%
patrilocal societies.
Dowry
Example- Indian Hindu society. 8%

Indirect dowry
12%
Bride price
44%

Figure: Bride payments

Prevalence of dowry world wide Dowry is regulated by Dowry Prohibition Act,1961:

No exchange or reciprocal exchange of assets between families

(scale points 0-3)
Bride's family endows bride; no significant assets from groom's family
(scale points 4-5
Net assets move from groom's family to bride/bride's family
(scale points 6-9)
Net assets move from bride's family to groom's family (scale point 10)
No data

Average Indian family spends US dollar 10,000 in dowry at

the time of marriage

Ways of acquiring mates in simple Societies: represents valor and chivalry. it is also done due to high
bride price
Explained by D N Majumdar and T.N Madan (1985), An
Example: Nagaas, Birhor, Kharia of India
introduction to Social Anthropology also non -existence of
religious rituals and rites explain by J. P. S. Rana(1998) in
Marriage and Customs of Tribes of India.
CASE STUDY
1. Married by purchase: The groom’s family pay bride
wealth or bride price to acquire the bride from her
family and gain right over her sexual services and Nagas of India take course to physical
progeny. capture women during raids from one
Example: Neur and Massai of Africa village to another and marry them as wives.
2. Marriage by service: Groom or his closed kin offer their In Kharia and Bihir of Bihar ceremonial
services to the bride’s family in order to compensate capture, a boy desiring to marry a girl
for their inability to pay the bride wealth makes his intention know by either holding
Example: Naga, Birhor, Kharia her hand or marking her with vermilion
during community fair or festival.
3. Marriage by capture: The man captures/snatches
a woman away from a village and marries her. This 83
 4. Marriage by elopement: The couple marry in secretive
Murdok has mentioned grounds for divorce:
fashion, away from their residential places. this is
generally done due to parents disapproval or high bride Incompatibility, adultery, disease, impotency, sexual
price unwillingness, economic incapacity etc.
Example: Karbi of Assam

CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Case Study of Youth Dormitories: Some Indian tribes do not consider marriage
as a religious sacrament and the process and
Tribes like Gond have youth dormitories to
procedure of divorce is simple.
provide wide scope for youth to choose their
mates. Gond: Allows divorce freely on grounds of
marital infidelity, carelessness in household
work, barrenness
5. Marriage by intrusion: A woman, in order to marry an Khasi: Permits divorce for incompatibility
unwilling man, thrusts herself on his family. She serves of temperament
the family but is tortured and humiliated in return. If Kharia: Allows divorce for laziness, wife’s
she persists for a long period, she gains acceptance. refusal to live with the husband and theft.
Example: Hos’ Anadar system (Bihar) and Kamar of
Madhya Pradesh
6. Marriage by mutual consent: It has risen mostly due
to cultural contact with outside cities. Deviation in marriage:
7. Marriage by probation: It is a version of modern live-in
relationship, a man and woman allowed to live together Features Case studies
for some time in a woman’s house. If both want to Lesbian relationship: Swahili Muslim of Mombasa,
marry afterward, the elder arranges it. If not, the man
It is based on liking of Kenya studied by Gill Shepard,
pays compensation to girl’s parents
a girl for another girl women are allowed to choose
Example: Raazi-Khushi of Chhota Nagpur tribe, kukis instead of a man another woman at sexual
of Manipur partners after they are married
8. Marriage by exchange: Two household exchange Gay relationship: In Nicaragua, the term
women. It is often resorted due to high bride prices. “machismo” is used for sexual
It is based on a man
Example: Sister exchange among Koya and Soara of
liking for another relationships between men.
Andhra Pradesh (Majumdar1986)
man commonly, it is Greek history, where Apollo
9. Marriage by trial: The man has to prove his courage known as homosexual fell in love with a mortal boy,
and bravery by performing a heroic task to win a girl’s relationship Hyacinthus.
hand
Brazil hosts Sao Paulo Gay
Example: Gol Gadedho of Bhil
Pride Parade, with 2 million
participants in support of
CASE STUDY homosexual rights.

In Mahabharat and Ramayan, Draupadi and

Sita were respectively claimed by Arjun and CLIFF NOTE
Lord Rama after they proved their skills in the
Swayamvar

Divorce:
Divorce is the situation wherein the husband and wife
separates and gives up the vows of marriage. Divorce is
also a universally accepted norm as marriage but still it is
looked down in many societies more so in the case of the
wife in a patrilineal society.
84
 FAMILY

Family and its universality:

Definition: Definition by other anthropologist:
William N. Stephens, defines the family as “a group based on George Peter Murdock (Social Structure 1949): “A
marriage and marriage contract, including the recognition social group characterized by common residence,
of rights and duties of parenthood; common residence economic cooperation, and reproduction.”
for husband, wife and children; and reciprocal economics Bronislaw Malinowski (The Family: Its Origin and
obligation between husband-wife.” Function,1913): “A group of persons united by ties
However, all the above features of the definition may not of marriage, blood, or adoption, constituting a single
be found together in every human society. household, cooperating economically for the satisfaction
of common needs and for the reproduction of the
Types of family: group.”
Structurally, a family can be : Margaret Mead (Kinship in the Admiralty Islands,
Nuclear family: A nuclear family includes a couple with 1934): “A group of people who are socially recognized
their unmarried children. as a unit, who share a common residence, and who are
responsible for the care and socialization of children.”
Extended family: Any extension to nuclear family is
called extended family.
Joint family: A joint family is a type of extended family Nuclear family
in which there are at least two nuclear families; at least of orientation =
three generation: and the joining of the nuclear families
is as per the rules of residence of that society.

=
ego

nuclear family
of procreation

1 3
=

= =
2 =

1 Nuclear Family 2 Extended Family 3 Patrilocal Joint Family

CLIFF NOTE

85
 Universality of Family: Value addition:
Murdock studied 250 societies and found that nuclear
families existed in all of them. In his work, ‘Social Structure
(1949), he concluded that nuclear family is universal. Procreation
He explained its universality saying that there are certain
‘essential’ functions necessary for human survival, which
can only be performed by nuclear families. Regulation
Educational
These functions are: of Sexual
Maintenance
Behaviour
Permanent gratification of sexual needs
Child birth
FUNCTIONS
Economic functions OF THE FAMILY
Socialisation of children
Emotional /
Both extended and joint families have at least one and two Psychological Socialization
nuclear families respectively. Support
Thus, following Murdock as nuclear family is universal,
family itself must be universal. Economic
Maintenance
However, Kathleen Gough has given the following examples
to show that the four essential functions are not universal
domains of nuclear family:
Sexual needs and child birth - The non-universality
herein is evident from woman-to-woman marriage in
Nuers; ghost marriages in British Columbians; and CASE STUDY
Nayars Theravada.
Economic functions - The modern welfare state has
In South Sudan, ghost marriages are
taken over many such functions. Societies like the
arranged when a man dies without leaving
Kibbutz of Israel are also an exemption.
any children and his brother may marry his
Socialisation of children - In large extended families, widow in order to continue the family line.
socialisation function is performed by grandparents and
Single-parent households are becoming
not parents. Example: In modern West, due to high rate
increasingly common, with about 25% of
of divorce, the frequency of single parent households
all households with children in the United
has also increased.
States headed by a single parent. Single-
parent households can be headed by either
a mother or a father, and can be formed due
to a number of reasons, such as divorce,
death or never having been married.

Value addition:
Kibbutzim in Israel are characterized by their communal
way of life, in which members share everything from
property to work to childrearing.
Thus, Gough concludes that family is not universal, both structurally and functionally. She says only the mother child unit
is universal, with its sole universal function being primary socialisation.

CLIFF NOTE

86
Household and Domestic Group
Definition of household: Definition of Domestic group:
Haviland (Cultural Anthropology, 1993), refers a Meyer Fortes defined domestic group “as essentially
household “to a group of members living together who house holding and housekeeping groups which organise
may or may not be relate by blood, yet they fulfil all the to provide material and cultural resources to maintain and
functions of a family”. bring up its members.”
George Murdock (Social Structure, 1949): “A social unit Meyer Fortes gave three phases in the developmental
of one or more persons who co-reside, who are usually cycle of a domestic group, as follows:
related by kinship, and who share a common economy.
Melville Herskovits (Man and His Works, 1948): “A Phase of Phase of Phase of
group of persons who share a common dwelling and Expansion Dispersion Replacement
who cooperate in the satisfaction of economic needs.”
E. E. Evans-Pritchard (The Nuer, 1940): “A group of Starts with Starts with Starts with ageing of
persons who normally eat together, who sleep together marriage, and marriage of parents and continues
expands by first/eldest child till their death. The
in the same house, and who cooperate in the production
birth of and it continues children replace
and consumption of food.” children. till the marriage parents/head of the
of last youngest family and then
child undergo the phase of
CASE STUDY expansion

Among the Munduruku of Amazon, all males

aged above 13 years live together in one
household. Females and children aged below
13 years live in another household. These
two households perform all family functions,
including economic production, child rearing
and socialisation.

Both household and domestic groups are instrumental in shaping the individual

Difference between a family and a household. He argued that the family is a universal human institution,
but that its form and function vary widely from culture to
Family Household culture.
Consists of people Consists of people who FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
connected by marriage, live together, irrespective
blood or adoption of their marital or blood Of all the institutions, the family is the most
ties important. It performs the following functions:
Essentially a kin group Essentially a residential Reproduction of the race and rearing of the
1.
group young - a unique function cannot be done by
Members of a family Members of a household any other institution.
may be spread over live together, under one 2. Cultural transmission of enculturation - the
several households, not roof culture of the family is acquired from the
necessarily living together father and the mother.
3. Socialization of the child - in the family, the
Mobility out of family Mobility out of a child learns his role and status.
relations is unlikely and household is easy
very difficult.
Anthropologists generally agree that a family performs
Functions of family two types of broad functions :
Definition: 1. Essential: Murdock in his work, “The Social Structure
(1949),” said that family, specifically a nuclear family,
Claude Lévi-Strauss defined family as “a social group fulfils four essential functions -permanent gratification
characterized by a special type of relationship between of sexual needs; child birth; economic functions: and
spouses, parents, and children. socialisation of children. 87
 Some believe that socialisation of children is the most
FAMILY
important of these four functions.
2. Non-essential: These include functions like taking care
of formal education and health of children: religious (Nuclear family) (Composite family)
functions; recreation among others.
Kathleen Gough has noted that these functions, including
the essential ones, are not the sole domains of family. (Polygamous family) (Extended family)
Nonetheless, family continues to remain the most
important unit for primary socialisation and thus, is a
cornerstone of human society. (Polygamous family) (Polyandrous family)
Types of Family:
Westermarck (1853-1936) who had done a detailed study
of the institution of marriage concluded that the family (Patrilocal (Matrilocal (Avunculocal (Bilocal (Fraternal
extended extended extended extended extended
emerged due to male possessiveness and jealousy. In his family) family) family) family) family)
work The History of Human Marriage (1922) he asserted
that with the growing concept of property, males started
the institution of family to protect and safeguard their Different types of family are found due to the variations in
property. This theory was a direct criticism of Morgan’s human culture.
theory wherein the origin of family was ascribed to the
bonding of mother- sib.

Family can be classified on the basis of:

1. Structure
Nuclear family - Includes a couple with their unmarried children. It is also known as primary family.
Extended family - Any extension to a nuclear family is called extended family.
Joint family - A type of extended family, in which there are at least two nuclear families; at least three generations; and
the joining of the nuclear families is as per the rules of residence of that society.

Types of Family

Independent families Extended families

=
= = =

Mother-child family with two Nuclear or =

children (one male; one female) monogamous family Two-generation extended
family with two nuclear family
= = = = units united by a sibling tie in
the senior generation
Three-generation
extended family with two
nuclear family units
Polygynous family Polyandrous family

Legend
is a male is a female = married
children of siblings

88
2. Nature of Blood Relations:
Conjugal family- The couples are related to each other = = = = =
by marriage, and are a heterosexual pair, who may/may FaSi FaBr Fa Mo MoSi MoBr
not have children.
Consanguineous family- The couple are related to each
other by blood. They are either cross-cousins or parallel
cousins. Cross Parallel Ego Parallel Cross
Cousins Cousins (Subject Cousins Cousins
Example: Muslim communities
3. Marriage:
Monogamous Family - Comprises a husband, a wife and
may/may not include children. Both the spouses are Outsiders
prohibited to have more spouses.
Polygamous family - One individual has more than one Endogamous
spouse. Group
Polygamous family is of three types:
Exogamous
1. Polyandrous (one woman, many husbands)
Group
2. Polygynous (one man, many wives)
3. Polygynandrous (many husbands and many wives).
Endogamous family: An individual is supposed to marry
within his/her own social unit.
Exogamous family: An individual is supposed to marry
outside his/her own social unit.
1 2 3
Social Distance

4. Residence: Value addition:

Patrilocal family - After marriage, daughter moves out 1. Patrilocal family: In China and among Yanomami of
of her natal residence and joins her husband’s patrilineal Venezuela it is traditional for the bride to move in with
family. her husband’s family after marriage
Matrilocal Family - After marriage, a man joins his wife’s 2. Matrilocal Family: Khasi of Meghalaya in India.
matrilineal residence. 3. Avunculocal family: Nayar of Kerala in India and Naxi of
Bilocal family- After marriage, the married couple China has such family as it ensures that the children
changes their residence alternatively. Both paternal and will be raised by their mother’s family, who has a vested
maternal families are given importance. interest in their well-being.
Virilocal family - The wife stays near the husband’s 4.Neolocal family :Inuit of North America
patrilineal relatives along with her husband.
=
Uxorilocal family - The husband stays near the wife’s
matrilineal place along with his wife.
= = = = =
Avunculocal family- After marriage the married couple
reside in maternal uncle’s house. This is usual found in
matrilineal societies. Example: Ashanti of Ghana
Neolocal family- The couple decides to stay away from
their parents’ residence, and set up a new independent (a) The patrilocally extended household
family at a new place. Example: North American Society.

CLIFF NOTE

89
 5. Succession (Descent/Ancestry): =
Patrilineal family - Descent is inherited through father.
Matrilineal family - Descent is inherited through mother. =
=
Bilineal family - Descent is inherited through both
parental lines.

Patrilineal Descent

= =

Matrilineal Descent

6. Authority:
Patriarchal family
Patriarchal family- The eldest male member of the
family exercises absolute authority over other members.
Authority
Example: Indian joint families.
Matriarchal family - The eldest female member of the
family exercises absolute authority over other members. Matriarchal family Egalitarian family
There is no contemporary society that may be called
truly matriarchal.
Egalitarian family - Authority is equally distributed
among husband and wife. Both son and daughter CASE STUDY
together inherit rights and obligations equally.
Case study of Matriarchal family:
The Mosuo tribe of China come close, as
women are the head of families, and make
economic decisions. But Mosuo men hold
political power.
Kindly note that Khasis, Jaintia and tribes
of Meghalaya have matrilineal families, not
matriarchal. This is because the eldest male
remains the head of the family. While the
property is in the name of women, it is the
male members that take all financial and other
decisions

Changes in family structure:

Introduction:
Family is a function of culture, since culture is dynamic, CASE STUDY
family is also dynamic and thus continuously changing.
Numerous studies revolving around the issue of structural
change of family from joint family to a nuclear one, have In India, city-wise studies like that of - Nagpur
been conducted. (by Prof. Shils), Pramala Kallar in Tamil Nađu
(by Prof. Lamb), and Sirkanda in Uttarakhand
(by Prof. Braibanti) - have all reported at least
60% of the families to be nuclear.

90
Two-fold factors have been given to support these findings: FEATURES OF MODERN FAMILY
1. Economic factors: The impacts of these factors have been studied by J.P.
Industrialisation has facilitated factory employment,Singh, who has listed the following features of the modern
family:
thereby freeing young adults from direct dependence on
1. Equal rights of men and women
a joint family. It has promoted rural-to-urban migration,
further causing a rise in nuclear families. 2. Decreased control of marriage contract
Urbanisation has followed industrialisation. It has 3. Increased tendency to be filiocentric
brought up several specialised agencies that have
4. Decreased religious control
taken over functions that were earlier the sole domain
5. Economic independence of both sexes
of family, also informal controls in the family have been
replaced by legal ones. 6. Reduced size of family members
2. Cultural factors: 7. Increasing rates of divorce and single parent households
due to weakened emotional bond and socialisation
The growing acceptance of democratic institutions and
process.
modern values has inculcated a new found ‘respect of
the individual’. However, the above studies are more relevant for Western
Another crucial factor has been the spread of modern societies than traditional ones like India.
education Studies by LP. Desai and Alien Ross have JOINT FAMILY IN INDIA
concluded that modern education works against joint
Census 2011 has shown that joint family in India has
family in two ways - by increasing occupational mobility;
increased by 26% in urban areas and by 2% in rural areas.
and by promoting individualism.
This latest trend contrasts with the earlier studies.
A new trend has been that of the feminist movement
Reasons:
whereby women are demanding equality between sexes,
equal legal rights and cultural freedom. They wish to be Sociologists like Janaki Abraham and Rajni Palriwala have
no longer considered as subordinates in the family but as enlisted two reasons behind this:
equal partners with their husbands. 1. Rising costs of land
Trends in family diversity 2. A new found realisation of the psychological and social
security provided by a joint family.
The rappoports
Thus, Yogendra Singh concludes that despite all the
How are families/
households becoming Conceptualising changes, the traditional world view of the joint family still
more diverse? family diversity
prevails in societies like the Indian society.
Postmodern ideas of
radical diversity
Changing dimensions in family
The main types Family System: Virtual disappearance of traditional
joint family system and increasing nuclearization of
Single person Extended Reconstituted Single parent families. For instance, “Navigating The Dynamics Of
households families families households
Joint Family System In Modern India: A Sociological
Study” concludes that the conventional joint family
Marriage and divorce system now confronts significant challenges to its
Feminism and gender roles sustainability due to modernity.
Explaining increasing Postmodernism and Authority/Household head: Though still patriarchal
family diversity individualisation nature, a rise in the proportion of female-headed
Social policy households can be seen. For example, according to
Economic factors the Census 2011, a total of 23 million households in
rural India are headed by females.
Life course Marriage norms:
Generation
How do families Increase in separation and divorce rates.
Ethnicity
vary by A shift towards love marriages, decline in
Class
Sexuality
arranged marriages and mate selection by
individuals themselves.
New right Increase in average age of marriage with a
Perspectives Post and late modernism decrease in instances of child marriage.
to apply
Feminisms For example, according to a report by
WeddingWire India, arranged marriages have
Was it ever the norm or seen a 24% drop from 2020.
Is the nuclear family just a myth?
really in decline? Gender roles:
Still the main type?
Increasing acceptance of girl children in the
family. 91
 Increasing participation of women in education with an increase in their role in economic activities outside the
household and decision-making within the household.
For example, more women are taking up leadership roles in society.
Decision-making and conflicts:
There is a shrinking of kinship ties and decisions are taken by continuous consultations between children and
parents on familial matters.
Greater tension and conflicts between wife and husband, parents and sons and between brothers.
New type of families: Emergence of single-parent households, Dual Income No Kids (DINK) families etc.
For instance, “The Rise of DINKs: How Childfree Couples are Reshaping Economies” found in major Indian cities like
Delhi, nearly 1 in 4 couples is DINK by choice.
Same-Sex Families: The legalisation of same-sex marriages in many countries has led to the recognition of same-sex
families. This change represents a significant shift in societal norms regarding family and marriage.

Impact of industrialisation on family

Definition:
Industrialisation refers to “the social and economic changes that transform a human group from an agrarian society into
an industrial one.”
An industrial society is driven by the use of technology to enable mass production.
Associated Changes: Note: Impacts will be same as changes in family
1. Employment Opportunities: Industrialisation has
facilitated factory employment, thereby freeing young
adults from direct dependence on a joint family. It has CASE STUDY
promoted rural-to-urban migration, further causing a
rise in nuclear families.
2. Urbanisation- Industrialisation has been succeeded In China industrialization has had a significant
by urbanisation. It has brought up several specialised impact on family life. The one-child policy,
agencies that have taken over functions that were which was implemented in 1979, has led to a
earlier the sole domain of family. Also, informal controls decline in the size of families.
in the family have been replaced by legal ones. In Japan, industrialization led to a number of
3. Cultural changes - Industrialisation has also led to changes in family life, including the decline of
spread of democratic institutions and modern values arranged marriages, the rise of the nuclear
which have inculcated a new found ‘respect of the family, and the increasing emphasis on
individual.” Another crucial change has been the spread individualism.
of modern education. In the United States, industrialization led to a
shift from a rural to an urban society. This shift
had a number of impacts on family life, including
the rise of the nuclear family, the decline
CASE STUDY
of extended families, and the increasing
participation of women in the workforce.
Studies by I.P. Desai and Allien Ross have In India, industrialization has had a mixed
concluded that modern education works impact on family life. On the one hand, it has
against joint family in two ways -by increasing led to the decline of extended families and
occupational mobility; and by promoting the increasing participation of women in the
individualism. workforce. On the other hand, it has also led
to an increase in the number of single-parent
households and the prevalence of child labor.
4. Feminist movements- Industrialisation has given a
new found feeling of financial and personal freedom
to women. They are now demanding equality between Industrialisation has both positive and negative impact on
sexes, equal legal rights and cultural freedom. They wish family
to be no longer considered as subordinates in the family, Thus, we may now be witnessing a reverse trend in modern
but as equal partners with their husbands. industrial families, with a desire to combine the security
provided by a traditional family, and the independence
provided by a modern one.
92
Impact of the feminist movements on family:
Definition:
WORKPLACE
Feminist movements refer to the” attempts to gain equal Less sexism (nude
calendars,
political, economic and cultural rights for women at par with innuendos) Better
chance of
men in the contemporary society”. The concept originated promotion
in the mid-20th century, and until now, the world has FAMILY
witnessed several waves of feminist movements. Women go to work LAW
and contribute Equal pay act
financially Have more IMPACTS OF Pension age
History: say in family matters FEMINISM ON discrimination
Stay at home dads
less of a stigma SOCIETY
The pre-Cursor to these movements can be linked with
the coming of industrialisation and urbanisation, These
factors enabled women to enjoy a new found feeling of EDUCATION SOCIAL POLICY
independence from their husbands and families. Combined Girls are treated Maternity leave
more equally in Paternity leave
with the spread of democratic institutions, modern values schools and are Family tax
out achieving credits Nursery
and formal education, women soon began to assert their boys vouchers

demands for equality of both sexes in all spheres.

Feminist movements have had both positive and negative connotations on the institution of family.
Positive Impact
As females have grown more aware of their rights, they CASE STUDY
are now getting the strength to take a stand against
injustice. They no longer accept to serve as a subordinate
to men in their family, but as equal partners. As a result Katherine R. Allen: Male members are
the old patriarchal norms for women are slowly breaking now slowly accepting the changing gender
down. roles, and are also involving themselves
more in the socialisation process of the
Women are availing more economic opportunities and
children.
this has had a positive effect on the family income as
well. In the US has led to more women in the
workforce, declining stay-at-home moms,
Families are recording better social indicators like
and more egalitarian families whereas it
reduced poverty, improved literacy rate and health
has also challenged gender roles, leading
status.
to acceptance of single-parent and same-
Negative Impact sex households.
The new-found social and financial independence of In India has led to greater awareness
women has also led to ego-clashes and self-centered of domestic violence, legal protection
tendencies. for women and acceptance of women’s
whereas it has also challenged gender
As per the sociologist Arlie Russel Hochschild, roles, leading to more women in education,
women are now viewing children as a restriction employment and property ownership.
on their freedom, and as such, nuclear and sub-
nuclear families are on the rise. This has also led
to clashes with the older generation, especially
on the issue of child birth. Thus, kinship bonds
between the family members are weakening. CASE STUDY

Sweden has one of the highest rates of single-

A high rate of divorce and frequency of single parent
parenthood in the world where it is argued that
household.
this is a direct result of the feminist movement,
The socialization process and development of children which has led to a decline in the importance of
has also been hampered. marriage and the nuclear family.
The rising incidences of live-in relations and extra-
marital affairs are affecting the notion of family unity.
It has today become essential to separate the more radical extreme feminists from the more balanced ones. While the
former call for an all-out attack on the opposite sex, the latter have rational demands for both the sexes to equally share
their responsibilities and recognise each other’s freedom and aspirations within the family as well as in the society at
large. 93
 KINSHIP

Definition: Value addition:

Abercrombie has defined kinship as “the social relationships
deriving from blood ties (real and supposed) and marriages
are collectively referred to as kinship”. = =
Types: 2
1
Consanguineal kinship: Kinship based on blood relations.
Affinal kinship: kinship based on relations by marriage. 3

Tonkinson stated in his work that Kinship is a system

of social relationships that are expressed in a biological = Affinal Kin Consanguineal Kin
idiom, using terms like “mother”, “son,” and so on. It is best
1 Primary Kin 2 Secondary Kin 3 Tertiary Kin
visualized as a mass of networks of relatedness, not two of
which are identical, that radiate from each individual. Types and Levels of Kin

Role of Kinship in Regulating Marriage:

Introduction: Value addition:
A closed system is characterised by strong kinship bonds. Consanguinity and affinity are the major principles that
A person depends upon the larger kingroup for his/her govern types of kinship groups.
survival. All rules, including marriage, are followed strictly. Levels/Degrees of kin include:
In such systems, preferential regulations, endogamy and 1. Primary kin - People who are directly related to each
avoidance are widely practised because of their emphasis other are known as primary kin. It is of two types :
on: Primary consanguineal kinship: It refers to the direct
Purity of blood, in social sense. relationship formed due to marriage, with the only
Re-enforcement of pre-existing strong kinship bonds, as such relationship being between husband and wife.
highlighted by Levi-Strauss in his Alliance Theory. Primary affinal kinship: It refers to the direct
Marriage in which even if the spouse-to-be is not known, relationship formed due to birth. Example: Parents-
at least his/her family group is known. children and sibling-sibling.
Retention of traditions and customs. 2. Secondary Kin - People who are directly related to one’s
primary kin are his/her’s secondary kin. It is of two types:
Protection of family especially children and retention of
rights and obligations. This specifically is the rationale Secondary Consanguineal: They include relatives
behind levirate and sororate. such as grandparents, grandchildren, uncles, aunts,
nephews, nieces, and first cousins.
Handling affinal relations with sensitivity, thereby
Secondary Affinal Kin: They include in-laws such
preventing any chaos. This specifically is the rationale
as the parents of one’s spouse (parents-in-law), the
behind avoidance.
siblings of one’s spouse (siblings-in-law), and the
An open system is characterised by individualism. The spouses of one’s siblings (co-siblings-in-law).
kinship bonds are weak, and a person is not dependent on 3. Tertiary Kin - These include Secondary kin of one’s
the larger kin group. But nuclear family is important and primary kin, or primary kin of one’s secondary kin. It is
continues to play a vital role in a person’s life. of two types :
Thus, the only rules of marriage followed are family Tertiary Consanguineal: They include relatives such
exogamy and incest taboo. Further, high rates of divorce as great-grandparents, great-grandchildren, great-
are prevalent. uncles, great-aunts, first cousins once removed, and
second cousins.
Tertiary Affinal Kin: They include relatives such as
the spouses of one’s secondary kin and the relatives
of one’s spouse’s secondary kin.

Thus, kinship plays an important role in determining the marriage regulations followed in a society

94
Descent is a cultural rule:
Definition:
Descent refers to a person’s affiliation and association with his/her kinsman. Descent refers to “inheritance and succession”.
The rules of descent are important for the proper distribution of rights and obligations in a family.
Rules of Descent:
1. Unilineal Descent:
Descent is traced exclusively either through the father’s or mother’s side.
Types:
Patrilineal descent: It is a kinship system based on patriarchy where inheritance, status, authority or property is traced
through males only. It is also known as agnatic descent.
For example: Sons and daughters belong to their father’s descent group, sons’ children both sons and daughters
will be a part of grandfather’s descent group, but the daughter’s children would belong to her husband’s descent
group.
Matrilineal descent: It is a kinship system based on matriarchy where inheritance, status, authority and property are
traced through females only. It is also known as uterine descent.
For Example: A matrilineal descent group in Ashanti of Ghana comprises of a woman, her siblings, her own children,
her sisters children and her daughters’ children.
2. Double/Bilineal Descent:
Descent is traced from both lines of parentage, in such a descent system for certain aspects descent is traced through
the mother while for other aspects descent is traced through the father with the inheritance of non-overlapping natural
elements from each line.
Example: in Yako herders of Nigeria, rituals are traced matrilineally, while productive resources patrilineal.
3. Parallel Descent:
Each individual of the family traces descent but from the line of their own sex.
Example: Saha of Santa Marta
4. Ambilineal Descent:
Individuals are free to trace descent from any line of parentage. Thus, it is the only use where males and females can
trace descent from the same line.
Example: Samoans of West Pacific
Note: In Kinship studies Ego plays a vital role. Ego is the respondent through whom a relationship is traced. It can be
a male or a female for example if the ego is (C) the son of a person (A) then all relations in this case would be traced
through C.

Value addition:
Ancestor
= female male
Matrilineal
(uterine) descent
=
marriage

sibship

son
daughter

95
 Ancestor Patrilineal
= (agnatic) descent
= =

Double Descent

Ambilineal Descent

Parallel Descent

A B

(ego)

C E D

F G
96
The rule of descent followed in a society depends upon its socio-cultural needs.
The factors governing rules of Descent are:
1. Economic factors:
Contribution to family economy: In societies where the nature of production activity is same for both the sexes,
descent is traced from the line of sex who contributes more to the family.
E.g. food gathering societies may be patrilineal or matrilineal.
Prestige of profession: In societies where the profession’s prestige is more valued than its actual productivity, then the
descent is traced from the line of the sex engaged in the particular profession. Example: hunter gatherers societies
are thus patrilineal.
2. Division of labour:
Societies following strict division of labour between both sexes usually follow parallel descent. Oppositely double
descent is followed.
3. Political factors:
In societies where males stay away from their families for long periods, the maintenance of social order is performed
by women. Such societies follow matrilineal descent.
Example: Nayars of Malabar
4. Demographic factors:
If a natural calamity wipes out majority population without affecting the resources, it may lead to Ambilineal descent.
Example: British Columbians
Since all these factors represent various socio-cultural needs of a society, therefore descent is a cultural rule.
Residence is a cultural rule
Rules of residence define the residential status of the spouses post marriage.
The following classification is modified from the one given by Murdock:
1. Patrilocal residence: Value addition:
After marriage, the couple stays with the groom’s father’s
family. If the couple stays near the groom’s patrilineal
relatives, it is called virilocal residence.
=
2. Matrilocal residence:
After marriage, the couple stays with the bride’s father’s
family. It is exactly opposite of patrilocal residence.
= =
Example: Khasis of Meghalaya and Nambiars of Kerala.
3. Uxorilocal residence:
After marriage, the couple stay near the bride’s
patrilineal relatives, it is called uxorilocal residence .It is
the opposite of virilocal residence.
Example: Nayars of Malabar
Patrilocal Residence
4. Matri-patrilocal residence:
The couple initially reside uxorilocally for some time after
marriage, and then permanently shift to their virilocal
residence =
5. Bilocal residence:
The couple reside at both uxorilocal and virilocal
residence from time to time. = =
Example: British Columbians.
6. Ambilocal residence:
Since, bilocal residence cannot be followed for long
especially after child birth. If the couple has freedom
to decide whether to permanently reside uxorilocally or
virilocally, then it is called ambilocal residence.
Matrilocal Residence
Example: British Columbians 97
 7. Neolocal residence: FACTORS INFLUENCING RULE OF RESIDENCE
The couples after marriage tend to permanently reside The rule of residence followed depends upon the socio-
away from all kin. cultural needs of a society.
Example: modern societies, These can be based on:
1. Economic factors
Contribution to family economy: If the nature of production
activity is same for both the sexes, then the one who
contributes more to the family decides the residence rule.
Prestige of profession: In societies where prestige
of profession is given more importance than actual
contribution, then the one practising this profession
decides the residence rule.
Example: hunter gatherers
Nature of the economy:
Example: cash based economies with surplus promote
neolocal residence.
Type of marriage payment: Societies where bride wealth is
paid in installments or that pay in service, residence tends
to be Matri- patrilocal. Example: Gond, Baiga
2. Political factors:
In societies where the men tend to stay away from their
families’ for long periods, the maintenance of social Order is
carried out by women. Thus, there societies are matrilocal.
Example: Nayars, Trobriand Islanders
3. Demographic factors:
If a natural calamity wipes out a large segment of the
population without affecting the resources, it may lead to
bilocal residence, followed by ambilocal.
Example: British Columbians

Forms of descent groups:

1. Unilineal descent groups

In societies that follow the rule of unilineal descent, the rule is so strict that it forms the basis of residential group known
as unilineal descent groups. Two such are clan and lineage.

Tribe

Moiety Moiety

Phratry

Clan

Lineage
Unilineal Descent Groups

98
Difference between lineage and a clan
LINEAGE CLAN
Smallest unilineal descent group Comprises several lineages and is thus almost always bigger
than lineage
Member are descendants of a common ancestor Members claim to be descendants of a common ancestor
whether it may be true or not
The ancestor is not remote and is generally the 5th or 6 Is remote and may be true or symbolic, with the latter
generation ancestor termed as totem
Genealogical links from ancestor to present generation can All genealogical links cannot be demonstrated
be easily demonstrated
Very strong kinship bonds Strong, but less than that of lineage
Is less stable More stable than lineage
Except in a few Muslim groups, lineages are always May or may not be exogamous, but totemic clans are
exogamous exogamous
Example: In Indian Hindu society, lineage is called ‘vansha’ Example: In Indian Hindu society, clan is called ‘gotra.’
Phratry -Two or more clans related through a common ancestor.
Example: Gonds, North East Tribes.
Moiety -The whole society is divided into two well identifiable groups, each called a moiety.

Bilateral descent:
It comprises of both patrilineals and matrilineals. Descent
is shared lineally, no laterally, and thus, albeit for a specific
purpose. Bilateral descent is only a temporary arrangement
to affiliate with the kin on both sides of parentage almost
equally.
Bilateral descent is ego-centric, temporary and thus ends Ego
when the ego dies, varies from individual to individual within
the family, while double descent is ancestor-focused, Bilateral Descent
permanent and continues even after ego’s death also
double descent is same for all members.
Realising that bilateral descent is not true descent, anthropologists have now replaced it with the term kindred
Kin terms
Definition: Kin terms are the basic terms that refer to social relations within a family/domestic group.
Types: L.H. Morgan, in his book, ‘System of Consanguinity
and Affinity of Human Family (1871), has classified kin
terms as descriptive and classificatory.
1. Descriptive kin terms: Definitely pinpoint a relationship, = =
and are used to denote primary kin. Example: Father, 2
mother 1
2. Classificatory kin terms: Refer to a group of relations,
3
usually beyond the nuclear family.
Example: Cousin, uncle.
The classification represents two idealised extremes and
no society in the world follows it in absolute sense.
= Affinal Kin Consanguineal Kin

Reasons: Due to enormous cultural variations across 1 Primary Kin 2 Secondary Kin 3 Tertiary Kin
societies most of the societies, be it simple or modern,
have both classificatory and descriptive terms. Example: In Types and Levels of Kin
Hindu society, the term “dadi” (grandmother) is often used
to address any elderly woman of the village

99
 Following Kroeber and Lowie, today’s anthropologists usually accept that one or more following factors determine choice
of kin term.
Factors determines the choice of kin terms:

1. Generation 4. Collaterality 7. Relative Age

2. Sex 5. Bifurcation 8. Speaker’s Sex
3. Affinity 6. Polarity 9. Decadence
On the basis of these criteria, Murdock (1949) gave a six-fold classification for kin terms. These include Omaha, Crow,
and Iroquois, Hawai, Eskimo and Sudanese terminology.
But this classification is also not universal, again due to the enormous cultural variations
Relevance of Kin term:
The relevance of kin terms thus does not lie in their
classification, because they:
English Kin Terms
Denote a social status with an associated role
Example: Father UNCLE AUNT MOTHER FATHER UNCLE AUNT
Almost always exist in pairs
Example: Father-son
COUSIN COUSIN SISTER Ego BROTHER COUSIN COUSIN
Denote higher and lower social status.
Example: father has a higher status than son
NIECE DAUGHER NIECE
As per W.H.K. Rivers, by studying kinship terms we can NEPHEW SON NEPHEW
trace those marriage customs and practices that may
have vanished today in societies.
Example: Devar and Mausi in traditional Hindu society
probably denote the existence of levirate and sororate
respectively.
As per Radcliffe-Brown by studying the kinship system
and terminology of a society, its social structure can be
understood.
Thus, kin terms are very important to understand human
societies from an anthropological perspective.
Criteria/Determinants of kinship Terminology : etc.

Kroeber, in a 1929 paper, looked at the principles that

were used in separating kinds of kin, and suggested eight [grandfather, [great uncle,
determinants: generation, affinity, collaterality, and sex grandmother] great aunt]
of relative, bifurcation, sex of speaker, relative age, and
decadence. Lowie added a ninth - polarity.
[father, [uncle, “1st cousin
1. Generation: Relations belonging to different generations mother] aunt] once removed"
are denoted by different terms. Most kinship systems
give recognition to this criterion.
Example: Father and son differ only on the dimension [brother,
self sister] first cousin second cousin
of generation. But societies like Omaha, Crow and
Red Indians do not follow this criterion. They classify
relations of different generations through one [son, [nephew, 1st cousin 2nd cousin
daughter] niece] once removed once removed
classificatory term only.

[grandson, 2nd cousin

granddaughter] etc. etc. twice removed

etc. etc.

parent child
100
2. Affinity: Consanguineal and affinal relations are denoted by different terms.
Example: Father and father-in-law differ in that the latter is an affine. This is a very commonly found criteria but not
in societies which prefer cross-cousin marriages.
3. Collaterality: This criterion rests on the distinction between siblings and lineal relatives. It is based on the fact that
among consanguine of same sex and generation, some are more closely related to ego. Example: father and uncle are
distinguished by collaterality
4. Sex of relative: It is highly common in most societies.
Example: father-mother, uncle-aunt,
5. Bifurcation: Bifurcation means 'forking," and it recognises that relatives may be traced through either a male or female
connecting relative.
Example: in Hindu society, one's grandparent from the father's line is called 'dada-dadi,' while from the mother's line
is called 'nana-nani."
6. Sex of speaker: It is seen in some societies like the Haida.
Example: there are two terms for father. one used by the son, and other used by the daughter, that is depending on
the sex of the speaker
7. Relative age: It recognises that within a generati0n, people differ in age. Thus, there are separate terms for younger
and elder kin.
Example: in Telugu speaking society, the term “anna” is used tor big brother, while the term “thammudu” is used for
younger brother.
8. Decedence: A different term is assigned to a relative depending on whether the relative is alive dead. It is found in very
few societies only.
9. Polarity: It recognises that a relationship consists of two parties, and thus two terms. Example: Aunt-niece.
If this criterion is ignored, the two parties call each other by the same name. In English, cousin is an example.

Filiation and Complementary filiation

1. Filiation: Allocation of individuals to a descent group is
known as filiation. This allocation is based on the rules of
descent followed by a society. Complementary
Personhood Descent
2. Complimentary filiation: Refers to the fact that in Filiation
societies with unilineal descent groups, individuals
nonetheless recognise kinship links with the relatives Filiation
that do not belong to their own descent group.
It is a concept given by a group of anthropologists called as
‘descent theorists,’ foremost of which was Meyer Fortes. Adulthood
Example: In many patrilineal societies, individuals recognise
kinship ties with relatives from their mother’s side.
Human Rights
Key
CASE STUDY Man (husband or father) Linkages

Woman (wife or mother) Extent of relationship for

Right and Obligation
Fortes while studying Tallensi of Ghana
found that Tallensis treat their complimentary
filiation links as different from their lineage
links, yet nonetheless essential for their well-
being.

As linkage links tend to be political and hierarchical in

character, complimentary filiation links are sometimes
101
 more personal and emotional. This is because members of
the same descent group can have different complimentary
filiation links, and thus, an element of individuality gets
involved.
Value addition:
J. Goody has further added that in some societies, members
inherit certain types of property and status along the lines
of complimentary filiation.
Descent and Alliance Theories.
Introduction:
Descent refers to the principles by which individuals trace their ancestry, usually determining group membership, rights,
and obligations. Alliance, on the other hand, focuses on relationships formed through marriage, which link different kin
groups and influence social dynamics, including inheritance and succession.
Theories to explain the role of kinship in social structure Value addition:
and continuity: Descent theory came to the fore in the 1940s although
1. Descent Theory: tracing its origin in the works of evolutionists like Morgan
Descent theorists compared unilineal descent groups to and functionalists like Radclife-Brown. This was the time
corporations. Members of such groups behaved as a single when works like The Nuer (l 940), ` by Evans- Pritchard,
unit while dealing with economic, legal and political matters, and African Political Systems (1940)’ by M. Fortes and
as well as dealing with other groups. Thus, he concluded Evans-Pritchard were published.
that descent, in particular unilineal descent, was the basis Value addition:
of the stability and structure of a society absence of state
institutions. Criticism of descent theory:
1. The theory was heavily criticised as it became evident
2. Alliance Theory: that kinship was not always organised through unilineal
The theory was first highlighted by Claude Levi-Strauss., descent in various societies.
in his book. Elementary Structures of Kinship (Unlike the 2. It also minimised the importance of marriage and affinal
descent theory, this theory put affinal relations as the basis relations in the structuring of kinship.
of kinship and social structure.)
Value addition:
Details: Criticism of Alliance theory:
1. According to Levi-Strauss, the theory is based on the 1. The theory was criticised by feminist anthropologists for
principle of reciprocity and the universality of incest objectifying women.
taboo.
2. It also minimised the role of consanguinity and residence
2. For Strauss, marriage is fundamentally a ‘reciprocal on kinship.
exchange’ involving women that forges a relationship i.e.
an alliance, between two men or families. Significance of different kinship systems in determining
inheritance patterns and leadership roles:
3. Incest taboo positively forces men to marry women
outside their own descent groups. Thus, incest taboo Patrilineal Kinship Systems:
dictates an ever-continuing reciprocal exchange of In patrilineal societies, inheritance is passed down
women. through the male line, typically from father to son.
4. Levi-Strauss therefore termed incest taboo as a positive Women may have limited rights to inherit, and if they
marriage rule, which ensures that a spouse must be do, the property often remains under the control of
from a certain social category. male relatives.
Leadership positions, such as head of the family,
5. It is the positive marriage rules that give rise to what Levi-
clan, or community, are usually inherited by males,
Strauss calls ‘elementary structures.”
often following a strict lineage hierarchy. This system
reinforces male dominance and continuity of the
patrilineal lineage.
Example: In this patrilineal society, studied by E.E.
Evans-Pritchard, cattle, a central asset, is inherited by
sons. Leadership within clans also follows patrilineal
lines, with elder males holding authority.

102
 Matrilineal Kinship Systems:
In matrilineal societies, property and titles are inherited through the female line. Typically, a man’s wealth is passed
to his sister’s children, rather than his own. This system ensures that property stays within the matrilineal clan.
Leadership roles can also be matrilineal, with authority often passing from a maternal uncle to his nephew. Women
in these societies may hold significant influence, particularly in household and community decisions.

CASE STUDY

Bronisław Malinowski’s work among the Trobriand Islanders highlighted how matrilineal descent shapes
both economic and social structures, ensuring that property and leadership roles reinforce matrilineal
ties.

Bilateral (Cognatic) Kinship Systems:

In bilateral systems, inheritance is traced through both the maternal and paternal lines, allowing for a more flexible
distribution of property among all children, regardless of gender. This system often reflects more egalitarian values.
Leadership roles in bilateral societies may not be as rigidly tied to kinship. They can be based on merit, personal
achievement, or other social factors, allowing for greater social mobility and flexibility in leadership succession.
Example: In many Western societies, inheritance follows a bilateral pattern, where property is typically divided
equally among all children. Leadership roles, such as those in businesses or political offices, are often determined
by merit rather than lineage.

INTERPLAY BETWEEN DESCENT AND ALLIANCE THEORY

Interplay Between Descent and Alliance:
E.E. Evans-Pritchard’s work on the Nuer highlighted how patrilineal descent and alliance through marriage interact to
shape inheritance patterns. He showed how cattle, the primary form of wealth, are inherited patrilineally, but alliances
through marriage can influence who ultimately controls these resources.
David Schneider’s studies on American kinship focused on the flexibility of bilateral descent and the importance of
individual choice in marriage and inheritance. He argued that in modern societies, alliance and descent are less rigidly
defined, allowing for more diverse patterns of inheritance and succession.
For Levi Strauss, alliance takes precedence over descent as the core for the functioning of kinship and kinship is
nothing but the exchange of women between two or more groups.

CASE STUDY

Among the Khasi of Meghalaya, inheritance is matrilineal, with the youngest daughter (known as the Ka
Khadduh) inherits the ancestral property. Leadership roles in the clan also follow matrilineal lines, where
maternal uncles often play significant roles in decision-making.

103
 Kinship Behavior: brother’s wife.
Definition: 2. Joking Relationship: Certain affinal relatives liberally
exchange interactions, be it abuses, gestures, verbal
Kinship behaviour refers to the definite and comparatively talk. Their behaviour crosses ordinary permitted limits
permanent behavioural patterns between kin. of acceptance, and is yet permitted by the society.
Example: jja-sali and devar-bhabhi in Indian Hindu
KINSHIP USAGES family Joking relationships are also seen in tribes
like Ho, Oraon, and Baiga.
3. Teknonymy: Two relations use symbols/third person to
address each other.
Example: In traditional Hindu families, a wife does not
call her husband by name, and rather uses third
AVOIDANCE JOKING RELATIONSHIP AVUNCULATE person like ‘woh’ (him) or ‘bacchon ke papa’ (father
of their children).
4. Avunculate: In many matrilineal societies, the maternal
uncle-nephew relationship is treated as highly
important and special. This is because the maternal
uncle has a permanent place in the family.
Example: Khasi, Tsonga, Nyoro
TEKNONYMY AMITATE COUVADE
5. Amitate - It is the patrilineal version of avunculate,
involving the relationship between the paternal aunt
They are of the following types :
and the nephew.
1. Avoidance: Certain affinal relations avoid physical
6. Couvade: The husband imitates the behaviour of his
contact and/or familiarity. This is done as such
wife during pregnancy, delivery and child birth. He
relationship is deemed vulnerable to socially
behaves as though he feels the same pain and joy as
condemned acts.
his wife does during this period. This is symbolic of a
Example: among Onge, as observed by Radcliffe- strong bond between the couple.
Brown, the elder brother must avoid his younger
Example: seen in Khasi, Toda and Maler.

Kinship and its importance in anthropology:

Definition: Value addition:
1. Lewis Henry Morgan: “Kinship is the relationship of
persons to each other through ties of consanguinity or Guide to kinship diagrams
affinity. blood relationship
2. Claude Lévi-Strauss: “Kinship is a system of classification divorce marriage
of the sexes which is at the same time a system of social
organization.”
3. Margaret Mead: “Kinship is a network of social descent adoption
relationships that is based on shared ancestry, marriage,
or adoption.”

male female Ego death

CLIFF NOTE

104
Importance in Anthropology: Value addition:
1. In social relations: Malinowski studied Kula gift exchange among Trobriand
Kinship plays an important role in determining the marriage Islanders. In strict economic terms, Kula is an uneconomic
regulations followed in a society. and irrational venture involving long hazardous voyages
to exchange economically irrelevant items among kin. But
In simple societies characterised by strong kinship bonds, Malinowski says it reinforces kinship bonds, and its role as a
preferential regulations (cousin marriages, levirate and cementing agency is such that the Trobriand society would
sororate) and endogamy are widely practised. This is disintegrate without it.
due to their emphasis on re-enforcement of pre- existing
strong kinship bonds within the social group. B

In modern complex societies characterised by Mwali (Armbands)

individualism, kinship bonds beyond the nuclear family
are weak. The only rules of marriage followed are family B
exogamy and incest taboo. Soulva (Necklaces)
2. In economic relations:
A A C C
In simple societies, rationality requires maintenance of social
order even at the cost of profit and resource maximisation.
Thus, kinship herein plays a vital role in economic functions.
D
Example: Kula ring
3. In political relations:
D
In simple societies the concepts of law and social sanctions
are built around kinship. The aim of justice is not to punish
the guilty, but to maintain harmony, so as to avoid breakdown CASE STUDY
in kinship bonds.
4. In religion:
Evans-Pritchard observed that in the Nuer,
This is especially evident in Totemism. As per Durkheim, feuds between lineages are solved by the
the totem is bound to the members of a clan in kinship-like leopard skin chief, a respected elder from a
bonds, based on descent. The totem symbolises both the neutral lineage who works as a mediator.
clan and the clan’s ancestors. All the activities within and
with other clans are regulated by the totem.

Thus, kinship has been a major area of focus in socio-cultural anthropology as evident from the work on kinship
terminology, descent and alliance theories.

A.L. Kroeber’s Contribution to Kinship Studies: work demonstrated that kinship systems are not
universal but vary widely, influenced by cultural,
Contributions to Kinship Studies:
social, and environmental factors.
Classification and Typology: Evolution of Kinship: He also considered the
Kinship Terminology: Kroeber is well-known for historical evolution of kinship systems, recognizing
his development of a detailed typology of kinship that they change over time in response to broader
systems based on kinship terminology. He classified social transformations. This historical perspective
kinship systems into categories, which facilitated added depth to the study of kinship, showing it as a
systematic cross-cultural comparisons. This dynamic aspect of human culture.
typology highlighted the varying ways societies
Cultural Relativism:
conceptualize and organize kin relationships.
Contextual Understanding: Kroeber emphasized
Cultural Patterns: His emphasis on kinship
understanding kinship systems within their specific
terminology underscored the idea that kinship
cultural contexts. He argued against ethnocentric
systems reflect broader cultural patterns and
interpretations, advocating for a culturally relativistic
social structures. By examining the terms used for
approach that recognizes the unique features and
different relatives, Kroeber provided insights into
values of each society’s kinship system.
how societies are organized and how they function.
Kinship as Cultural Construct: By treating kinship
Comparative and Historical Approach: as a cultural construct rather than a biological
Cross-Cultural Analysis: He conducted extensive given, Kroeber shifted the focus of kinship studies
cross-cultural comparisons, revealing the diversity towards understanding the social and symbolic
of kinship systems across different societies. His 105
 meanings embedded in kinship practices. Limitations:
Integration with Social Institutions: Overemphasis on Terminology: Critics argue that
Kroeber focused too heavily on kinship terminology
Interconnectedness: Kroeber explored how kinship
at the expense of other aspects of kinship, such
systems interact with other social institutions such
as actual social practices and relationships. This
as marriage, inheritance, residence patterns, and
emphasis on terms might overlook the lived realities
political organization. He demonstrated that kinship
of kinship.
cannot be understood in isolation but must be seen
as part of a larger social fabric. Static Analysis: Some critiques point out that
Kroeber’s approach was too static and descriptive,
Influence on Society: His work highlighted how
lacking analysis of the dynamic and changing nature
kinship systems influence and are influenced
of kinship systems over time. This limitation can
by economic practices, political structures, and
result in an incomplete understanding of kinship as
religious beliefs, thereby linking kinship to broader
a fluid and evolving social structure.
anthropological themes.
Underestimation of Agency: Kroeber’s structural
focus sometimes underestimated individual agency
and the role of personal relationships in shaping
CASE STUDY kinship. His work often prioritized structural
elements over the complexities of personal
interactions and negotiations within kinship
Kroeber’s seminal work on Native American
networks.
kinship systems involved a detailed analysis
of the kinship terminologies used by different Influence and Legacy:
tribes. He aimed to classify and compare these Foundation for Modern Studies: Despite its
systems to understand their underlying social limitations, Kroeber’s work laid the foundation
structures and cultural patterns. for modern kinship studies. His typology and
comparative approach have been influential in
shaping subsequent anthropological research.
Inspiration for Further Research: His contributions
Critical Evaluation: inspired further research into the interplay between
Strengths: kinship systems and other social institutions, leading
Systematic Framework: Kroeber’s typology and to more nuanced and dynamic understandings of
classification provided a systematic framework kinship in anthropology.
for studying kinship, facilitating cross-cultural A.L. Kroeber’s contributions to kinship studies were
comparisons and deeper understanding of social foundational, providing a systematic framework for
organization. understanding and comparing kinship systems across
Emphasis on Cultural Context: His advocacy for cultures. His emphasis on cultural relativism and the
cultural relativism and contextual understanding integration of kinship with broader social structures
helped prevent ethnocentric biases, promoting a marked significant advancements in the field. However,
more accurate and respectful approach to studying his work also had limitations, including an overemphasis
diverse kinship systems. on terminology and a somewhat static approach.

CLIFF NOTE

106
Chapter: 4
ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/questions
Meaning, Scope and Relevance of Economic
Anthropology
1. Discuss the impact of globalisation on the economic
Formalist and Substantivist Debate systems of indigenous communities. (2023, 15
Principles Governing Production, Distribution and marks)
Exchange (Reciprocity, Redistribution and Market), in 2. Debate between formalist and substantivist
Communities, Subsisting on: approaches. (10 Marks, 2022)
Hunting and Gathering 3. Critically examine various anthropological
Fishing interpretations of the Kula ring. (15 Marks, 2022)
Swiddening 4. Modes of subsistence. (10 Marks, 2021)
Pastoralism
5. Pastoralism in India. (10 Marks, 2019)
Horticulture
6. Write the characteristics of hunting and gathering
Agriculture
economy. (15 Marks, 2018)
Globalization and Indigenous Economic Systems
7. With the help of appropriate examples, explain the
various forms of exchange systems. (15 Marks,
2017)
8. Discuss the principles governing production,
distribution, and exchange in simple societies. (20
Marks, 2016)
9. Horticulture (10 Marks, 2015)
10. Critically examine the Formalists & Substantivists
views on the applicability of Economic laws in the
study of Primitive societies. (20 Marks, 2015)
11. Discuss the impact of globalization on tribal
economy. (20 Marks, 2013)
12. Differentiate between Economics and Economic
Anthropology. (10 Marks, 2013)
13. Discuss different modes of exchanges in simple
societies examples. (30 Marks, 2011)

107
 II. Factors Shaping Economic Behavior
A. MEANING, SCOPE AND RELEVANCE OF Economic behavior is shaped by social, cultural, and
ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY historical factors
Recognizes economic behavior goes beyond individual
Definition: Economic Anthropology studies how human and market forces
societies produce, consume, and distribute goods and
III. Importance of Cultural and Social Values in Economic
services.
Decision-Making
Economic anthropologists examine the cultural, social,
Cultural and social values play a significant role in
and political factors that shape economic behaviour,
economic decision-making
including the values, beliefs, norms, and institutions
that govern economic transactions. Highlighting this is crucial for designing appropriate
policies
They also study the relationships between economic
activities and other aspects of human life, such as IV. Insights into Economic Inequality and Global Economic
kinship, gender, religion, and politics. Systems
E.g.; Potlatch in which wealth is destroyed to elevate Economic anthropology provides insights into
social status cannot be explained by modern economics. economic inequality
Scope Also sheds light on how globalization and neoliberal
economic policies can perpetuate and create new
Economic anthropology studies economic systems inequalities
and their components
Origin of the discipline:
Example: Examining the production, consumption,
distribution, and exchange practices of indigenous Anthropology’s sub-field of economic anthropology began
communities in the Amazon rainforest. with the work of Bronislaw Malinowski (Argonauts of the
Western Pacific (1922) from Poland and Marcel Mauss
Economic anthropology investigates the relationship (The Gift ,1925) from France. They studied the nature of
between culture and the economy reciprocity as an alternative to market exchange.
Example: Studying how the cultural practice of gift-
giving influences economic behavior in societies in
the Pacific Islands.
N.S.B. Gras coined the term “economic
Economic anthropology conducts comparative anthropology”
analyses of economic systems across different
societies and cultures Gras distinguished economic anthropology from
“anthropological economics”
Example: Comparing the market systems of
capitalist societies with the gift economies of non- Anthropological economics focused on studying
capitalist societies in Africa. the economic ideas held by primitive peoples.
Economic anthropology examines the role of
institutions in shaping economic behavior Relevant Anthropologists and their work:
Example: Investigating how government policies 1. Marcel Mauss - The Gift (1925)
influence economic activities in different societies, 2. Bronislaw Malinowski - Argonauts of the Western
such as the role of state-owned enterprises in the Pacific (1922)
Chinese economy.
3. Raymond Firth - Primitive Polynesian Economy (1939)
Economic anthropology relies heavily on ethnographic
research methods 4. Karl Polanyi - The Great Transformation (1944)
Example: Conducting participant observation 5. Melville Herskovitz - Economic Anthropology: A Study
studies of the economic practices of small-scale in Comparative Economics (1952)
farmers in rural Mexico. 6. Richard Frank Salisbury, - ”From Stone to Steel” (1962),
Economic anthropology adopts a cross-disciplinary Siane people, Papua New Guinea Highlands.
approach 7. Paul Bohannan - African Husbands and Wives (1963)
Example: Drawing on insights from psychology 8. Clifford Geertz - Agricultural Involution (1963)
to understand the decision-making processes of 9. Marshall Sahlins - Stone Age Economics (1972)
consumers in capitalist societies. 10. Susan Schneider - Culture and Political Economy in
Relevance Western Sicily (1984)
I. Holistic Understanding of Economic Systems 11. Arjun Appadurai - The Social Life of Things:
Economic anthropology studies economic behavior Commodities in Cultural Perspective (1986)
within cultural and social contexts 12. Bill Maurer - Mutual Life, Limited: Islamic Banking,
108 Provides a holistic understanding of economic systems Alternative Currencies, Lateral Reason (2005)
Contemporary trends: Study of changes due to cultural systems of simple societies differ from those proposed
contact between tribal and nontribal economic systems. by modern economics.
The principles of modern economics which are at the
heart of the formalist and substantivist debate::
CASE STUDY 1. Principle of rationality
Individuals always know what they want and make
Maasai of Kenya & Tanzania rational decisions to maximize utility
The Maasai have shifted towards working in Choices based on the concept of marginal utility
the tourism industry, providing new income Self-interest is the driving force (Homo-Economicus)
opportunities but also resulting in increased
2. Principle of demand and supply
competition for resources and pressure to
conform to Western ideals. Critics argue that The market operates on the principle of scarcity
Maasai culture has been commodified for The aim is profit and cost minimization
tourism purposes, and there are concerns Demand and supply principles apply in a free market
about the impact on the environment.
3. Principle of profit/utility maximization
4. Currency as primary mode of exchange

Origin of the discipline

CASE STUDY
The distinction between ‘formal’ and ‘substantive’ economy
was propounded by Hungarian Economic Historian Karl
Kogi Indians and their land Polanyi. Drawing on the work of German Sociologist Max
The Kogi Indians in Colombia have a spiritual Weber who distinguishes between formal and substantive
connection to the land they inhabit. They rationality, Karl Polanyi argued that economy can be
established the Kogi Territorial Guard to defined in two terms – formal and substantive.
protect their land from threats like illegal
mining and deforestation. For the Kogi, the
land is a living entity with its own spirit and Malinowski in his work “Argonauts of the Western
consciousness. Pacific” (1922) on the Trobriand Islanders says that
societies like that of the Trobriand Islanders did not fit
the classic economists’ model.

CASE STUDY

Why jewellery and gifts are more than

just material possessions: Lessons from
Raymond Firth studied the Maori economy and argued
Trobriand Islanders
that primitive man is a rational man.
Annette Weiner’s case study on the Trobriand
Islanders highlights the importance of
understanding economic behavior within
social and cultural contexts. Her research
on the kula gift exchange system shows that
economic systems are intertwined with social
and cultural practices and serve to create and In his book “The Great Transformation” published in
reinforce social ties within a society 1944, Karl Polanyi introduced two meanings of the
term “economics.” The first meaning, which is formalist,
is based on the principles of modern economics. The
Formalist and Substantivist debate: second meaning, which is substantive, explores how
humans earn a living from their natural and social
What is the debate?
environment.
How to study economy of the simple societies.
There exist two groups of anthropologists –
1. Formalist Thought (Melville Herskovits, Robert
1. Formalists: Believe modern economic theories can be Salisbury, David Schneider, Raymond Firth and Clifford
applied for simple societies with some adjustments, Geertz).
and that these theories have universal validity. Key Ideas of Formalism:
2. Substantivists: Substantivists believe the economic 1. Formal rules of neoclassical economic theory are 109
 universal: Principles derived from studying capitalist 3. Currency as primary mode of exchange in simple
market societies can be used to explain non-capitalist societies.
economies.
2. Economic rationality is universal: Scarcity and
maximising behaviour are universal characteristics,
CASE STUDY
and that the same means are applied everywhere to
achieve different ends. The research of Raymond Firth on the
3. Focus on individual behaviour: Individuals make economy of Tikopia. Firth found that currency
rational choices based on maximizing their gains, a played a key role in the economy of Tikopia,
concept known as “ economizing”. and that the islanders used it to facilitate trade
4. Self-regulating market: Formalists believe in the and exchange goods.
concept of a self-regulating market, where the forces
of supply and demand naturally regulate the economy

4. Formalists also believe that the principles of modern

economics can help to explain economic changes in
All people live in scarcity of resources simple societies.

CASE STUDY
Pursue utility maximization
David Harvey’s research on the economy
of the Yanomami people in the Amazon
rainforest. Harvey argued that the introduction
Based on rationality of money into the Yanomami economy led to
significant economic changes, including the
emergence of new forms of labour and the
1. Principle of profit maximization growth of markets for goods and services.

CASE STUDY
Formalists strike back
Fredrik Barth’s research on the Baktaman Formalism and scientific inquiry
people of New Guinea. Barth found that Formalists demonstrated that economics could
the Baktaman people were rational actors be applied to non- capitalist economies.
who made decisions based on the concept game theory
of marginal utility. For example, they would
linear programming
decide how much effort to put into fishing
based on the amount of fish they needed and decision trees
the amount of effort required to catch it. Behavior which seem strange to outsiders is indeed
rational and understandable once a person comes to
understand the cultural logic and real circumstances
that frame people’s lives.
2. Concept of marginal utility.
2. Substantivist Thought (Karl Polanyi, Marcel
CASE STUDY Mauss, Marshall Sahlins, Maurice Godelier, Laura
Bohannan, Elman Service, George Dalton)

Max Gluckman’s research on the economy Key ideals of substantivists:

of the Zulu people in South Africa. Gluckman Economic rationality is a specific historical construct:
argued that the Zulu people operated on the The concept of economic rationality, which emphasizes
principles of supply and demand, and that the individual self-interest and maximizing gains, is a
aim of their economic activity was to maximize product of Western market societies and does not
profits and minimize costs. apply universally.
Economy is embedded in society: Substantivists
believe that the economy is not a separate sphere but
is integrated into social relationships, institutions, and
cultural practices.
110
 Market economy is not natural and Pre-capitalist 2. Reciprocity and exchange are important economic
economies are organised differently: Substantivists principles:
reject the idea that pre-capitalist economies operate
on the same principles as capitalist economies. They
argue that argue that the concept of a self-regulating CASE STUDY
market is a myth and traditional societies have different
forms of economic organisation, such as reciprocity, Bronislaw Malinowski, in his study of the
redistribution, and gift economies. Trobriand Islanders, found that economic
Importance of non-economic factors: Substantivists transactions were embedded in social
emphasize that non-economic factors like religion, relationships and cultural practices, such as
social status, and kinship play a significant role in the kula ring.
shaping economic behaviour.
Emphasis on ethnographic evidence: Substantivism
relies on ethnographic studies of non-Western societies
3. Economic practices are shaped by the environment.
to demonstrate the diversity of economic systems and
challenge the universality of capitalist principles.
Critique of Formalism: Substantivists challenge the CASE STUDY
formalist approach by arguing that it ignores the crucial
role of culture and social relations in shaping economic
Julian Steward, in his study of indigenous
activity
people in the Great Basin region of North
America, found that their economic practices
Reciprocity: The exchange of goods and services were shaped by the natural resources available,
is not solely based on the principles of supply and such as seeds, nuts, and game animals.
demand, but on social relationships, obligations, and
expectations.
4. Economic practices are shaped by social organization.

CASE STUDY
Social organization: Economic practices are
influenced by social structures and institutions, such Elman Service, in his book “Primitive Social
as kinship, religion, and politics. Organization,” proposed a classification
system for societies based on their level of
social complexity and their mode of production.

Environment: The natural environment plays a

Polanyi frequently used Malinowski’s Kula trade as an
significant role in economic practices, including
example of substantive economy.
subsistence strategies and resource management.

1. Economic practices are embedded in social and The Substantivist position and Karl Polanyi The
cultural contexts: anthropologist’s economist
(1944) The Great Transformation
Modern capitalism (market
CASE STUDY capitalism)
Profit more important than
Marshall Sahlins, in his book “Stone Age human value
Economics,” argues that economic practices All things are a commodity
among hunter-gatherer societies are shaped Economics is a servant of market
by social and cultural norms, such as sharing capitalism
and reciprocity, rather than by individual self- Economics naturalized capitalism
interest. (1957) Trade and Market in the Early Empires
Early empires built without market capitalism,
nonmarket economies
“Production does not exist for the sake of exchange, nor Questioned the naturalness of market capitalism
does exchange for the sake of production.”-Sahlins as an economic structure 111
 Key ideas of the formalists and substantivists Emergence of Diverse Approaches to Economic
Anthropology
Formalists Substantivist
Approach Description
Economic rationality of The economy is a type
the maximizing individual of human activity which Ecological “Overlaps considerably with
interest is to be found in all is embedded in different Anthropology economic anthropology, and at
societies and in all kinds of social institutions in times they appear indistinguishable,
behaviours. different kinds of societies. especially in the work of
archaeologists”.
The individual is the unit of The society is the unit of
analysis. analysis. Julian Steward and Leslie White:
variation in social organization
Individual choice shapes The social structure among different groups. Analysis of
the economic system. shapes the individual. subsistence systems. Ecosystem as
a complex web of relationships that
Society is created from Society sets the rules of bind humans to other species in the
the patterned actions and the game, and individuals natural environment.
decisions of individuals; have limited choices. Roy Rappaport (1968) Pigs for
society is changed by the Ancestors: warfare regulates
individual choices. population density without
participants’ knowledge. Systems
theory, demography, evolutionary
The end of the formalist-substantivist debate: theory, biological ecology.
A whimper, not a bang (1980s) Societies are dynamic;
1. The Debate is important focus on people’s perceptions
and understandings of the natural
It is unsolvable because it gets at the core issues environment. Formal methods for
about selfishness and altruism, about the ability of modeling human decision-making.
humans to change their own lives and society, and
about the merits of logical thought and of emotion. Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and
Peasant Economies (1990);
It initiated conversations about social change,
evolution, and economy and how those things maximization questions and utility.
relate to other classic objects of an ecological study Neo-Marxism Economics describes the power
(ritual, kinship.). relations of the structure;
2. 1970s individuals are not free actors in an
The debate gave way to Marxism in economic open marketplace.
anthropology. People linked together through
The growth of applied anthropologists in colonialism and trade through the
government agencies, foundations, and social violence of power.
service organizations. Peasants, small scale industry,
Shift in focus towards nation-states and modern gender in equality, social
life service organizations. stratification, land tenure, state
intervention in markets.
3. Emergence of diverse Approaches to Economic
Anthropology Feminism Economics is a powerful influence
Neo-Marxism on modern patriarchy, universalizing
force of 19th century Western
Feminism cultural norms about gender;
Ecological Anthropology rejection of the gender binary as
Development Anthropology well as the domestic-economic
Peasant Studies binary.
Criticizes microeconomics for
being a reproductive ideology for
capitalism.
Uncover exploitation, inequality, and
injustice in global society.

112
C. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND EXCHANGE (RECIPROCITY,
REDISTRIBUTION, AND MARKET)
(A) Production and principles governing the production: The process of converting resources through labour into food,
tools, and other goods is known as production, which is a fundamental concept in economics.
The principles that govern this process are:
1. Goal of Production
Based on the goal of production, and the cultural and economic requirements, production systems can be classified as
following

Type of Basic Mode of

Goal Labour Characteristics Example
Production Production
Domestic Domestic Family or kinship Produce food, Found in Hunting and
Production consumption unit shelter, and subsistence gathering groups,
implements economies fishing,
subsistence
agriculture

Tributary Domestic Elite landowner Pay tribute of Found in Feudal societies

Production consumption + or ruler labour or produce nonindustrial of medieval
offering tribute societies, Western Europe
to political preliminary level and India
authorities of market, higher
than subsistence
level production
Industrial High productivity Capitalists Non domestic High level of Intensive
Production and profit own means of organization of specialization, agriculture,
production labour, paid wages elaborate and mechanized
extensive markets agriculture,
industries

2. Labour – Organization and Principles Governing mothers in foraging activities. Among the Hadza of
Division of Labour: Labour is an important aspect of Tanzania, children between the ages of 5 and 10 are
any production system. Different economies uses able to get one-third to one-half of their calories as
labour indifferent ways. they forage with their mothers
(a) Organization of labour In settled societies like agriculture, children take care
Formal organization of labour is an attribute of industrial of child care activities, domestic chores, herding cattle,
societies based on labour laws, contracts, and specific etc.
duration of work. Gender is also an important determinant of labour.
Non-kinship ties are the basis of formal organization of In hunting and gathering societies, men are responsible
labour. for hunting while women gather tubers and roots, and
In non-industrialized societies, organization of labour take care of children.
depends on the need of the hour. Among the Todas in Nilgiris, men are completely
In hunting and fishing economies, highly coordinated responsible for dairy activities from herding to
efforts of hunters are required for the duration of the maintaining the dairies. Among the horticultural
hunt. groups, women play a very important role in pig rearing
and so on.
In horticultural societies, every activity is organized by
the kinship group. Division of labour becomes more complex as societies
become more complex.
(b) Division of labour
Specialization and societal stratification become
Division of labour is usually based on age, gender, and important factors in the division of labour.
to some extent, the level of specialization.
Children take up different activities in different
societies.
In hunting and gathering societies, children help their 113
 CASE STUDY Exchange

1. The !Kung San of southern Africa: studied

by Richard Lee, who documented the
division of labour between men and women Determines It involves the In short,
in hunting and gathering societies. which movement of exchange
2. The Minangkabau of Indonesia: studied by specific goods determines
Peggy Sandy, who examined the matrilineal products an and services who
social organization and the role of women individual or between gets which
in agriculture and trade. group will individuals or slice.
receive in groups, such
3. The jajmani system in India: studied by exchange as between
William Wiser, who looked at the caste- for their share producers
based division of labour and how it was of and
organized around the exchange of goods the output. consumers or
and services between different castes. buyers and
sellers.

(B) Distribution and Exchange (Reciprocity, Redistribution

and Market): Anthropologists have long studied Polanyi identified three primary systems for the distribution
economic systems, with a focus on distribution and of goods in societies: Reciprocity, Redistribution, and
exchange. While these two concepts are related, they Market or Commercial exchange. While all three systems
have distinct differences. can coexist within a society, there is typically one dominant
system that correlates with the society’s technological
advancements in food production and overall level of
CASE STUDY economic development.
(a) Reciprocity:
Potlatch as described by Marcel Mauss Reciprocity refers to the exchange of goods, services, or
The potlatch ceremony of the Pacific other valuable resources between individuals or groups in
Northwest Coast Native American tribes is an a way that creates obligations and establishes social ties.
example of gift-giving as a means of reinforcing Anthropologists have identified three distinct forms of
social ties and establishing hierarchy. The act reciprocity
of giving and receiving gifts is not just an Type of Reciprocity
exchange of goods, but also an exchange of
1. Generalized reciprocity: Refers to the exchange of
social status and prestige. The distribution of
goods or services without an explicit expectation of
goods is based on social relationships, while
an immediate or direct return.
the exchang e of gifts serves to distribute
goods and reinforce social ties. Instead, this form of reciprocity creates a sense of
obligation between individuals or groups that can be
called upon at a later time.
For example, in some small-scale societies, people may
share food or other resources freely with one another,
Distribution with the understanding that others will do the same in
the future.
Ceremonial exchange like Kula and Potlatch comes
under this category.

It is a reward Determines In short,

system based how much of distribution CASE STUDY
on factors the total allocates the
such as control output each shares
over individual or of the pie Potlatch among the Kwakwaka’wakw
production or group will people of the Pacific Northwest: a
labor expended receive ceremonial feast involving gift-giving and
storytelling studied by Franz Boas.

114
 similar value, and there is a balance of exchange
Sharing practices among the Hadza between the two clans. The exchange is seen
hunter-gatherers of Tanzania: communal as a way of strengthening social ties and
sharing of food without immediate return, maintaining balance between the clans.
reinforcing social ties and promoting The anthropologist Kathleen Gough studied
cooperation, studied by Frank Marlowe. this practice and described it as an example
of balanced reciprocity, where there is an
expectation of a return gift of equal value.
Misrepresenting the Potlach (Schulte-Tenckhoff,(2001)
Under the impact of massive European settlement
potlatching became the target of the civilising
endeavours of Protestant missionaries, leading to anti- A B A B A B
potlatch legislation designed to foster the assimilation a) Generalized b) Balanced c) Negative
Reciprocity Reciprocity Reciprocity
of the Northwest Coast peoples into Euro-Canadian
society. As a result, ‘potlatch’ came to subsume
the precarious coexistence of ‘civilised’ settlers and
A A
‘savage’ Indians under colonial rule. This initial (mis)
representation of the potlatch was carried over into
professional anthropology, where the definitions
arrived at by the coloniser were hardly probed. B D B D
C C
2. Balanced Reciprocity: It involves the exchange of
goods or services with the expectation of a roughly
equal return. 3. Negative reciprocity: As the name suggests,
This type of reciprocity is often seen in more complex involves an exchange in which one party seeks to gain an
societies, where trade and exchange play a larger role advantage over the other.
in the economy.
This can take the form of theft, cheating, or other
For example, in some cultures, gift-giving is an important
forms of exploitation.
aspect of social exchange, with the expectation that
the recipient will reciprocate with a gift of similar value Negative reciprocity is generally frowned upon in most
in the future. societies, as it undermines trust and social cohesion.
All forms of barter falls under this category.
CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Theft among the !Kung San of Southern
Africa: theft considered an acceptable
Barter economy among Enga people of
way to obtain resources in a harsh desert
Highland New Guinea: exchange of pigs to
environment, studied by Richard Lee.
establish social ties and repay debts, studied
by Andrew Strathern. Piracy in the Strait of Malacca: pirate
groups engage in theft and extortion,
Yanomami people of Amazonia: exchange
driven by social, economic, and political
of goods and services with neighbouring
factors, studied by Johan Lindquist.
communities to create a sense of obligation
and mutual support, studied by Napoleon
Chagnon.
Sahlins’ Kinship Theory of Reciprocity: Exploring
the Role of Kinship Distance in Exchange
Relationships
CASE STUDY
Marshall Sahlins proposed that the type of reciprocity
practiced in a society depends on the kinship distance
Shifting Brides: A System of Balanced Reciprocity between individuals. Generalized reciprocity is often
in Southern India used among close family members, while balanced
The Toda and Kurumba tribes of Southern India reciprocity is more common among individuals who are
have a traditional system of exchange called the not closely related. Trade between neighboring groups
“shifting of the bride.” This exchange involves may occur when it would be considered inappropriate
the exchange of brides between two clans, with to trade with one’s own family. As societies become
each clan giving a bride and receiving a bride in
more economically developed, the importance of
return. The exchange is carefully orchestrated
so that each clan gives and receives brides of reciprocity declines and it distributes only a small
proportion of goods and services. 115
 Intertribal sector result in economic gain but represented a superiority
of the giver over the receiver and placed a burden
Tribal sector upon the receiver. Instead, the practical advantages
of the Kula Ring were the social gains of harmony, as
Village sector goods were traded with ease and enjoyment.
The Kula Ring has many important features that
Lineage sector make it significant in various aspects of Trobriand
society. It is an essential part of the economy, as
House some islands cannot produce enough food to sustain
their inhabitants, so they specialize in other crafts
Generalized Balanced Negative such as canoe building and pottery making. The Kula
reciprocity reciprocity reciprocity Ring allows them to trade their specialties for food
and other necessities. It is also an important part of
religion, as the ornaments are imbued with spiritual
power and are thought to bring good fortune and ward
off evil. The Kula Ring also has political significance,
as it reinforces alliances and relationships between
the islands. Lastly, the Kula Ring is significant in the
psychology of Trobrianders, as it fosters feelings of
The Kula Ring: An Intricate System of generosity, obligation, and interdependence.
Ceremonial Exchange and Social Harmony Other anthropologists have studied the Kula Ring
The Kula Ring, a ceremonial exchange system among and offered their interpretations. For example,
the Trobriand Islanders, is one of the most famous Annette Weiner studied the Kula Ring from a feminist
examples of balanced reciprocity in anthropology. perspective and argued that Malinowski’s focus on men
It was studied extensively by Bronislaw Malinowski, and male power in the Kula Ring overshadowed the role
who found that this exchange system involved the of women and matrilineal kinship. She also found that
exchange of shell ornaments, particularly white shell the Kula Ring was not just a ceremonial exchange but
armbands and red shell necklaces, between far-flung had practical economic advantages as well. Another
islands in the Massim archipelago. The Kula Ring is not anthropologist, Gregory Bateson, studied the Kula
just an economic exchange system but a social and Ring from a cybernetic perspective and saw it as a
ceremonial one as well. Participants in the exchange communication system that reinforced social relations
are all male, and knowledge of magic is necessary to and maintained balance between the islands. Other
be part of the exchange. anthropologists have offered different interpretations
of the Kula ring. For example, Marshall Sahlins argued
that the Kula ring was a form of “balanced reciprocity,”
in which the exchange of goods was not motivated
by self-interest but by a desire to maintain social
relationships. Annette Weiner argued that the Kula ring
was a way of creating and maintaining social status, as
the most valuable shell valuables were passed down
from generation to generation.

Barter only
possible Peaceful Signalling
if both actors Cooperation function of
cooperate gift exchange if
Change of strategy reputation
due to fear of ostracism and trust are
working
Economic Contact of Kula
Schematric representation of the Barter partners independent
“Observed” Kula Ring of distance

Exchange of Kula
The Kula Ring is inherited through the matrilineal line,
valuables only if
with maternal uncles passing it down to their sister’s trading is possible Ceremonial
sons. Once a person is part of the Kula Ring, they remain Exchange
a member for life. Malinowski found that exchange
among Trobrianders was more of a social act than a Coupling of the three basic processes
transmission of usable objects. The exchange did not
116
 In recent years, there has been a growing interest in discourage hard work, and create a sense of
the symbolic and ritual aspects of the Kula ring. For entitlement among those who receive redistributed
example, Nicholas Thomas has argued that the Kula resources.
ring is a “rite of exchange,” in which the circulation of
shell valuables is used to create and reaffirm social LEVELlNG MECHANISM
relations. Similarly, Marilyn Strathern has argued In many societies, redistribution is accompanied by
that the Kula ring is a “system of value,” in which the a levelling mechanism, which serves to reduce the
exchange of shell valuables is used to create and social distance between individuals and groups by
express social meanings. preventing the accumulation of wealth by a few
The Kula ring is a complex and fascinating cultural individuals or families. One example of a leveling
phenomenon that has been interpreted in a variety of mechanism is the potlatch system among the
ways by anthropologists. The different interpretations Kwakiutl of the Pacific Northwest coast of North
of the Kula ring reflect the different theoretical America. In this system, a family would give away
perspectives of the anthropologists who have studied a large amount of wealth and property to their
it. However, all of the interpretations agree that the guests in order to gain prestige and status, but also
Kula ring is a significant cultural institution that plays to prevent the accumulation of wealth by any one
an important role in Trobriand society. family.
CARGO SYSTEM
(b) Redistribution: Redistribution is the accumulation Another example of redistribution is the cargo system,
of goods or labour by a particular person or agency, or which is found in many societies of Melanesia, such
in a particular place, for the purpose of subsequent as the Trobriand Islanders. In this system, goods
distribution. are accumulated by individuals or groups in order
Importance of Redistribution in Society: to be given away at a later time, often in exchange
Redistribution becomes an important mechanism in for social prestige and status. The accumulation
societies that have political hierarchies, where chiefs or and exchange of goods in the cargo system is tied
other specialized officials and agencies can coordinate to a complex network of social relationships and
centralized collection and distribution of goods or mobilize obligations, known as the Kula ring.
labour for some public purpose.
Examples of Redistribution in Different Societies:
Examples of redistribution can be found in all societies, CASE STUDY
but it becomes more important in some societies than
others. For example:
Potlatch and Moka:
In Bunyoro, western Uganda, the king retained
Potlatch:
much of the wealth for himself and his close kin,
Practice among indigenous peoples of the
and required everyone to give him large quantities
Pacific Northwest Coast
of food, crafts, and even labour services, which he
Wealthy individuals give away possessions and
then redistributed to all the people in theory.
food to gain prestige and honour
Among the Buin of Melanesia, the pig feasts act like A form of social control and competition
a mode of redistribution and through it equalization. among chiefs
In modern societies, redistribution is evident in the Popularized by Franz Boas, a German-
form of taxation and the use of public revenue for American anthropologist who studied the
education, social security, healthcare, and so on. Kwakwaka’wakw people in Canada
The Relationship Between Redistribution and Roy Wagner, an American anthropologist,
Agriculture: studied the potlatch in depth and argued that
According to Elman Service, redistribution develops it was a way of creating social and symbolic
in agricultural societies that contain sub-regions value, rather than just exchanging material
suited to different kinds of crops or natural resources, goods
and the area being large, it is difficult for direct Moka/Pig Feast:
exchange so it might need a central coordinating Practice among the people of Papua New
mechanism. Marvin Harris agreed that redistribution Guinea
becomes more likely with agriculture but the idea A form of competitive gift-giving, where
behind redistribution originates as a hedge against individuals try to outdo each other by giving
uncertainty in the future. more pigs and other goods to gain prestige
The Benefits and Drawbacks of Redistribution: and influence
The benefits of redistribution are that it helps to ensure The recipient of the gifts is then obligated to
that resources are distributed more evenly, and it can return the favour, often with even more gifts
help to reduce inequality. However, the drawbacks Commonly studied by anthropologists,
of redistribution are that it can create dependency, 117
 including Bronislaw Malinowski, who coined CASE STUDY
the term “moka” and described it as a complex
system of exchange and social relations
1. The Toda people of southern India:
Rapport also studied the moka and
exchanged dairy products with neighboring
emphasized its role in creating and reinforcing
tribes through open partner trade. They
social bonds, as well as the importance of
would travel to neighboring villages and
individual strategy and negotiation in the
exchange milk and cheese for goods like
process.
grains and vegetables.
2. The Trobriand Islanders of Papua New
Guinea: engaged in open partner trade as
part of their kula ring system. They traded
valuable items like shell necklaces and
(C) Market Exchange system: Exchange of goods
armbands with other islanders through
among many buyers and sellers directly, by barter or
ceremonial exchanges and strict rules of
indirectly, by money and pricing.
reciprocity, building trust between trading
Barter is one form of market exchange that predates the partners.
use of money. In a barter system, goods and services are
traded directly for other goods and services, without the
use of money.
Characteristics of Tribal Market Systems:
Types of barter-
Insights from the Works of Dalton and Bohannan
1. Silent barter: Silent barter is a system in which two
1. Reciprocity as a Central Feature of Tribal Market
groups of people trade goods without ever meeting
Systems: In his study of the Kachin people of Burma,
each other.
anthropologist Paul Dalton observed that reciprocity
Instead of face-to-face negotiation, they leave their was a central feature of their market system. He noted
goods at designated locations and then return later that individuals exchanged goods and services based
to find that the other group has left goods of equal on a system of mutual obligation, with gift-giving
value. Silent barter was commonly practiced in being a common form of reciprocity. For example,
parts of Africa and the Americas. during weddings or other important events, guests
2. Open partner trade: Open partner trade is a system in were expected to bring gifts, which would later be
reciprocated in some form.
2. Limited Access to Goods and Services: Insights from
CASE STUDY Bohannan’s Study In her study of the Tiv people of
Nigeria, anthropologist Laura Bohannan observed that
1. The Vedda people of Sri Lanka would leave access to goods and services was often limited in tribal
honey at designated locations in the forest, market systems. This was due to a variety of factors,
and traders from neighboring villages such as geography and social status. For example,
would leave rice in exchange. The Vedda certain goods might only be available in certain regions,
would return later to collect the rice, and or certain social classes might have greater access to
the traders would return to collect the certain resources.
honey. 3. Informal Regulation in Tribal Market Systems: Both
2. The Aztecs of Mesoamerica used a system Dalton and Bohannan observed that tribal market
of silent barter to obtain goods from the systems were often regulated informally, through
neighboring Totonac people. The Aztecs social norms and customs rather than formal laws or
would leave cacao beans at designated regulations. For example, Dalton noted that individuals
locations, and the Totonac would leave who failed to reciprocate gifts might be ostracized
goods such as cotton, salt, and feathers in from the community, while Bohannan observed that
exchange. disputes over market transactions were often resolved
through mediation by elders or other respected
members of the community.
which two groups of people negotiate and exchange 4. Subsistence Economy in Tribal Market Systems:
goods face-toface. Dalton observed that tribal market systems were
often based on subsistence agriculture or hunting
This type of trade involves more personal interaction
and gathering. This meant that economic activity was
and trust between the trading partners. Open
closely tied to the natural environment and was subject
partner trade has been practiced in many different
to seasonal fluctuations. For example, in his study of
parts of the world.
118 the Kachin, Dalton noted that agricultural production
 was largely limited to the rainy season, while hunting
and gathering activities were more common during the CASE STUDY
dry season.
5. Non-Monetization in Tribal Market Systems: Bohannan
1. The Kayapo people of Brazil have been
observed that goods and services were often
affected by the expansion of soybean
exchanged without the use of money in tribal market
farming and cattle ranching, which has led
systems. Instead, items of value, such as livestock or
to the destruction of their forest homeland
crops, might be used as currency. For example, in her
and the loss of traditional practices such as
study of the Tiv, Bohannan noted that cattle were
hunting and gathering. (Megan Moodie)
often used as a form of currency, with the value of
goods and services being calculated in terms of the 2. The Inuit of northern Canada have seen
number of cattle required to purchase them. the decline of traditional subsistence
practices such as hunting and fishing due
6. Social Significance in Tribal Market Systems: Dalton
to the impacts of climate change and
observed that economic activity in tribal market
the introduction of wage labor. (Shari
systems was often closely tied to social relationships
Brotman)
and status. For example, gift-giving might be used to
strengthen social ties and establish one’s status within 3. The Maori of New Zealand have faced
the community. Dalton noted that the exchange of challenges to their traditional practices of
gifts among the Kachin was often seen as a way of land and resource management due to
demonstrating one’s generosity and establishing one’s the pressures of tourism and commercial
reputation as a respected member of the community. development. (Hemi Whaanga)
7. Limited Specialization in Tribal Market Systems: 4. The Sami of northern Europe have
Examples from Bohannan’s Study Bohannan observed experienced changes in their reindeer
that tribal market systems tended to have limited herding practices due to the impacts of
specialization, with individuals being expected to be climate change, industrial development,
self-suficient and capable of producing a wide range and the commodification of traditional
of goods and services. For example, in her study of the products such as reindeer meat and
Tiv, Bohannan noted that individuals were expected to antlers. (Stephan Dudeck)
be able to farm, raise livestock, and perform a variety of
other tasks necessary for survival.
8. Limited Accumulation in Tribal Market Systems: Both Responses to Globalization:
Dalton and Bohannan observed that accumulation of Indigenous peoples have developed a range of
wealth or resources was often discouraged in tribal strategies to respond to the impacts of globalization
market systems. Instead, wealth was often redistributed on their economic systems.
through gift-giving or other forms of reciprocity. For Some have sought to revitalize traditional practices
example, in her study of the Tiv. and knowledge through cultural preservation efforts
Globalization and Indigenous Economic and community-based initiatives.
Systems: Others have engaged with global markets and
Globalization refers to the increasing technology in ways that allow them to maintain control
interconnectedness of the world’s economies and over their resources and cultural heritage, such as the
cultures through the growth of international trade, sale of artisanal products or the use of social media for
communication, and migration. cultural outreach.
Indigenous economic systems are those based Many have also engaged in political activism and
on traditional ways of producing, distributing, and advocacy to defend their rights to their traditional
consuming goods and services that are specific to a lands and resources, as well as to seek recognition
particular culture or society. and respect for their unique economic and cultural
Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Economic Systems: practices.
The spread of global capitalism has often led to the Conclusion:
marginalization and even destruction of indigenous The impact of globalization on indigenous economic
economic systems. systems is complex and multifaceted, and varie
Indigenous peoples have faced displacement from depending on the specific historical, cultural, and
their traditional lands and resources, as well as the loss ecological context.
of cultural knowledge and practices. While indigenous peoples have faced many challenges
Globalization has often brought with it a push towards to their economic systems in the face of globalization,
uniformity and standardization, which can undermine they have also demonstrated resilience and creativity
the diversity and complexity of indigenous economic in responding to these challenges.
systems. 119
 Subsistence Hunting and Fishing Swiddening Pastoralism Horticulture Agriculture
Strategy Gathering

Ecosystem Forests, Oceans, rivers, Tropical Grasslands, Forests, Grasslands,

grasslands, lakes forests, deserts, tundra rainforests, river valleys,
tundra, deserts rainforests river valleys plains

Examples Richard Lee Brian Fagan Roy Rappaport Katherine Richard Robert Netting
(Kalahari), (San Francisco (Tsembaga), Homewood Wilk (Maya), (Swiss Alps),
Napoleon Bay), Richard William Balee (Maasai), E. Harold Conklin James Scott
Chagnon Nelson (Alaska) (Amazon) Douglas Lewis (Ifugao) (Southeast
(Yanomami) (Rendille) Asia)
Division of Genderbased Genderbased Genderbased Age and Genderbased Age and
Labour (men hunt, (men fish, (men clear gender-based (men clear gender-based
women gather) women land, women (men herd, land, women (men plow,
process) plant and women milk plant and women plant
harvest and process) harvest) and harvest)
Technology Simple tools Nets, hooks, Slash-and-burn Domesticated Simple tools Plows,
(spears, bows, traps, canoes techniques, animals (cattle, (hoes, digging irrigation
digging sticks) simple sheep, goats), sticks) systems, crop
tools (hoes, simple tools rotation
machetes) (herding sticks)
Property No private No private Land is Herders have Land is Private
Status ownership of ownership of communally collective rights communally ownership of
land, resources water bodies, owned, but to land, but owned, but land, resources
shared shing rights may be ownership is may be may be shared
shared temporarily not permanent temporarily or rented
privatized privatized
Demography Small bands Coastal Small villages Nomadic or Small villages Larger villages
(20- 50 communities, (less than 500 seminomadic (less than 500 and towns
people) riverine people) societies people) (up to several
societies thousand
people)
Modes of Reciprocity and Reciprocity and Reciprocity and Barter and gift- Reciprocity and Marketbased
Exchange sharing trade barter giving barter exchange,
money

Other Notes Seasonal Over fishing Requires Vulnerable Requires Requires large
migrations in and pollution long periods to drought, intensive amounts of
search of food can lead to of fallow conflict with labour, but can labour, can
resource time, may agriculturalists sustain larger support high
depletion contribute to over land use populations population
deforestation than hunting densities
and gathering

120
 Chapter: 5
POLITICAL ORGANISATION &
SOCIAL CONTROL
SYLLABUS Previous Year
Questions
Political Organization and Social Control: Band, tribe,
chiefdom, kingdom and state; concepts of power, authority
Customary laws and environmental conservation.
and legitimacy; social control, law and justice in simple
(10 marks, 2023)
Societies.
Discuss the mechanism of social control in different
types of political systems. (2022)
How do political organisations of simple societies
establish power, authority and legitimacy? (2021)
How is the construct of power linked to the notion
of conspicuous consumption and its impact on
distributive justice? (2020)
How does customary law function in the tribal
society? Discuss its different sources. (2018)

121
 Need of political organizations
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION: Political organizations make social relations orderly,
institutionalized and predictable.
According to Radcliffe Brown, political organization is
an organization for ‘maintenance of order’ in society
by plausible use of physical force.
Political organization comprises those portions of
social organization that specifically relate to the
individuals or groups that manage the affairs of public “All of us are criminals
policy or seek to control the appointment of activities born by instinct.” To
of those individuals or groups. (Fried 1967) control us, we need
Territorial reference is generally taken to be an “political organization.”
important part of the definition of a political unit. - Edmund Leach
So when we speak of a political system or a political
organization we usually refer to certain kinds of social
relationships within a particular area.
Elman Service in book- “Primitive Social organization Also, group Activities (collective action), in economic
(1962) listed four types/ levels, of political organization: and social sphere, is a prerequisite for the survival of
1. Bands, any group of people. To be effective, group activities
2. Tribes, must have leadership and organization. This is referred
3. Chiefdoms, as the political structure of a society. Thus, all societies
4. Kingdom / State. have some form of political organization.

Alternatively, societies are classified into following types

based on their political organizations:
Difference Between State and Stateless
Societies:
Stateless societies Fortes and Evans-Pritchard, in their seminal work
State societies “African Political Systems” (1940), examined
various African societies, and highlighted certain
Political Organisation characteristics commonly found in stateless societies.
Let’s look into features of state and stateless societies.

State Stateless
(Cephalous/Centralised/ (Acephalous/Non-centralised/ Criteria State Stateless Societies
Non-segmentary) Segmentary)
Homogenous.
Nature of
Heteogenous (Limited hierarchical
Tribal society
differentiation)
Kinship-Based
Monarchy
Modern

Chiefdom
(Primitive
State

State)

Nature Based on caste, Social Organization.

Lineage-

Age-set

Village-
Based
based

based

Bands

of social religion, class (Lineages and clans

organisation etc. form the foundation of
social structure.)
Direction of Evolution
Based on formal
Social Based on age, gender,
positions of
stratification and achieved status.
NOTE power.
Territory and boundary
Today, none of these political entities (polities) is mostly non-defined.
can be studied as a self-contained form of
political organization, since all exist within nation- Example- Bands
states and are thus subject to state control. and Age-set based
Territory and societies have no
Most societies that used to be organized at Nature of
boundary is defined territory.
the band, tribe, or chiefdom level are now territory
well-defined. Lineage and village-
incorporated into larger political entities. With based societies have
a handful of exceptions, there are no politically defined territories
autonomous bands or tribes or chiefdoms in but non-defined
the world anymore. (Ember and Ember) boundaries.
122
 Absence of a EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS
Centralized Political The evolution of political systems can be broadly
Authority. Decision- categorized into 3 main types.
making and social
organization are often
Well defined
based on kinship
authority.
ties, lineage systems,
Hierarchies
and local leadership
of authority
structures.
present.
Nature of Uncentralized Centralized De-centralized
Leadership is often
authority (Band, Tribe) (Primitive State) (Modern State)
Authority can based on personal
be charismatic, qualities, wisdom, and Acephalous or Increase in Polycentric or
egalitarian societies population and federal systems.
traditional or the ability to maintain surplus production
Small scale, mobile Distribution of
legal-rational social harmony. population from agriculture power and
(Weber) Lack a centralized specialized authority across
Note- Lineage based officials and multiple levels or
authority or formal
societies have well leadership leaders + use of units within a
defined locus of structure. power to maintain society.
social order. Decision-making
authority at lineage Power and
decision-making So, Social hierarchy and governance
level but absent at top. present (clearly are shared among
are typically
distributed among defined ruling/elite various regional or
To defend individuals or class) local entities, often
state’s groups based on Concentration of with a degree of
kinship, age, or power and autonomy.
territories
other social authority in a Allow for greater
and carry out relationships. central governing local participation
economic Decision making by entity or institution. and flexibility in
Maintenance of social decision-making
Function of redistribution consensus. Economic system
order is top priority for Both traditional processes.
authority to reduce Economic system
authority. based on and market Market based
inequality. system. economic system
reciprocity and
(Maintenance redistribution. Eg- Monarchies
of social order
is of secondary
importance.)
The evolution of political systems is influenced by historical,
Customary practices, social, economic, and cultural factors, and each society develops
rituals, and oral its unique political organization and structures based on its
traditions guide specific context and needs.
social interactions,
Social Let’s look into details of each types of political organisations.
Formal laws. define rights and
control
obligations, and
provide a framework POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS IN DETAIL:
for maintaining order 1. BAND
and resolving conflicts. Band is the simplest and least formal level of
political organization. It is a fairly small (<100 people
Physical force is rarely
Lawful use usually), usually nomadic local group that is politically
used. Consensus and
of physical autonomous.
Informal Governance.
coercion/ Example- Inuit.
Use of force through Example- Super-
physical law is justified. natural force is
force Bureaucracy used in Age-set NOTE
conducts based societies.
day to day Administration is Not all known foragers are organized at the band
administration. done by the kins of level.
authority.
Example- The Native American societies of the
Chiefdoms, Northwest Pacific coast, who had enormous fish
Countries and resources, relatively large and permanent villages,
Examples Band, Tribe.
cities in today’s and political organization beyond the level of the
world. typical band societies in the ethnographic record.
123
 Characteristics: but from influence, not from office but from admired
1. Found among foraging societies. personal qualities.
2. Each small band occupies a large territory, so 4. Political decision making within the band is generally
population density is low. informal and by consensus.
3. Fluid membership - Band size often varies by season, 5. The authority structure in such societies don’t not
with the band breaking up or recombining according to involve any centralization i.e. there is no political
the food resources available at a given time and place. authority whose jurisdiction included more than one
Eg- Inuit bands, are smaller in the winter, when food is community.
hard to find, and larger in the summer.
Economic organization:
Forms: 1. Herding /Gathering
1. Simple Bands 2. Semi-permanent settlement
In simple bands, the highest level of political 3. Land communally held, no individual property rights.
organization is the extended family, with the highest 4. Absence of market.
level of political leadership being the heads of the
various families. 5. Reciprocity present.
These simple bands are economically self-sufficient 6. Division of labour-
and politically autonomous. Male:-Hunting,
Female:- gathering.
2. Composite Bands
Composite bands are larger than simple bands and Law & Order:
include a number of unrelated families.
1. Internal order is automatically maintained due to lack
Leadership in composite bands is vested in “big of inequality in terms of property and territory.
men,” or informal leaders, who have influence but
2. Customs and practices
not authority.
3. Aim of Justice is to restore social harmony (not to
Social organization: punish).
1. Absence of social stratification. Band societies have Example- Inuits of Arctic use ‘song duels’ to solve intra-
tendency to be egalitarian. band conflicts.
2. Family is usually Patrilinear. Elders are respected.
2. TRIBE
Marriage and Kinship in Band societies: A tribe is a somewhat more complex type of society
Because a simple band has as its core a group of than a band. As the population size increases with a
related individuals, band members are forced to seek shift in subsistence pattern from foraging to
spouses from outside the band; they are exogamous horticulture or pastoralism, it eventually reaches a
units. Thus, kinship ties through marriage serve as point at which kinship ties and friendship are no
the primary link between bands. Among Ainu Japan, longer sufficient to hold society together.
polygyny is prominent among males.
The word “tribe” is generally used for a “socially cohesive
Religion: unit, associated with a territory, the members of
The belief in ghosts is reportedly a near-universal which regard themselves as politically autonomous”
(Rosenblatt, Walsh, and Jackson 1976) (Mitchell, 1979)
Foraging societies tend to lack the concept of ancestor These are groups that cut across the society by
spirits or if present, they are relatively inactive in human bringing together a limited number of people. While
affairs (Sheils 1975; Peoples, Duda, and Marlowe these groups have specific purposes, they also serve
2016) to create order and a sense of unity for a tribe.
Example- Among Ainu, sacred bear related customs. Example of tribe:- Ibo and Yako.
The integrative mechanisms of tribes are referred
Political organization: to by anthropologists as pan tribal associations or
1. Band is concerned with basic needs for survival and sodalities. Sodality transcends local residence groups
political relations merge with kinship. and bind the geographically scattered members of
2. Power and authority is situational. the society into a cohesive unit.
3. Authority is unicentric. Leadership based on skill and Sodalities may be either
personality. Each band may have its informal headman, 1. Kinship-based, as in the case of clans, or
or its most proficient hunter, or a person most 2. Non-kinship-based, as in the case of warrior
accomplished in rituals. Leader gains status through societies, religious cults, secret societies, or age
the community’s recognition of skill, good sense, grades.
124 and humility. Thus, leadership stems not from power
Characteristics:
1. Tribe societies have tendency to be egalitarian. then, unites the segments into larger and larger
2. Societies with tribal organization generally are food genealogical groups. The closer two groups are
producers. genealogically, the greater their general closeness. In the
event of a dispute among members of different segments,
3. Due to high food productivity from cultivation
people related more closely to one contestant than to
and animal husbandry (in contrast to hunting and
another take the side of their nearest kinsman.
gathering), the population density of tribal societies is
generally higher, local groups are larger, and the way of Characteristics:
life is more sedentary. 1. Found in horticulture society.
Political organization: 2. Each lineage has its own head (Central authority at
lineage level)
1. Leadership in such groups is more structured, with
formal political offices. 3. Lineage system provide substitute for government in
stateless societies.
2. In those tribal societies where kinship provides the basic
framework of social organization, the elders of the local 4. Segmentary lineage systems may have military
kin groups tend to have considerable influence; where advantages even when they do not unite the entire
age-sets are important, a particular age-set is looked society. Example-
to for leadership.
Even though the Nuer and Dinka were culturally
3. A tribal type of political system does not usually permit
very similar, the segmentary lineage organization
the entire society to act as a unit; all the communities
of the Nuer seems to have given them a significant
in a tribal society may be linked only occasionally for
military advantage in their incursions into Dinka
some political (usually military) purpose.
territory.
Distinction from Band: Segmentary Lineage System allowed the Tiv to
1. In tribal political organization some multilocal, but intrude into new territory and take land from other
not usually society wide, integration is present, unlike tribal societies with smaller descent groups.
band political organization. However, the multilocal
integration is not permanent, and it is informal in the Scholars:
sense that political officials do not head it. Frequently, 1. Evans Pritchart and Meyer Fortes (1940) described
the integration is called into play only when an outside segmentary lineage in ‘African Political System’.
threat arises; when the threat disappears, the local 2. Fortes mentioned about ‘complementary opposition’
groups revert to self-sufficiency. (Complementary (lineages oppose each other)
opposition, means that segments will unite only in a 3. Sahlins emphasized about military aspect of lineage
confrontation with some other group. Groups that will system (an organization of ‘Predatory expansion’).
fight with each other in a minor dispute might coalesce
4. Max Buchman—Whenever lineal segmentation
at some later time against a larger group)
happens in society, they are complemented by certain
2. Since, there are social ways to integrate local groups role of cooperation. This reduces hostility between
into larger political entities means that societies with segments and binds society.
tribal organization are militarily a good deal more
formidable than societies with band organization.
CASE STUDY
Types:
In a tribe political organization, Sodalities may be either
Nuers of South Sudan by Evans Pritchart
1. Kinship-based, (Eg- clans) or
2. Non-kinship-based, (Eg- warrior societies or age Relation between hostile lineages is
grades) maintained through ‘Blood feuds’. If a person
kills someone from another lineage, aggrieved
lineage gets the ‘right to kill’ someone from
accused lineage. If such killing doesn’t happen,
1. KINSHIP BASED: an unending conflict might occur. Mediation
Smith= Lineages are corporate groups of a segmentary in this case is done by Leopard-Skin-Chief (a
character defined in terms of ‘unilineal descent’. respected elder from a neutral lineage).
A segmentary lineage system is one type of tribal
integration based on kinship. A society with such a system
is composed of segments, or parts, each similar to the
2. AGE-SET SYSTEM:
others in structure and function. Every local segment
belongs to a hierarchy of lineages stretching farther and Societies with age-sets have a group of people of the
farther back genealogically. The hierarchy of lineages, same sex and similar age who move through some or
all of their life stages together. Usually entry into an 125
 age-set begins at or before puberty in a group initiation
ceremony held regularly over the years. Often the age- CASE STUDY
sets encompass a number of communities, so that a
sense of solidarity is formed.
Transition (social mobility) marked by formalized --Karimojong of northeastern Uganda
procedure and public ceremonies. Book- “The Karimojong: The Forgotten Warriors
Each set has well-demarcated duties and obligations. of Uganda,” by Carol Bailey

Characteristics: Adult are often separated from their usual

1. Found among pastoral communities. settlements for herding activities and an
2. Communities frequently engaged in warfare. adult usually call upon other members of his
age-set wherever he goes. Such age-sets
3. Political authority rests with elders.
immediately allocates to each individual a
4. Age set groups help defend against thefts and attacks. place in the system and thereby establishes
for him an appropriate pattern of response.
A quarrel in camp will be settled by the
representatives of the senior age-set who
CASE STUDY
are present, regardless of which section of
the tribe they may belong to.
Age-Set System among Masai (Kenya) Among the Karimojong, political leaders
are not elected from among the elders of a
Book- “Ain’t No Harm to Kill the Devil: The Life
particular age-set, nor are they appointed;
and Times of an African Village,” by Elliot Fratkin
they acquire their positions informally.
The Maasai divide their population into Usually a man’s background, and the ability
discrete age sets, or cohorts, (generally 3 he has demonstrated in public debates
main divisions: junior age sets, warrior age over a period of time, will result in his being
sets, and senior age sets) which progress considered by the men of his neighborhood
through various stages of life together. Each to be their spokesman.
age set is given a distinct name, and the Nowadays, young men are able to get guns
progression from one age set to another is during raids, and elders find it risky to
marked by specific rituals and ceremonies. punish someone with a gun.
Each age set has specific roles and
responsibilities which may include herding
livestock, participating in warfare and
defense, or taking on leadership and decision-
making positions. The duties of each age 3. CHIEFDOM
set are learned through socialization and A chiefdom is a political unit, with a chief at its head,
training within the community. integrating more than one community but not
Initiation ceremonies are significant rites necessarily the whole society or language group.
of passage, during which young boys Chiefdoms have formal, hereditary leadership with
undergo circumcision and other rituals that centralized political control and authority. The
symbolize their entry into the next age set. associated redistributive economic exchange system
Initiation ceremonies often involve rigorous focused on the chief economically integrates the
training, teachings on social values, and the various communities within the political unit.
transmission of cultural knowledge. There may also be more than one level of chief beyond
Members of the same age set are considered the community, such as district chiefs and higher-level
peers, work together and support each other. chiefs. Some chiefdom societies integrate the whole
The senior age sets, comprised of elder society, with a paramount chief at the top.
members, hold significant political and
decision-making authority within Maasai Characteristics:
society. They are responsible for resolving 1. Societies with chiefdoms are more densely populated.
disputes, maintaining order, and guiding 2. Their communities are more permanent, partly as
the community. Elders decision has to be a consequence of their generally greater economic
mandatorily followed or the person would be productivity.
haunted by supernatural powers.
3. Position of Chief is often hereditary and generally
permanent.
126 4. Redistribution is the primary mode of economic
 exchange. The chief may redistribute goods, plan
and direct the use of public labor, supervise religious CASE STUDY
ceremonies, and direct military activities on behalf of
the chiefdom.
5. System ensures all individuals are taken care of. “The Making of Great Men: Male Domination
6. Chiefs administer justice. In most chiefdoms, the and Power among the New Guinea Baruya”
chiefs don’t not have the power to compel people to (1982) by Maurice Godelier
obey them; people would act in accordance with the Chiefs are seen as symbolic representatives
chief’s wishes because the chief was respected and of the community. They derive their authority
often had religious authority. But in the most complex not only from their social position but also
paramount chiefdoms, such as those of Hawaii and from their connection to ritual and symbolic
Tahiti, the chiefs seemed to have more compelling practices. Through these rituals, chiefs
sanctions than the “power” of respect or mana. reinforce their status and legitimacy within
7. Chiefdoms provide great deal of military powers to the community.
societies. Chiefs collect tribute or taxes from
When a chief begins to use armed force, the political community members and distribute them
system is on the way to becoming what we call a state. back to the community in various ways, such
as organizing feasts or supporting specific
projects. This redistribution helps maintain
social cohesion and reinforces the chief’s
CASE STUDY
authority.
Chiefs are responsible for settling disputes,
Book- “Coral Gardens and Their Magic,” by restoring peace, and maintaining harmony.
Bronislav Malinowski
Malinowski explored the concept of mana
and its role in Trobriand society. Mana
is a Polynesian term used to describe a 4. STATE
supernatural force or power that can be The state is the most complex level of political
found in people, objects, or natural elements. organization. An state is an autonomous political
It is often associated with authority, prestige, unit with centralized decision making over many
and the ability to influence and control communities with power to govern by force (e.g., to
various aspects of life. collect taxes, draft people for work and war, and make
A high-ranking chief in Polynesia inherited and enforce laws)
special religious power called mana. Mana
sanctified his rule and protected him. 20 How states emerged?
Chiefs in Polynesia had so much religious
power that missionaries could convert BANDS
people to Christianity only after their chiefs
had been converted.
Mana operates as a social and cultural force Diversification Surplus Production Population
and serves as a source of social control. in economy & accumulation Increase

Need to protect Need to

Socio-economic preserve
Inequality & wealth from peace and
CLIFF NOTE Class distinction outsiders harmony

Need for Political

Wealthy rule
System

Emergence of Centralised Authority

127
 Characteristics:
Collection action theorists suggest that, when
1. States have permanent institutions with legislative,
the state relies more heavily on resources from
executive, and judicial functions and a large bureaucracy.
taxpayers, the rulers must give the public more in
The key characteristic of a state is a bureaucracy—
return or else face noncompliance and rebellion.
individuals acting on behalf of the political elite, thus
(Richard Blanton and Lane Fargher)
enabling the centralized power figures to maintain
control of a greater number of individuals.
2. Intensive agriculture generally supports state The Marxist Perspective of State
organized societies. The high productivity of the Marxists view the state not as a natural entity but
agriculture allows for the emergence of cities, a high as a product of societal transformations, serving the
degree of economic and other kinds of specialization, interests of the ruling class who own and control the
and market or commercial exchange. means of production.
3. State societies are stratified societies. (Intensive
agricultural activity is more conducive to concentrated
wealth than is hunter-gatherer subsistence or shifting Summary of types of political organization
cultivation (horticulture). Thus, in the ethnographic Types of Community Size
Social Economic
record, the more economically developed societies have Social and population Example
differentiation Type
Organisation density
more social inequality and therefore less democracy.)
4. In states, the government tries to maintain a monopoly Very Small
Band Communities Egalitarian Foraging Inuit, Sarv
on the use of physical force. This monopoly can be Very low density
seen in the development of formal and specialized
Sometimes
instruments of social control: a police force, a militia, Tribe Egalitarian Horticulture, Yanamami,
multilocal
Pastoralism Masai
or a standing army. group
5. A particular state may contain more than one state.
Productive
horticulture, Polynesia,
Chiefdom Multilocal
Example- A contiguously distributed population Rank Pastoral Cherokee
group nomadism,
speaking a single language may have many states. Agriculture
German speaking population are not politically
Ancient
unified; Austria and Germany are separate states, Multilocal group Class Mesopotamin
State Agriculture,
and Germany itself was not politically unified until the (Oen entire & Industrialism
India,
1870s. Conversely, a state may include more than one Language group) Caste Contemporary
USA
society.
Usually, Multi-society states are often the result of Concept of Power, Authority and Legitimacy
conquest or colonial control. Nearly all of the multi-
society states that emerged after World War II were Power:
the results of successful independence movements According to M.G. Smith (Caribbean anthropologist),
against colonial powers. Most have retained their Power is the capacity to take independent action in
political unity despite the fact that they still contain the face of resistance from persons, groups, rules.
many different societies.
Smith argued that Caribbean societies were
characterized by a diverse mix of racial, ethnic, and
However, force and the threat of force are not enough cultural groups, each with its own social, economic,
to explain the legitimacy of power and the inequities and political power bases. In this context, power was
that occur commonly in state societies. States must understood as the ability of these various groups
provide people with real or rational advantages; to assert influence and control over resources,
otherwise, people would not think that the rulers institutions, and decision-making processes within
deserve to exercise authority. Legitimacy is not an all- society. He examined how patron-client relationships
or-none phenomenon; it varies in degree. and networks of personal alliances shape political
power and influence, often extending beyond formal
Collective Action Theory: governmental structures.
It seeks to understand why and how individuals Power is a universal aspect of social interaction. It
come together to pursue common goals or address plays an important role in shaping relationship among
shared concerns. members of society.
Less autocratic states are characterized by more
Types:
“collective action.” They produce more public goods,
such as transportation systems and redistribution 1. Identitive Power:
systems, in times of need. Rulers stay accountable, Identitive power refers to power derived from
thus rule within limits and respond to grievances. social identity and belongingness. Individuals
128 or groups possess such power by virtue of their
 shared identity, values, norms, cultural affiliations,
common goals. It can be mobilized through group CASE STUDY
solidarity, shared symbols, and narratives, and it
often plays a significant role in social movements,
community organizing, and collective action. “The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of
Eg- Fijian chief Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic
People” by Evans-Pritchard
2. Coercive Power:
Coercive power is based on the ability to force or Evans-Pritchard examined the role of lineage-
compel others to act against their will through based political structures, kinship ties, and
the use of threats, punishment, or force (physical, leadership in Nuer society of South Sudan.
social, psychological). He concluded that Nuer people’s political
Coercive power relies on fear, intimidation, or the structure is based on the lineage system,
imposition of negative consequences to achieve which distributes power and authority
compliance or obedience. through patrilineal descent. Nuer had no
Eg- Mongolian nomads central government, but instead relied on
the strength of individual leaders within each
3. Utilitarian Power lineage to maintain order and resolve conflicts.
Utilitarian power is grounded in the exchange of Leadership and power in Nuer society were
resources, favors, or benefits or opportunities to not based on coercion or domination, but
influence others’ behavior. rather on negotiation, compromise, and
It operates on the principle of reciprocity, where consensus-building.
individuals or groups are motivated to comply with
the power holder’s wishes in exchange for desired
rewards or benefits such as money, access to jobs,
promotion opportunities, or other tangible benefits.
Eg- Potlach (Northwest Coast of North America). CASE STUDY
Note- Power relations are complex and multifaceted,
and these classifications are not mutually exclusive
but rather offer different lenses for analyzing power “Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of
dynamics in different situations. Egalitarian Behavior” by Christopher Boehm.

Characteristics: Boehm investigated in the Kung San people

of Southern Africa (hunter-gatherers), how
1. Power can be non-institutionalized.
power is negotiated and balanced within
2. Power can be Segmentary-Not vested in one authority. egalitarian societies, exploring mechanisms
3. Power may involve competition among individuals for such as shaming, leveling mechanisms, and
power i.e. it involves competition for power. collective decision-making to maintain social
4. Power is closely linked to economic strength. equality.
Example- Kwakiutl Potlach. !Kung San exhibited what Boehm called
5. It is a broad social phenomena. Example- Bigman “reverse dominance hierarchy,” where
Melanesia. individuals actively worked to prevent others
6. Only legitimate power has authority. from acquiring excessive power or dominance.
The society values and encourages
7. Power is difficult to identify and locate (unlike egalitarianism, cooperation, and sharing,
authority) while discouraging any attempts to assert
8. Power appeals in different ways as per conditions. authority or control over others. Mechanisms
Example- Egalitarian society like iKung leadership is such as gossip, ridicule, and shaming,
not formal and has less authority, while modern states which act as social control mechanisms
have formal leaders. to discourage individuals from becoming
9. Power gives rights. Example- Hehe chief’s right to dominant or displaying aggressive behavior.
Ivory chief. These findings challenge the notion that
10. Found in democratic as well as authoritarian power and hierarchy are inherent features
government. of human societies and provide insights into
11. Power can be centralized or decentralized. alternative systems of leadership and power
Example- Nuer distribution.

12. Power brings control as well as responsibility.

129
 Authority: Characteristics:
According to Max Weber, legitimate Power is Authority 1. Legitimacy
(Weber). 2. Dominance (Command over others)
In his work “Politics as a Vocation”, Weber defined 3. Power is used by people in authority.
authority as the legitimate and recognized power that 4. Accountability to higher authority.
individuals or institutions hold to influence the actions, 5. Defined by tradition or constitution etc.
decisions, and behavior of others. Thus, authority is a
form of power that is accepted and obeyed by those DIFFERENCE FROM POWER:
who are subject to it. Weber distinguished 3 types
of authority. Weber’s typology of authority provides POWER AUTHORITY
a framework for understanding the different ways in Power is the ability to Authority is the socially
which power is legitimized and exercised in society. exercise one’s will over others approved use of power.
I.e. the capacity to make It is based on a system of
1. Traditional authority others do something or act rules, norms, or social
a. Based on long-established customs, traditions, and in a certain way, even against structures.
inherited positions of power. their will. (Wolf with
Silverman 2001).
b. Derives its legitimacy from historical continuity and
the unquestioned acceptance of established norms Power can be obtained Authority is derived from a
through various means and recognized position or
and values. Thus, it is rooted in the belief in the
can be based on factors system via the consent,
sanctity of the past and the authority of ancestors. such as physical force, acceptance, or belief in the
c. Found in monarchies, feudal societies, or tribal coercion, control of legitimacy of the person or
systems. Eg- The Incas considered their king to be resources, expertise, institution exercising it.
information, social influence,
the “son of the sun”. or positional authority.
2. Charismatic authority
Power can be exercised both Authority is often associated
a. Based on the exceptional qualities, charisma, or formally (through officially with specific roles or
personal magnetism of an individual leader. designated roles or positions within formal
positions) and informally systems such as
b. Based on the emotional appeal and Such leaders
(through personal governments, organizations,
possess unique characteristics and inspire followers connections, social networks, or institutions.
through their personal charm, vision, or exemplary or charismatic qualities).
behavior and can emerge in times of crisis or social
upheaval. Power does not necessarily Authority is typically
require legitimacy or characterized by the
3. Rational-legal authority consent from those subject acceptance and respect of
to it. It can be obtained and those subject to it, who
a. Based on rules, laws, regulations and formalized
maintained through force, acknowledge the right of the
procedures that guide decision-making and govern manipulation, or other authority figure to make
the exercise of power. means. decisions and give
Example- elected officials, government bodies, or commands.
bureaucratic organizations. Power is not defined. Authority is defined.

Authority in State and Stateless Society:

CLIFF NOTE
In state societies, law gives authority to the one who
CLIFF NOTE
has power.
In stateless societies, there is no administration to use
physical force to compel members to compel members
to follow decisions.
Example - In Age-set societies, elders don’t use physical
force, it is the fear of supernatural force that legitimize
authority of elders and help maintain social order.

CLIFF NOTE

130
 various actors
CASE STUDY 6. Different forms of legitimacy interact (Traditional,
Charismatic, Legal-rational) and coexist in different
societies.
“The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of ‘Cargo’
Cults in Melanesia” by Peter Worsley.
Basis of Legitimacy:
Cargo Cults emerged in the context of 1. Ideological:- Based on ideology prevailing in society.
colonial encounters between indigenous 2. Structural:- Validation of structure (Acceptance)
Melanesian populations and Western
3. Personal:- Trust-worthiness
colonizers during the early 20th century.
These movements were characterized by Anthropologists employ ethnographic methods,
the emergence of charismatic leaders who participant observation, interviews, and textual
claimed to have special knowledge or powers analysis to understand how legitimacy is constructed,
to bring about a “cargo” or material wealth to contested, and negotiated within specific societies,
their followers. and how it intersects with power, authority, and cultural
practices.
Example- John Frum movement on Tanna
Island in Vanuatu, “Tuka Movement” in Papua
New Guinea.
Charismatic leaders organized rituals, CASE STUDY
dances, and ceremonies that expressed their
belief in the imminent arrival of the cargo “Legitimacy and Symbols: The South African
and encouraged their followers to engage Case” by Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff.
in practices that would prepare them for its
reception. This case study explored the concept of
legitimacy in post-apartheid South Africa. The
Comaroffs concluded that:
1. Symbols are cultural and social
Legitimacy: representations that carry meaning and
influence. They can be utilized by those in
Legitimacy is the extent to which population accepts
power to assert their authority and legitimacy.
without questioning the organization it belongs (Jean
Beandel) 2. Rituals can be used to invoke historical
traditions, cultural symbols, and religious
Legitimacy is the popular perception that those in
beliefs, thereby reinforcing the legitimacy
power have a rightful claim to their positions, and
of those in power. Performance, through
their exercise of authority is considered appropriate
theatrical displays or public spectacles,
and justifiable within a given social, cultural, or political
can create a sense of awe and authority,
context.
contributing to the perception of legitimacy.
According to Max Weber, legitimacy is the capacity
3. Material expressions, such as architecture,
to produce and maintain a belief that existing power
monuments, or regalia, play a role in
structure is most suitable for society.
the maintenance of legitimacy. Physical
structures and objects can serve as symbols
Characteristics:
of power and authority, representing the
1. Consent is the essence of legitimacy. Legitimacy can permanence and continuity of a regime.
be seen as a form of social contract between the They contribute to the visual and tangible
governing authority and the governed. aspects of legitimacy.
2. Legitimacy often has a normative basis, meaning it is 4. By shaping historical narratives and
derived from social norms, values, and beliefs. It is emphasizing specific historical events or
linked to the moral and ethical foundations of a society. figures, those in power can reinforce their
3. It helps establish and maintain social order by providing authority by positioning themselves as
a sense of trust and confidence in the legitimacy of the rightful successors or custodians of a
those in power. particular tradition or heritage.
4. Legitimacy has to be maintained and reinforced 5. Social imaginaries are constructed through
through various mechanisms, such as legal frameworks, cultural, political, and ideological processes,
democratic processes, traditions, cultural practices, and they shape people’s perceptions of what
historical legitimacy, or performance-based legitimacy. is legitimate and acceptable in a given social
5. Legitimacy is not a fixed or static concept. It is subject context.
to contestation, negotiation, and challenges from 131
 into the values, beliefs, and practices of their society.
Through social control mechanisms, individuals learn
6. Legitimacy-contestations can reshape to internalize and conform to the cultural norms and
the symbolic landscape and influence the standards of their community.
perception of legitimacy.
Means of Social Control:
According to Ross, social control mechanisms could be
formal or informal.
Social Control: Ghost Invocation
To maintain socio-political structure of a group, we
Witchcra
need to ensure internal cohesiveness and cooperation
of the individual members. This is ascertained by Ancestor Worship
various mechanisms of social control.
Social norms:- Disapproval, Ridicule.
Social control refers to individual and collective efforts INFORMAL
MEANS Morals, Ethics, Religion. Eg - Promise of rewards
and the formal and informal mechanisms, practices,
and punisments in aerlife.
and processes through which societies control and
channel the behavior of individual members of a society Public opinion and Peer pressure. Eg - Fear of
into approved behavior social rejection.

Edward A. Ross (Book- “Social Control: A Survey of Degradation ceremonies

the Foundations of Order.” 1901) emphasized the role
of social norms, values, and institutions in guiding
Council of Elders
and enforcing acceptable behavior and suppressing
deviance or disruptive actions. Laws, Statutes and regulations

Nature of Social Control: Legal courts and Institutions (Establish

guidelines for acceptable behaviour and
1. Exercised by society FORMAL outline consequences for non-compliance)
2. For promoting community welfare. MEANS
3. It is a part of socialization. Public oaths and ordeals.
4. Malinowski equated ‘social control’ to law (Book- “Crime Media (Expose and criticise deviant
and Customs in Primitive Society) behaviour)
5. Radcliffe Brown—‘Social control’ are social customs. Educational Institutions (Shape behaviour,
instill discipline)
Need for social control:
1. Social control ensures the adherence to established
norms, values, and rules that govern social behavior.
It helps to create a normative order that guides CASE STUDY
individuals’ actions and promotes consistency in social
interactions. By setting boundaries and expectations,
Joking relationship among Tonga people as a
social control contributes to the predictability and
means of social control
smooth functioning of social life.
2. Social control fosters social cohesion by promoting Victor W. Turner in his book “Schism and
shared beliefs, values, and practices within a community, Continuity in an African Society: A Study of
and fosters a sense of belonging and solidarity among Ndembu Village Life” mentioned that ‘Joking
community members. relationships’ were established between
3. By discouraging deviant or disruptive behavior, social individuals or groups of people who were
control helps to prevent the escalation of conflicts linked by specific social rules that allowed
and the breakdown of social harmony. It provides a them to engage in teasing, mocking, and
means to address grievances, resolve disputes, and light-hearted banter with one another. Joking
mediate conflicting interests within a society. relationships created a space for individuals
to express criticism, tension, or grievances
4. Social control discourages criminal activities, violence, indirectly and in a playful manner, rather than
and other forms of harmful behavior by imposing legal through more confrontational or aggressive
sanctions, promoting public safety measures, and means and thus functioned as a form of
establishing mechanisms for addressing violations of social control by providing a framework for
social norms. This helps to safeguard the well-being maintaining social harmony and resolving
and security of individuals and the broader community. conflicts.
5. Social control plays a role in socializing individuals
132
 Laws and Customs as Means of Social Control:
CASE STUDY Law is symptomatic of the emergence of the state.
Custom is the modality of primitive society. (Diamond,
“Witchcraft Beliefs among the Azande” by Stanley, in “The Rule of Law versus the Order of
Evans-Pritchard Custom,” in ‘In Search of the Primitive’ 1981.)
(Book- “Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic among
the Azande.” (1937))
COMPARISON BETWEEN LAW & CUSTOM
The Azande believed that witchcraft was a
supernatural force capable of causing harm Characteristics LAW CUSTOM
and misfortune to individuals and their
communities. Fear of witchcraft compelled Customs emerge
Azande individuals to adhere to social Laws are organically from the
norms and expectations. formal rules traditions, practices,
Furthermore, accusations of witchcraft were and regulations and shared values
used as a mechanism for social control created by of a particular
Origin and
and conflict resolution. If an unfortunate legislative community. They
Authority
event occurred, the Azande would consult bodies or are developed and
a diviner, who would identify the alleged authoritative followed by the
witch responsible. This process served to institutions members of the
assign blame and discourage individuals within a society. community without
from engaging in behavior that could be formal legislation.
considered harmful. The fear of being Informal, unwritten,
accused and socially ostracized acted as a and passed
powerful deterrent within the community. down through
generations
Formal,
through oral
written,
tradition or
specific and
Formality and established
codified. They
Codification practices. They
CLIFF NOTE are published
may not be
and accessible
documented or
to the public.
easily accessible
to outsiders.
Ambiguous in
nature.
Enforced
by the state
through legal Customs are
mechanisms, primarily enforced
such as courts, by social pressure,
police, and community norms,
CLIFF NOTE other law and informal
enforcement sanctions.
agencies. Deviations from
Violations customs can lead to
Enforceability
of laws can social disapproval,
result in legal exclusion, or loss of
consequences, reputation within
such as fines, the community.
imprisonment,
or other Fade/disappear
penalties. without formal
Disappear only abolition.
when abolished
by authority.

133
 Laws are 5. Passed down through generations orally or through
intended to established customary practices.
Customs can 6. Breach of law is taken as to affect not only individual
be universally
vary significantly but whole society.
applicable and
between different
enforceable 7. Punishment is awarded in the form of fine,
cultural groups
within a compensation, feast etc.
and regions. They
specific
Universality and are often context-
jurisdiction. Sources:
Flexibility specific and can
They aim 1. Oral tradition:- Transmitted via storytelling, proverbs,
adapt and evolve
to provide a songs, and other forms of oral communication.
over time to suit
consistent and
the changing needs 2. Precedent and practice:- Consistent patterns of
predictable
and circumstances behavior and decisions in resolving disputes and
framework
of the community. regulating social interactions contribute to the
for societal
development and maintenance of customary law.
governance.
3. Community consensus:- Community meetings,
Laws often discussions, and decision-making processes allow
reflect the for the establishment and modification of customary
moral and practices and norms.
ethical values 4. Cultural and Religious beliefs:- Moral and ethical
Customs are
of a society, but framework that guides the formulation of norms and
closely intertwined
they may not rules within the community.
with the moral and
align perfectly
ethical values of a 5. Elders, chiefs and community leaders:- Their
with individual
community. They experience, wisdom, and knowledge of community
Relationship or community
reflect the shared customs and traditions make them important sources
with Morality ethical beliefs.
norms, traditions, of guidance and authority in matters of customary law.
and Ethics Laws are
and cultural beliefs 6. Social Pressure and Informal Sanctions:- Fear of social
sometimes
of the community disapproval, ostracism, or loss of reputation leads to
enacted to
and are often seen compliance.
regulate
as a guide to proper
behavior that 7. Organisations such as Panchayats etc.
conduct.
is considered
morally wrong
or harmful to CASE STUDY
others.

Study of Minangkabau society of West Sumatra

Customary Law
by Franz von Benda-Beckmann and Keebet von
It is a legal framework that is rooted in the cultural, Benda-Beckmann
social, and historical context of a particular society and
reflects its unique ways of organizing and regulating Adat is a dynamic system of customary
social life. law in Minangkabau society that adapts to
Customary law is known as a rule created by ancestors changing social and economic conditions
or ancestors in an indigenous environment and while preserving core cultural values. It
is present in an unwritten form. These values are operates through local adat institutions,
generally considered as matters that must be upheld such as the nagari (village) and the adat
by the community concerned. council, where customary law is interpreted
and applied.
Characteristics: Adat principles and norms guide behavior
1. Customary law is unique to each community and can and interactions within the community.
vary significantly between different cultural groups These include concepts such as merantau
and regions. (migration for economic or educational
purposes), musyawarah (consensus
2. Emphasis on community values, traditions, and social
decision-making), gotong royong (communal
norms.
cooperation), and rukun (harmony).
3. Function is to maintain social order, resolving conflicts, Adat norms shape social relationships,
and promoting harmony. resolve conflicts, and maintain community
4. Relies on informal mechanisms such as village elders, cohesion.
councils, or customary courts for dispute resolution
134 and decision-making.
Socio-ecological systems (SES):
CASE STUDY
Social-ecological systems are linked systems of people
and nature, emphasising that humans must be seen
as a part of, not apart from, nature (Berkes and Folke, The Sasi Law in Maluku Community
1998). Thus, in SES, people and nature are inextricably (J. M. Ubink, In the land of the chiefs: customary
linked, in which both the social and ecological law, land conflicts, and the role of the state in
components exert strong influence over outcomes. peri-urban Ghana, 2011.)
People-in-nature People-with-nature The Sasi Law prohibits Sasi community to
Direct and indirect drivers of change Direct and indirect drivers of change extract natural resources in a set period of time.
Violation to this regulation will be punish by their
ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystem services ancestral spirits in the form of illness or it can
Natural Capital
Eco
s
be a physical punishment such as caning, fines,
servystem ECOSYSTEM SOCIALSYSTEM
ices
SOCIAL Natural Human-made forced labor, and excluded from society. Sasi
SYSTEM Capital Capital
Con
se
Res vatr Human- Law is still effective in preserving and protecting
tora ion made Capital
ntio
Safe-keeping the environment.
Conservation/Restoration

Customary laws and Environmental Conservation

Indigenous people have lived in the forests for NATURE OF LAW AND JUSTICE IN SIMPLE
several generations. Their core of life is the SOCIETIES
environment itself. Values and norms that apply in According to E. Adamson Hoebel (Book- ”The Law of
society are formed based on their life experiences Primitive Man: A Study in Comparative Legal Dynamics”),
interacting with their environment. This paradigm is law in primitive/simple societies is a system of social
called “society in self”. control that consists of rules and norms enforced by
recognized authority figures within the community. These
CONTRIBUTION OF CUSTOMARY LAWS TO
rules govern the behavior of individuals and groups and
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
serve to regulate social interactions, resolve disputes, and
Aspects of maintain order.
Outcome Impact
Customary laws
• Prohibition of • Reduced • Sustainable Magic
felling of trees. deforestation environment & Withcra,
• Prohibited and improved management. Belief in
areas for forest- • Climate supernatural
forest. restoration. Change No formal
utilisation • Biodiversity Mitigtion Political Isolated

• Tabooed conservation. (SDG 13). organisation

animals for • Wildlife
hunting. conservation.

Importance of customary law for environmental FEATURES

Totem, Pre-literate
conservation:- Taboo OF SIMPLE
Regardless of the pattern of life of people who have SOCIETY
undergone modernization, customary law tends to
remain a reference to every community activity.
Customary law has the advantage of adjustment
Hunting
or flexibility to keep up with the development of and Fishing Strong Kinship
the social situation in the community. People,
Non-
and indigenous people in particular, still believe Monetised
in animism and dynamism despite them being
reshaped by religions such as Islam and Christianity.
The transfer of customary law knowledge from
the previous generation to the next is done with Characteristics:
full conscience and preservation and thus persists 1. The focus of law in simple societies is often on
through generations. Also, the values and norms maintaining social cohesion, preserving community
in customary law is not in contrary with state values, and ensuring the well-being of the group rather
laws therefore customary law is very feasible to than on strict legal codes or formal institutions. It reflects
be used in the management and protection of the the collective wisdom and shared understanding of the
environment. community, with an emphasis on maintaining harmony 135
 and resolving conflicts in a manner that is acceptable
to the group as a whole. CASE STUDY
2. Law in primitive societies is not solely concerned with
formal legal codes or institutions but is embedded
in the social and cultural fabric of the community. Crying as a practice to resolve family dispute
It is shaped by the collective values, customs, and
Crying is a traditional practice among the
traditions of the society and reflects their shared
Rengma Naga people of Northeast India
understanding of what is acceptable and prohibited. In
to resolve family disputes. This practice is
these societies, law is often based on traditional and
known as “Apitlon” or “Apit Tsinyu.”
customary practices, cultural beliefs, values, etc that
have been passed down through generations. It reflects the importance of community
mediation and emphasizes the value of
3. The laws in simple societies are typically enforced
emotional expression in dispute resolution.
through informal mechanisms (such as social
The crying session can continue for several
norms, community consensus, and the authority of
hours or even days until a resolution is
respected individuals or leaders) and social sanctions
reached. Once an agreement is made, it is
Punishments for violating these laws can vary, ranging
considered binding. If they fail to do so, they
from social ostracism and reputational damage to
may be subject to social sanctions such as
compensation or restitution to the aggrieved party.
ridicule or ostracism from the community.
4. Authority figures, such as community elders or religious
leaders, play a crucial role in interpreting and applying
the law, mediating disputes, and ensuring compliance
with social norms.
5. The specific customs and norms governing behavior
differ across cultures, and the understanding of what
CASE STUDY
constitutes a transgression can vary significantly. For
example, actions such as theft, adultery, or violence
“Dharam Dharm” among the Santhals
may be considered offenses in some societies, while
other societies may have different norms and rules “Dharam Dharm” among the Santhals
around these behaviors. involves the observance of their traditional
Law and justice is maintained more effectively in simple religious practices are performed to appease
societies than modern ones because maintenance of spirits, seek blessings from ancestors, and
social order is the top priority of the authority. There is ensure the well-being of the individual and
no differentiation between sin and crime. Also, Justice is the community as a whole.
administered through kin and no one can escape kin. It is believed that if accused is lying about
the crime, supernatural forces would strike
on them.
CASE STUDY

Book-‘Crimes and Customs in Savage society” Social Sanction

by Bronislaw Malinowski According to Radcliffe Brown, Social Sanction refers
Malinowski’s work highlights the significance to the mechanisms and processes through which a
of cultural context in shaping notions of crime society enforces and upholds its social norms and
and deviance. He argues that what may be values.
considered as crimes in Western legal systems Social sanctions serve as mechanisms of social control,
may not align with the social norms and shaping individual behavior and regulating interactions
customs of traditional societies. He emphasized among members of the society. Deviating behavior
the importance of understanding the cultural may invite social exclusion, loss of reputation, or even
logic and social organization of these societies physical punishment in some cases.
to grasp their unique perspectives on crime, Social sanctions can involve formal and informal
punishment, and social control. mechanisms.
1. Formal sanctions may include laws, regulations,
and legal institutions that are officially established
and enforced by designated authorities.
2. Informal sanctions are based on social norms,
customs, and expectations that are upheld through
136
 social pressure, social disapproval, or reputation
management. CASE STUDY
Social sanctions are not solely negative or punitive in
nature. They can also be positive and reward-based,
reinforcing desired behaviors and providing social Book- “Women of Value, Men of Renown:
recognition and acceptance to those who conform to New Perspectives in Trobriand Exchange,” by
the societal norms and values. Annette B. Weiner.
Weiner explored how social sanction operates
Types: within the kula system, whereby individuals’
1. Reciprocity as sanction participation and status in the exchange
In many societies, reciprocity is governed by social network are regulated and reinforced
norms and expectations, and deviations from these through social approval or disapproval.
norms can result in social sanctions. Marcel Mauss She demonstrated how social sanction is
argued that gift-giving creates social bonds and employed to uphold the established rules
obligations, and failing to reciprocate appropriately and norms of exchange. She examines
can lead to social disapproval or exclusion. the role of reputation, trust, and social
Individuals who do not fulfill their obligations within relationships in influencing an individual’s
the gift exchange system may face diminished social access to valuable kula items and their social
status, loss of reputation, or even exclusion from standing within the community.
certain social networks or events. In communities
where reciprocity is highly valued, individuals
who consistently exhibit kindness, generosity,
and helpfulness may be rewarded with increased
social approval, respect, and inclusion within the
community. CASE STUDY
2. Psychological sanctions (Public opinion, mockery)
Mary Douglas in her book “Purity and Danger: Book “The Cheyenne Way: Conflict and Case
An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo.” Law in Primitive Jurisprudence,” by E. Adamson
Demonstrates how how mockery functions as Hoebel and Laura Thompson
a means of social control, enforcing conformity Cheyenne legal system relied on customary
to established norms and reinforcing social practices, oral traditions, and consensus-
boundaries. Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut) requires based decision-making and was primarily
avoidance of certain foods, such as pork, by Jewish concerned with maintaining social order,
communities. Individuals who deviate from these resolving conflicts, and ensuring the welfare
dietary restrictions or consume forbidden foods of the community.
may be mocked or ridiculed by the community, as
their actions are seen as impure and outside the Disputes were resolved through a process
boundaries of acceptable behavior. of negotiation and mediation, with the
involvement of respected elders and
3. Religious sanctions (sins) community leaders. The decision-making
process emphasized restoring harmony and
In her book- “Religion of Java,” Clifford Geertz,
balance rather than punitive measures.
demonstrated that in Balinese society, religious
beliefs and rituals were deeply intertwined
with concepts of morality, social hierarchy, and
community values. Geertz described how religious
leaders and village priests play a crucial role in
enforcing religious sanctions. When individuals
violated religious norms, they might be subjected
CLIFF NOTE
to various forms of religious sanctions, such as
public shaming, exclusion from religious rituals and
ceremonies, or even community expulsion.

137
 CONCEPT OF PUNISHMENT IN SIMPLE
SOCIETIES CASE STUDY
While the specific forms and practices of punishment
may vary across different cultures and societies, some Avoidance as a form of Punishment among
common aspects can be observed: Pueblos—By Elsie Clews Parsons
1. Restorative and Corrective Focus rather than being When someone has acted in a way that
solely retributive or punitive. The emphasis is often disrupts the social fabric or brings harm to the
on maintaining social balance and reintegrating the community, s/he may be subjected to a form of
offender back into the community. social ostracism which involves the community
2. Administered through informal mechanisms of members collectively avoiding contact and
social control rather than formal legal system. interaction with the offender. The duration of
3. Guided by customary laws and norms that have avoidance varied depending on the severity of
evolved over time and are deeply rooted in the the offense and the willingness of the offender
community’s traditions, beliefs, and values. to acknowledge their wrongs, express remorse,
and make efforts towards restitution.
4. Punishment may involve restitution or
compensation to the victim or the victim’s family. Function of avoidance:
The focus is on restoring the balance and harmony 1. Collective avoidance isolates the offender
disrupted by the offense. and denies them the social support and
5. Social sanctions, such as public shaming or cooperation of the community.
temporary exclusion from the community, can also 2. It signals disapproval and communicates the
be used as a form of punishment in simple societies. seriousness of their actions.
By publicly exposing the wrongdoing, individuals 3. It serves as a form of social pressure,
are held accountable for their actions and face encouraging the individual to reflect on
the consequences of tarnished reputations or their behavior, feel remorse, and take steps
loss of social standing. Example - Banishment and towards reconciliation and reintegration.
Exclusion among the Tiv.
4. It protects the community from potential
harm or negative influences associated with
the offender.

CLIFF NOTE

CASE STUDY

“The Making of the Fijian Nation-State: Rituals

of Association in the Post-Colonial Era,” by
Allen Hanson
The Soro ceremony among the Fijian people
is typically conducted by village chiefs or
CLIFF NOTE elders for conflict resolution. It is based on
the principles of forgiveness, reconciliation,
and the restoration of social balance. The
offending party or parties keeps head down,
publicly acknowledge their wrongdoing and
express remorse. They present a sevusevu,
an offering that may consist of traditional
items such as yaqona (kava) roots, mats,
and other valuables, to the village chief or
the aggrieved party as a gesture of respect,
remorse, and willingness to make amends.
The ceremony involves the recitation of
prayers, chants.

138
POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY behaviors. It investigates how cultural and symbolic
systems influence political processes, identities, and
It is a specialized branch of socio-cultural anthropology. the formation of political communities.
It deals with power, authority, and leadership as a 5. Analysis of the relationship between political systems
social phenomenon and how these concepts vary and economic structures.
across cultures.
6. Examination of the dynamics of power and politics in
Evolution: the context of globalization, transnational movements,
and interactions between different political systems.
Bronislaw Malinowski is generally considered as
father of ‘Political anthropology’. His famous work, Overall, the scope of political anthropology is broad,
“Argonauts of the Western Pacific,” published in 1922, encompassing the study of diverse political systems,
explored the complex economic and political exchange structures, processes, and their interactions with social,
systems of the Trobriand Islanders, offering insights cultural, and economic dimensions
into the functioning of power, authority, and decision-
making processes in their society. Scholars related to Political Anthropology and their work
Malinowski’s emphasis on the holistic study of social Political Anthropology is dynamic subfield and
and cultural practices, his incorporation of participant encompasses a wide range of perspectives, theories,
observation methods, and his exploration of the and case studies that contribute to our understanding of
underlying social and political dynamics in different politics, power, and social organization.
societies have made him a foundational figure in the
development of political anthropology.
Anthropologist Work Subject-matter
1940s marked the development of modern political
anthropology. In collaboration with Evans-Pritchard, Theory of political
Fortes conducted fieldwork among the Tallensi and authority and
explored their social and political organization in depth, bureaucracy,
in their book “African Political Systems” (1940). concepts of
Other notable contributions are: Max Weber “Politics as a charismatic
1. Elman Service’s “Primitive Social Organization” (Sociologist) Vocation” authority,
(1962) traditional
2. Morton Fried’s “The Evolution of Political Society” authority, and
(1967) rational-legal
authority.
SCOPE: “Peddler and
The scope of political anthropology encompasses the Princes: Social
study of power, authority, governance, and political Change and
processes within societies. It focuses on understanding Economic Explores the
how political systems are formed, maintained, and Clifford Geertz Modernization in relationship
transformed, and how they intersect with cultural, (Symbolic Two Indonesian between culture,
social, and economic factors. Anthropologist) Towns”. symbolism, and
political systems.
Some key aspects within the scope of political “The
anthropology are: Interpretation of
1. Examination of sources, distribution, and dynamics Cultures”
of power and authority within social groups and
“Political Explored role of
institutions and how power is acquired, exercised, and
Leadership ethnicity, kinship,
legitimized, and how authority structures shape social
among Swat and power
relationships and decision-making processes. Fredrick Barth Pathans”. dynamics in
2. Examination of the roles, functions, and interactions shaping political
“Ethnic Groups
of formal and informal institutions and their impact on institutions.
and Boundaries”
social, economic, and cultural life.
3. Examination of processes through which political How communities
decisions are made, policies are formulated, and are socially
Benedict “Imagined
conflicts are managed or resolved. It examines political constructed and
Anderson Communities”
participation, decision-making mechanisms, political the politics of
rituals, social movements, and forms of collective nationalism.
action within different societies.
4. Exploration of the cultural beliefs, values, and
ideologies that shape political attitudes and 139
 Explores
“Fragments of alternative
David Graeber an Anarchist political systems
Anthropology” and modes of
governance.
Explores
political agency
“Weapons of the of subaltern
Weak: Everyday communities
James C Scott
Forms of Peasant and the ways
Resistance” in which power
is contested in
everyday life.

Contemporary Developments in Political Anthropology

Some notable trends and areas of research within
political anthropology include:
1. Study of indigenous political movements and their
interactions with state institutions, exploring issues of
sovereignty, representation, and indigenous rights.
2. Examining how globalization processes shape
political systems, governance structures, and the
dynamics of power at local, national, and global levels +
Exploring how transnational networks, flows of capital,
migration, and cultural exchange influence political
identities and practices.
3. Exploring emerging forms of governance beyond
the nation-state, such as regional organizations,
international institutions, and non-state actors.
4. Exploring how political and economic systems
impact natural resources, environmental justice,
and sustainability. This includes studying indigenous
ecological knowledge, environmental activism, and the
politics of resource extraction.
5. Examining the role of social media, online platforms,
and digital networks in shaping political participation,
mobilization, and activism. Anthropologists explore
how these digital spaces influence power relations,
political identities, and the circulation of information.
Political anthropology is adopting more dynamic
model to study the rapid political transformation going
on in traditional societies. They are also contributing
knowledge to help emerging regions like Africa to
smoothen their political transitions and avoid instability.
The field of Political anthropology continues to evolve,
adapting to new political realities and engaging with
critical issues related to power, governance, and social
transformation in diverse societies and contexts.

140
Chapter: 6
RELIGION
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/questions
Religion: Anthropological approaches to the study of
religion(evolutionary, psychological, and functional)
How did Clifford Geertz look at religion? Differentiate
Monotheism and polytheism between anthropological and psychological
Sacred and profane approaches to the study of religion. (15 M, 2023)
Myths and rituals Animism and Deep Ecology (10 M, 2021)
Forms of religion in tribal and peasant Societies Critically explain the anthropological approaches to
(animism, animatism, fetishism, naturism, and religion (15 M, 2019)
totemism); Difference between science and magic. (10 M,
Religion, magic and science distinguished 2018)
Magico-religious functionaries (priest, shaman, Discuss the different traditional forms of religion in
medicine man, sorcerer and witch) tribal societies. (20 M, 2017)
Short notes on Totemism (10 M, 2016)
Critically examine different Anthropological
approaches to Religion. (15 M, 2016)
How do you relate the concepts of ‘Sacred’ and
‘Profane’ in Durkheim’s theory of Religion with a
focus on the role of Totem? (15 M, 2015)
Totemism (10 M, 2013)
Distinguish between religion, magic and science
(20 M 2013)
Explain various Anthropological approaches to
study Religion (30 M, 2011)

141
 Finally, he fails to touch upon other aspects of religion,
RELIGION: like rituals and prayers.
2. Animatism:
Durkheim (1965) defined religion as “a unified system
Animatism refers to the belief in a single, universal, trans-
of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things”.
ferable supernatural power.
Religion has been associated with various terms such
as ‘sacred’, ‘supernatural’, ‘mystic’ but these terms
are far from capturing the complexity of religion as Monotheism
experienced in a given cultural setting. Mana (as mana is Polytheism
single)
Anthropological approaches to the study of
religion: Figure: Evolutionary scheme of religion
1. Evolutionary approach: The theory is based on R.R. Marett’s fieldwork on the
Emile Durkheim, in his book, The Elementary Forms of Melanesians.
Religious Life (1912), has defined religion as a “unified sys-
R.R. Marett was a colleague of E.B. Tylor. After studying
tem of belief and practices relative to sacred things”.
the Melanesians and their concept of mana, he felt the
It seeks to explain the origin and evolution of religion. need to modify Tylor’s theory, in order to add a pre-
The three major associated theories are: animistic stage of religion. This led to the theory of
1. Animism: animatism. His theory is also called Manaism.
The term is coined by E. B. Tylor to describe the belief He found that Melanesians believed in a supernatural
in soul or life force and personality existing in animate force called mana, possessed by each entity. Their chief
and inanimate objects as well as human beings. possessed the highest mana, and this was transferred
Tylor, in his work, ‘Primitive Culture (1871)’ speculated to his successor upon his death.
that the early human must have devised the concept It was concluded that since the Melanesians have been
of soul by his experiences of shadow, echo, and dream. living in conditions as primitive as the early man, their
Thus, belief in soul should be the earliest form of belief should be the earliest form of religion.
religion. Marett makes a tall assumption that Melanesians have
not even evolved a bit in the last two million years of
evolution, and their culture is as primitive as early
ANIMA Polytheism humans.
(as soul (as souls Monotheism
Criticism:
are many) are many)
Theory was criticized specifically due to the fact that it
lacked any fieldwork.
Figure: Evolution scheme of religion

CASE STUDY
E.B. Tylor expounded that animism is the earliest
and most basic religious form. Out of this evolved
fetishism, belief in demons, polytheism, and, finally, In Indian society, the Ho and Munda
monotheism is derived from the exaltation of a tribes worship Bonga, which is similar to
great god, such as the sky god, in a polytheistic the concept of mana. According to them,
context. Bonga is responsible for causing natural
He defines religion in such a way that all forms of it calamities like floods and epidemics.
could be included, namely, as ‘the belief in Spiritual The Santhals worship a supreme god,
Beings’. He firmly states that religion is a cultural Thakur Jiu (the sun god), along with a
universal, for no known cultures are without such host of other deities and spirits (Bonga)
beliefs. Belief in spirits began as an uncritical but associated with natural elements and
nonetheless rational effort to explain such puzzling ancestors.
empirical phenomenon as death, dreams and
possessions.
3. Totemism:
Criticism: It is a system of belief in which certain objects, plants
Tylor’s theory was criticized specifically due to the or animals have kinship relationship with social
fact that it lacked any fieldwork. groups. Such animate and inanimate objects stand
as emblems giving identity to the groups and form
He also made a philosopher out of the early human,
representations of the groups.
who according to his theory, appears to be more
142 interested in thinking about soul than his survival.
 A totem is a plant/ animal/ bird/ natural object or symbol, Features:
with which a social group has a definite relationship. As per Freud, events in infancy have long-lasting
effects on the beliefs and practices in adult life.
Infants and children regard parents as all-knowing and
Polytheism
(as totem are all-powerful, as they are totally dependent on them.
Totemism Monotheism
many) Thus, when they grow up to be adults and feel out of
control or in need.
Figure: Evolutionary scheme of religion Their mind unconsciously reverts back to childhood
feelings. They begin to look to gods as powerful father-
According to Durkheim, this relationship is of ‘awe.’ He like figures. Thus, for Freud, religion is an illusion of the
studied Australian natives (Arunta tribe), and found that: mind.
The society was divided into clans, each having its own Freud believed that religion was only necessary to help us
totem. restrain violent impulses earlier in the development of Ci-
All the activities within and with other clans was vilisation. It should now be set aside in favour of reason
regulated by the totem. and science.
2. Therapeutic Theory:
Thus, Durkheim said that totem is the flag and savior of
the clan. He said that since Australian natives have one It was laid out by Carl Jung in his work, “Psychology and
of the most elementary social organization, their belief Religion (1969).’ He had been a disciple of Freud. But
should be the earliest form of religion. unlike Freud, Jung believed that religion was beneficial
to the society at every stage of development.
Common Criticism:
He believed that humans are born with an “archetype
All these theories that attempt to explain about the of God, an image which we are all predisposed to
origin and evolution of religion have failed, because having. Our religious beliefs help us in healing the
religion is an institution. An institution is a part of non- mind’s instability and fears, and thus, has a therapeutic
material culture, and there is no material evidence. effect on the human mind.
Thus, without such evidence, its origin and evolution
cannot be known, and remains mere speculation of the
observer. Religious belief as a product of the human
mind- Carl Jung:
Frazer in his book, ‘Totem and Exogamy (1910),
was among the first to define totem. For him, 1. Religion necessary for personal growth with
totem is a class of material objects which a savage reference to collective unconscious;
regards superstitious, and with respect, believing
that there lies a special relationship between the 2. Individuation, archetypes, the God within. Supportive
totem and every member of the clan. evidence including recognition of religion as a source of
comfort and promotion of positive personal and social
According to Frazer, magic is the primordial form
mind sets arising from religious belief Jung believed that
of human thought. He further postulates early man the images generated by these archetypes are very
was dominated by magic, which viewed nature as similar and are dominant in the process of individuation.
‘a series of events occurring in an invariable order The God and the Self archetypes are near congruent, and
without the intervention of personal agency’. so an image of 'God' is also an image of 'Self', and is
Levi-Strauss in his book, Totemism (1962), added identical for the other way around.
that the reason why animals/plants are utilized as
totems is not because they are present in nature.
It is because they suggest the mode of thought of 3. Challenges including lack of empirical evidence
for Jungian concepts and reductionist views regarding
the human mind. Thus, he elevated this concept
religious belief arising from acceptance of Jung's ideas.
to a sort of mental Totemism.

Common Criticism
2. Psychological approach Psychological theories undermine the sociological
The psychological approach seeks to understand the and evolutionary perspective of religion. They limit
way in which religion operates in the mind of the religion to the individual psyche, and minimise its role
individual. It is based on Sigmund Freud’s approaches on the collective psyche of a society.
of psychoanalysis and neurotic symptoms have
become a dominant approach to understand religion 3. Functional approach:
The functional approach seeks to understand the role
in Anthropology. The two major associated theories
of religion in fulfilling the needs of the individual and
are: the society.
1. Psychoanalytic Theory: It emphasizes on the interrelations between the various
It was laid out by Sigmund Freud in his work, “The Future elements of a social system, and, therefore, pays less
of an Illusion (1927).” attention to evolutionary origins and the notion of 143
 of unity and cooperation have religious basis.
Psychological functions: explained by Malinowski's
theory.
“survivals” – the continuation of primitive elements in Therapeutic functions: explained by Carl Jung's theory.
a culture.
Society is seen as a self-regulating system in which Cultural revitalisation and preservation
religion, economic organization, and kinship form parts
of an organic whole. The realm of the sacred is defined Maintenance of social order: In simple societies,
by the attitude people have towards it – rituals are social order is maintained through negative sanctions,
sacred if they are performed with reverence and awe. many of which revolve around the concept of sin and
the supernatural.
The two major associated theories are :
1. Totemism or Socio-functional Theory:
CASE STUDY
According to Durkheim, this relationship is of awe. He
studied Australian natives (Arunta tribe), and found
that the society was divided into clans, each having In Massai, members follow the descision of
its own totem. The totem is bound to the members elders as not doing amounts to sin, which may
of a clan in kinship- like-bonds, based on descent. lead to wrath of the supernatural
The totem symbolizes both the clan and the clan’s
ancestors. All the activities within and with other
clans are regulated by the totem. People do not kill
or eat their totem, but do occasionally sacrifice it and Monotheism and Polytheism
pray for its increase in numbers. Broadly put, there are two types of religion :
Thus, Durkheim said that totem is the flag and savior of 1. Monotheism:
the clan. Through the totem, Durkheim was able to explain
Monotheism is the belief in existence of one god.
the social functions of religion.
Monotheistic religions are characterized by the following:
2. Psycho-functional Theory:
A very holy person or spirit at the top. There may
Malinowski, in his work, ‘Magic, Science and Religion be more than one supernatural being, but only one is
(1925),’ called religion as an integrative need. considered as supreme.
In his work on the Trobriand Islanders emphasized on A place on earth considered to be holiest by all
the close relationship between myth and Ritual. believers
He puts forward the idea of psychological functionalism, A holy symbol
religious acts fulfilling the psychological need and
The belief in a single, omnipotent deity can legitimize
satisfaction. A mortuary ritual, for instance, is intended
political power and reinforce social hierarchies. For
to release the soul and prevent it from returning to
example, the concept of the “Divine Right of Kings” in
haunt the living.
medieval Europe was used to justify monarchs’ authority
For him, Religion is the principal means of coping with by linking it to God’s will.
anxiety. It explains the inexplicable, and helps humans
make peace with the fact that their control over the
Examples of monotheistic religions:
universe is limited.
Animatism, along with the three modern Abrahamic
Like Frazer, he distinguishes magic from religion
religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
which aims at something beyond itself. Its object is not
performance of the rite. In magic the end is the efficacious The case of the Munda tribe’s Sarna religion
magic itself. provides an insightful example of the evolution
of monotheistic practices within an Indian tribal
Common Criticism:
society.
Both these theories cover only one type of function
The central figure in the monotheistic practice of
of religion, either social or psychological. Thus, if we
the Sarna faith is Sing Bonga, the Sun God, who
combine both, we can know about religion’s relevance
is considered the supreme deity. Sing Bonga
to a larger extent.
is revered as the creator and sustainer of the
universe.
Functions of religion:
2. Polytheism:
Social integration: Explain Durkheim's Totemism, and
Polytheism is the belief in existence of multiple gods
add the fact that even in modern societies, patterns
and goddesses.
of unity and cooperation have religious basis.
There are several deities, holy places, symbols.
Psychological functions: explained by Malinowski's Polytheistic religions are generally conglomerate of
theory. several religions, with followers of each individual
144 religion making up a sect.
Therapeutic functions: explained by Carl Jung's theory.
Cultural revitalisation and preservation
 Rituals and ceremonies are central to polytheistic
religions, serving as means of communication with the CASE STUDY
divine and as expressions of communal identity.
Polytheistic religions are rich in symbols and myths
In his attempt to locate the source of the
that convey complex cultural meanings. For example,
sacred, Durkheim turned towards the
the Greek myth of Demeter and Persephone explains
Totemism of Arunta tribe, of Australia,
the changing seasons and reflects themes of life,
which he regarded as the most elementary
death, and rebirth.
form of religion. He found that the natives
Polytheistic religions are dynamic and often incorporate were divided in clans, each having its
elements from other belief systems through processes own totem. Each clan shared a definite
of syncretism. relationship with its totem, one which
Durkheim called as that of ‘awe’, Durkheim
Examples noted that there is nothing inherent in
an animal/plant/object, that is, the totem
Animism, Totemism and Hinduism.
which evokes a sacred attitude. Rather, it is
The Gonds believe in a pantheon of gods and the projection of belief upon the totem that
goddesses, each associated with different aspects makes it sacred
of nature and life. Key deities include:
Thus, the world of sacred came into
Baradeo: The supreme god who is considered existence through the unification of clan.
the creator and protector. The clan itself was symbolised and made
Bhoom: The earth goddess, who is revered for visible through the totemic emblems.
fertility and agriculture.
Nagal Pen: The snake god, who is believed to
protect against snake bites and other dangers. Criticisms
Pharsa Pen: The god of justice, often Evans-Pritchard challenged the applicability of the
represented with a battle-axe. dichotomy to real-life situations, calling it non-useful in
Clan Deities: Each Gond clan (Gotul) has its own field research.
specific deities and spirits which are worshipped Jack Goody noted that many societies have no words
through clan-specific rituals. that translate as sacred or profane and thus, the
dichotomy is not universal as claimed by Durkheim.
Sacred and Profane Myths and rituals:
The concepts of sacred and profane were developed by Myth and ritual have been two central components of
Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, in his work, The religion, in both traditional and modern societies.
Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912). Myth:
Profane is the realm of routine experience dealing with Myth is a symbolic narrative, usually of unknown
mundane activities. The profane world includes human origin that ‘seemingly’ relates actual events. It usually
beings and all that is not related with the sacred totem. is a specific account of gods or super humans involved
Sacred refers to a set rituals and objects set apart in extraordinary events in a time that is unspecified
from the profane by special prohibitions, dispensations but understood as existing outside ordinary human
and prescriptions that do not pertain to everyday experience.
life. Myths, legends, dogmas and beliefs represent
the sacred totem. Identity and power of Sacred are Views of Scholars:
protected by social rules.
Levi-Strauss, “of all the activities of the human mind,
For Durkheim, religion is sacred, while magic is myth-making is the closest to the unconscious
profane. Religion is therefore, a unified system of mind.” This is because unlike kinship system and
beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, which marriage rules, the myth-making mind is not
unite into one single moral community, all those who constrained by social utility. Thus, he emphasised
adhere to them, the understanding of models of human thought by
Durkheim regards the sacred-profane dichotomy as the study of myths.
universal. In all religions, certain objects, rules and Malinowski said that myth enhances social
symbol are considered as sacred. tradition by endowing it with glorified beginnings,
and thus, promotes sustains and integrates
appropriate social behaviour.

145
 Ritual: rescue of the living relatives against evil spirits. Special
Ritual is the performance of ceremonial acts ceremonies are held to invoke the ancestral spirits.
prescribed by tradition or by priestly decree.
Characteristics: CASE STUDY
A patterned act that involves the manipulation of
religious symbols is a religious ritual.
The Dongria Kondh of Odisha worships
Such rituals utilise a combination of prayers, offerings
‘Niyam Raja,’ their chief spirit-deity,
and sacrifices to contact and/or control supernatural
spirits. with all members seeing themselves as
descendants of the spirit.
Lugbara elder of northern Uganda in Africa
Views of Scholars:
put it, “Are our ancestors not people of our
Scholars such as WR. Smith, S.J. Frazer and E. lineage?
Durkheim have opined that the origin of ritual can
be found Totemism.
Functionalists such as Malinowski have focused
on the needs served by ritual, rather than its Fetishism:
origin. They view ritual as an adaptive and adjustive In fetishism, an object (fetish) is believed to have
response to the social and physical environment. supernatural powers, and is thus attributed with value
and powers.
Relationship between the myth and religion. There have As per A. Comte, fetishism is the earliest form of religion.
been three main views Generally, worship of such objects involves an element of
magic.
First View
Scholars like W.R. Smith and Frazer believed that CASE STUDY
every myth is derived from a particular ritual.

Bonda of Malkangiri, a special sword is

Second View worshipped. They believe that it connects
Scholars like Tylor saw myth as an attempt to explain them with the Rajput warriors of past.
the world. Thus, for them, ritual are secondary and an Shamans, known as Ojhas, play a vital role
application of myth. in Santal fetishism. They are believed to
have the ability to communicate with spirits
Third View and manipulate the power of fetishes.
Scholars like Malinowski and Burkert regard both as
partially independent from each other. For them, not
all myths grow out of rituals, and vice versa. Naturism:
Naturism refers to the worship of nature, with a belief
Forms of religion in tribal and peasant Societies that nature is animated throughout. Nature is seen as
(animism, animatism, fetishism, naturism, and a living entity with creature and preservative powers.
totemism) For primitive humans, natural phenomena were beyond
Durkheim, in his book, ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious their explanation and control, and thus they were in
Life (19I2),’ has defined religion as a unified system of awe of such phenomenon. This led to the origin of
belief and practices relative to sacred things. naturism.

Max Muller contended that since the gods in various

Ancestor societies were originally from natural phenomenon,
Worship Fetishism Naturism such as sun, thunder, trees etc., the human perception
of nature must have had very powerful agencies for
origin of religion.

Ancestor Worship:
It revolves around a belief that dead ancestors are active Religion, Magic and Science
members of the society, still interested in the affairs of Magic:
their living relatives. The soul of the deceased converts
Frazer, in his book. The Golden Bough (1890),” has
146 into a potential supernatural force, which comes to the
 defined magic as the technique used to compel the Forms of Magic by Malinowski
supernatural to do one’s bidding.
Frazer argued that magic represented the earliest
stage of human culture, out of which religion developed
later on. He called it pseudo-science because it comes
into existence when rational techniques fail to control
natural phenomenon.
Black Magic
Views of Malinowski:
It is used White Magic
Malinowski, in his work, ‘Magic, Science and to harrm
Religion (1925),’ classified magic as an integrative
someone and
need. He said that the need for magic arises in It is done to do good to
is thus
order to alleviate anxiety in the face of uncertainty. others and is s cially
condemned
recognised. Thus, magic
and believed
Elements of Magic: remains one of the human
to be used by
society's most perplexing
According to Raymond Firth, magic involves three sorcerers or
elements : social phenomenon.
witches.
The Practitioner - May be an individual himself or a
specialist like a shaman or a priest.
The Practical Aim - Refers to the end to be achieved,
which could be protective or destructive.
The Magical Formula - Includes the medicines, rites CASE STUDY
and spells used.

Contagious magic
Indian tribes like Oran and ho to harm
someone, one could get hold of his hair or a
Medicine nail, and burn it to harm the person.

CASE STUDY
Magical
Formula Homeopathic magic
Khonds in order to harm someone, make a
Rites Spells doll of the person and harm the doll, which
would harm the person indirectly

Forms of Magic: Differences between the concepts of Magic,

Frazer classified two types of magic: Religion and Science
Magic, religion and science have long been the study
Homeopathic Magic of interest in anthropology. Evolutionists were among
the first to study these concepts.
It is based on the Law of Similarity, which states Frazer, in his book, ‘The Golden Bough (1890). Opined
that “like produces like,’ and thus. nature can be con that human society has passed through three stages
trolled by imitating it. of development - magic, religion and science.
Contrary to the evolutionary views, Malinowski gave a
functional approach in his work ‘Magic, Science and
Contagious Magic Religion (1925).’ He said that magic and religion help
alleviate anxiety in the face of uncertainty, even without
It is based on the Law of Contact, which states having control.
that once in contact, always in contact,’ that is,
connections remain in force even after separation 147
 First stage E vo l u t i o n a r y In this evolutionary
Anthropologists saw framework, religion
magic as based on is viewed as a more
Magic as a technique was used to compel the
the “law of similarity” developed system of
supernatural to do one’s own bidding When the
(like produces like) and thought that emerges
human mind progressed, humans realised their
the “law of contagion” as societies become
magic did not work.
(things that have been more complex. It is
in contact, continue to seen as providing a
Second stage influence each other). more organized and
P o s t m o d e r n socially cohesive
Religion was thus born out of the newfound conviction anthropologists framework than magic
that higher superhuman powers govern the universe. emphasized the Similarly, postmodern
contextual and perspectives on
contested nature of religion highlight
Third stage magic. They explore its dynamic and
how power, identity, multifaceted nature.
Scientific stage came with the highest development and resistance play Religion is seen as
of human mind. Humans again began to manipulate roles in magical a site of negotiation
nature, but this time with the correct laws practices, especially in and contestation,
postcolonial contexts. reflecting broader
Figure: Stages of development of human society social, political, and
economic processes.
Magic and Religion:
Malinowski gave the following similarities -
Both arise from emotional stress and from the Differences between Magic and Religion
realization that man’s control of the universe is (views of Frazer and Durkheim)
tragically limited. Magic Religion
Both represent integrative needs as they help us to
Magical rites, unlike Religious rites, has a large
cope with anxiety
religious rites, do not body of worshippers.
have a large body of There is communal aspect.
Differences between Magic & Religion: worshippers. There Religion too does not
is no communal guarantee results.
Magic Religion aspect.
Religious pronouncements
Magic fails to get do generally have
As per Frazer, magic Religion involves results only in meanings in the society’s
involves direct supplication or case of errors of customary language.
manipulation of worship of deities. procedure of text,
supernatural forces. Religious practitioners go
Religion, now even or when a stronger
on a period of training,
As per Malinowski, complex and rich in counter-magic is
and then only qualify to do
magic is characterized content, and expresses applied.
religious exercises.
by limited technique itself in ritual and Magical utterances
and practical belief which are more tend to degenerate
orientation. value-oriented. into spells and
formulae, which may
As per Durkheim, Religion is ‘sacred,’ have no meaning
Magic is ‘profane,’ as as it is set apart from whatsoever. Even to
it falls under routine routine activities the magician.
experience dealing through its rituals and M a g i c a l
with mundane dogmas. Practitioners, even
activities. Religion, in this view, in simple societies,
Clifford Geertz is also a system are set apart in one
and other symbolic of symbols that fashion or another
from the socially
anthropologists view establishes powerful,
recognized priests. ,
magic as a cultural pervasive, and long- Example-shamans.
system of symbols lasting moods and
and meanings. motivations.

148
Magic and Science: Despite these differences, some believe that magic and
Malinowski gave the following similarities : religion cannot be separated as they frequently overlap,
In fact societies do not distinguish between the two. Thus,
Both are based on some definite laws. they should be grouped as Magico-religious phenomena.
Both use special techniques for manipulating natural Magico-religious functionaries (priest, shaman,
occurrences. medicine man, sorcerer and witch)
Both accept the existence of natural laws. Religious practitioners are intermediaries between men
Both magical and scientific acts are performed and supernatural beings. Individuals may believe that
by specialists, termed as magicians and scientists they can directly contact the supernatural, but almost
respectively all societies have part-time or full-time Magico-religious
functionaries.
Differences between Magic and Science Priests:
Priests are full time specialists having a very high status.
Magic Science They are initiated and ceremonially inducted members
Bronislaw Malinowski Science serves as a of an established religious organisation as a full-time
argued that magic systematic approach to specialist.
serves practical understanding natural Characteristics:
functions, especially in phenomena and solving They are able to connect to superior gods who are
contexts of uncertainty practical problems. beyond the reach of ordinary individuals.
and risk. For example, It provides reliable They are normally supported by the community.
he observed that knowledge through
Years of training are usually required before priesthood
Trobriand Islanders empirical methods
is granted.
used magic in open- and is instrumental
sea fishing, where in technological They are usually found in larger societies with
outcomes were development and standardised ceremonies and theological doctrines.
unpredictable, but not innovation. It is the dependence on the memorised rituals that
in lagoon fishing, which marks and protects the priest.
was more predictable
and controllable.
Claude Lévi-Strauss Structuralists view
analyzed magic as science as another
part of the broader expression of human
structures of human cognitive structures. Prayers
thought. He argued Scientific classification,
that magical beliefs taxonomy, and the
and practices reveal search for underlying Offerings
the binary oppositions patterns reflect
(e.g., life/death, purity/ the same cognitive
Sacrifices
impurity) that structure processes that
human cognition. Magic produce myth and
is seen as a way of magic, but applied in a
resolving contradictions more systematic and Figure: means used by priest
and making sense of empirical manner.
the world. Scientific practices and Shaman:
According to Clifford theories are embedded A shaman is usually a part-time male specialist who has a
Geertz, magic rituals in specific cultural and fairly high standing in his community, and is often involved
and beliefs are seen historical contexts, and in healing.
as expressions of they reflect the values Characteristics:
cultural narratives and assumptions of the
The main role of the shaman is that of a mediator
and worldviews. They societies that produce between the human and spirit worlds
provide a way for them.
Generally, he deals with the spirit world to try to get
people to interpret
their help or keep them from causing harm. This is
their experiences done by entering into a trance or some altered state
and manage the of consciousness, followed by journeying to other
uncertainties of life. worlds.
Shamans may also bring news from spirits. Example:
Warning of an epidemic. 149
 Mediums:
Shamanism is a religious phenomenon centered
Close to shaman is medium. A medium is a human
around a shaman. The term was first used by Western
channel of either sex through which god or ancestor
anthropologists to describe the ancient religious of
or spirit communicates with the living members of the
North Asian communities. The word, shamanism
society.
comes from the Machu-Tungus language of Central
Siberia. The supernatural being possesses the human agency,
the medium, that goes into trance or enters an altered
Shamans in Indian Tribes: consciousness of ecstasy, and the spirit publicly speaks
to the living, and that whatever is spoken is attributed
Tribe Name of Shamans to the spirit but not to the human agency.
It is believed that the spirit suppresses the human spirit
Sora (Odisha) Kuran
and uses the body of the human agent to communicate
directly with the living, and listens with the ears of the
Naga Kehouna
human agent whatever spoken by the living.
Bhil Bhopas Rites de passage
Rites de Passage are ceremonies or rituals that mark
Santhal Ojha important transitional periods in a person’s life, such as
birth, puberty, marriage, and death.
Gond Baiga
These rites are essential in facilitating and
acknowledging changes in social status and roles.
Toda Baiga
The concept was extensively analyzed and popularized
Munda Pahan by the French ethnographer and folklorist Arnold van
Gennep in his seminal work “The Rites of Passage”
(1909).
Arnold van Gennep’s Framework:
Sorcerers and witches:
They tend to have a very low socio-economic status, due
to their association with black magic.
Characteristics:
Separation Liminality Incorporation
They are feared as they are thought to cause illness,
injury and death. • The individual • Phase of • The individual
Suspected sorcerers and witches are often killed. leaves behind transition, enters the new
Witchcraft accusation has become a source of the roles, whereby the age- status,
concern in Indian regions like Telangana. norms and individual is and is
symbols of kept away from incorporated
his/her former the larger back into the
age- status. society, and society.
CASE STUDY
undergoes
certain ordeals
Evans Pritchard (1937) provides a classical for the
example of witchcraft among the Azande in movement into
Africa. According to him, witchcraft provides the new
explanation for the unexplainable.
age-status.

Examples of Rites de Passage:

CASE STUDY Birth and Naming Ceremonies:
Separation: The birth marks the separation of the
Christianity recognises the existence of evil child from the mother.
spirits which function under the lordship of Liminality: The period before the naming ceremony,
Satan or Devil who is hostile to God, and the where the child is in a transitional state without an
witches and sorcerer maintain close liaison official social identity.
with Satan. Incorporation: The naming ceremony, where the
child is given a name and formally introduced to
150 the community.
Van Gennep outlined a universal structure for rites of Key Anthropologists and their views on Rites
passage, identifying three distinct phases: of Passage:
1. Separation: 1. Victor Turner:
Description: This phase involves the individual being Key work: “The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-
detached or separated from their previous status Structure” (1969)
or social group. It is a preparatory stage where the
person is removed from their old environment and Liminality and Communitas: He expanded van Gennep’s
position. concept of liminality, emphasizing its transformative
potential. He introduced the notion of communitas, a
Examples: This can be seen in rituals such as leaving
sense of community and equality experienced during
the family home, undergoing initiation preparations,
the liminal phase.
or in modern contexts, graduating from school.
Liminality: Turner viewed it as a space of ambiguity
2. Liminality (Transition):
and potentiality where normal social hierarchies are
Description: Liminality is the in-between phase temporarily dissolved.
where the individual is no longer in their previous
state but has not yet transitioned to the new one. Communitas: This is the intense community spirit
This phase is often characterized by ambiguity, lack and solidarity that often emerges during liminal
of status, and the potential for transformation. phases.
Examples: In puberty rites, this could involve a Social Structure: Turner argued that rites of passage
period of isolation or instruction; in weddings, the play a crucial role in maintaining the social structure
actual marriage ceremony serves as the liminal by allowing temporary suspension of norms and
phase. hierarchies, followed by a reintegration that reinforces
social order.
3. Incorporation (Reintegration):
Description: In this final phase, the individual is 2. Claude Lévi-Strauss:
reintegrated into society with their new status. Key Work: “The Elementary Structures of Kinship”
This stage often involves ceremonies or rituals that (1949).
symbolize the acceptance and recognition of the Structural Anthropology: Although Lévi-Strauss’s
new role by the community. primary focus was on kinship and myths, his structuralist
Examples: Ceremonies like a graduation, a wedding approach provides insights into rites of passage.
reception, or the rituals following an initiation into Myth and Ritual: He explored how myths and rituals
adulthood signify this phase. serve as structures that organize human experience
and social relations.
Funerary Rites: Cultural Universals: Lévi-Strauss suggested
Separation: The death of an individual marks their that rites of passage, like myths, reflect universal
separation from the living. cognitive structures that shape human societies.
Liminality: The period of mourning and funeral 3. Edmund Leach:
rites, where the deceased’s status is in transition. Key Work: “Political Systems of Highland Burma: A
Incorporation: The final rituals, such as burial or Study of Kachin Social Structure” (1954)
cremation, and subsequent commemorations Structuralist Approach: Leach’s analysis of rites of
reintegrate the deceased into the realm of the passage within the Kachin society highlights the
ancestors and help the living accept their new structuralist approach to understanding these rituals.
status. Binary Oppositions: He examined how rites of
passage symbolize transitions between binary
oppositions such as life/death, male/female, and
purity/impurity.
CASE STUDY Social Transformation: Leach emphasized the
role of these rituals in marking and facilitating
Rites de passage are found throughout social transformations and maintaining societal
societies, ranging from simple societies equilibrium.
like Masai with the transition being from 4. Margaret Mead:
junior-hood to war hood to elder hood) Key Work: “Coming of Age in Samoa” (1928)
Even complex societies like the Hindus, as Cultural Relativism: Mead’s ethnographic work on
evidenced by the varnashrama system. adolescent rites of passage in Samoa challenged
Western assumptions about adolescence and
development.
Cultural Specificity: She demonstrated that rites
151
 of passage and the experiences of transitions like
puberty are deeply influenced by cultural contexts.
Socialization: Mead highlighted the role of rites
of passage in socializing individuals into culturally
specific roles and behaviours.
Arnold van Gennep’s foundational framework provided
a basis for understanding these rituals’ structure and
function. Subsequent anthropologists like Victor Turner,
Mary Douglas, Edmund Leach, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and
Margaret Mead expanded on van Gennep’s work, offering
diverse perspectives on the symbolic, structural, and
cultural dimensions of rites of passage.

CASE STUDY

Khatna, also known as circumcision, is a

traditional ritual practiced by various cultures
and religious groups, particularly within Islamic
communities.
Applying Arnold van Gennep’s framework of
rites of passage, khatna can be understood
through the three phases:
Separation: The individual is separated
from their previous status as a child. This
may involve rituals of preparation, such as
special prayers or ceremonies leading up
to the khatna. Example: In some cultures,
boys may be taken away from their regular
environment and prepared for the ritual
by elders or religious leaders, symbolizing
their detachment from their prior status.
Liminality: The liminal phase involves the
actual act of circumcision. During this
period, the individual is in a transitional
state, neither fully a child nor fully
recognized in their new status. Example:
The circumcision ceremony itself.
Incorporation: The final phase involves
reintegration into society with a new
status. The individual is now recognized as
having transitioned into a new role, often
associated with increased responsibilities
and social recognition. Example: Post-
circumcision celebrations.

152
 Chapter: 7
ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORIES
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/questions
Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan and Frazer)
Historical particularism (Boas); Diffusionism (British, 1. Discuss political and methodological aspects
German and American) of national character studies. Elucidate the
Functionalism (Malinowski); Structural—Functionalism contemporary relevance of such studies. (15 marks,
(Radcliffe-Brown) 2023)
Structuralism (L’evi-Strauss and E. Leach) 2. Critically discuss A.L. Kroeber’s contribution to
Culture and personality (Benedict, Mead, Linton, kinship studies. (15 marks, 2023)
Kardiner and Cora-du Bois 3. Critically evaluate Lewis Morgan’s classification of
Neo—evolutionism (Childe, White, Steward, Shalin and family (15 Marks, 2021)
Service) 4. Historical Particularism and Franz Boas (10 Marks,
Cultural materialism (Harris) 2021)
Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider 5. Elucidate the concept of “thick description” of
and Geertz) Clifford Geertz with a suitable example. (15 Marks,
2021)
Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin)
6. Discuss various anthropological approaches to the
Post-modernism in anthropology
study of personality and culture (20 M, 2020)
7. Victor Turner and liminality (10 M, 2020)
8. Discuss various anthropological approaches to the
study of personality and culture (20 M, 2020)
9. What do you understand by the National character
Study? Illustrate. (15 M, 2018)

INTRODUCTION
Law
Anthropology addresses a series of questions that humans have considered for
millennia: What is the nature of society? Why do cultures change? What is the
relationship between the person as an individual and the person as a member
of a distinctive social group? What are the distinguishing characteristics of
humanness? Why are cultures different? Theory
Building on these foundational inquiries, this chapter delves into how
anthropologists have sought to understand and explain the complexity of human
societies, cultures, and behaviours. We will explore key theories and thinkers that
have shaped the discipline, illuminating the diverse and dynamic world we inhabit.
Hypothesis

Facts and Observations

Figure: Construction and

Advancement of Knowledge 153
 Content Value Addition
EVOLUTIONARY SCHOOL
The Rationale of Evolutionary School
Evolution can be defined as a process in which different
Evolutionists believed that remnants of early
forms are developed or produced in systematic way
cultural evolution could be found in remote areas
concerned with a gradual/slow change which always
like Australia and Polynesia.
occurs intellectually.
In some places, they found traces of intermediate
Due to impact of ‘Social Darwinism (Group conflict) many stages, such as the Fijian people and the Iroquois
anthropologist and sociologist came with the idea of Indians, representing the middle stage known as
looking at cause about the evolution of society and culture. barbarism.
This led the foundation of ‘Evolutionary school’.
In other regions, they observed later stages of
evolution, including the Incas of South America, as
Evolutionary School well as the Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese, who
were considered “civilized.”
Classical Evolutionism Neo Evolutionism By studying and comparing these diverse groups,
(1860s-70s) (1930s) evolutionists aimed to reconstruct the different
stages of cultural evolution and understand the
British British factors that led from one stage to the next.
1. Tylor 2. Frazer 1.V.G. Childe
3. H. Maine 4. Mclennan
American
German 1.L.White
1.Bastian 2.Bachofen 2.J.Steward
Society A
American
1.L.H Morgan Living in Similar Mental Similar Cultural
Similar Environment responses responses
Society B
I. Classical Evolutionism:
Classical Evolutionism is a 19th-century theory that Psychic Unity of Mankind (Bastian)
explains the evolution of human societies and cultures
from primitive to advanced forms. It assumes societies
follow linear stages and Western civilization is the pinnacle
of progress. Although it’s widely challenged today, it’s an
important precursor to modern theories in anthropology.
Postulates-
Mankind is unity not diversity
Unilinear evolutionary sequence
Evolution is always progressive
Psychic unity of mankind
Diversity is due to environment hence not important
Evolution is always (Simple Complex, Homogenous
Heterogenous, Indefinite Definite)
Methods- One scholar placed the Fijians of the Pacific in the middle
1. Comparative stage called barbarism. This 1840 drawing is of a Fijian “Club
2. Historic Dance”. Notice how the drawing does make the people of Fiji
look “barbaric”.
3. Secondary Data (except Morgan-Deductive).
1. Tylor:
Book- “Primitive Culture-1871” CLIFF NOTE
According to Tylor, culture is “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society.”(1st holistic, comparative, and
interdisciplinary approach to culture)
154 Concept of survival (compared it to vestigial organs)
 to explain traces of primitive culture in modern culture. Max Muller called Anthropology as Tylor’s science
eg. Magic, Religion, Clay pot and Couvade etc.
He said that people in different locations were equally Civilization
capable of developing and progressing through the Agriculture
stages.
Primitive groups had “reached their position by
learning and not by unlearning” Barbarism
Herding
Theory of savage philosopher (even in “savage”
societies, individuals possessed a rudimentary form of
philosophical and religious beliefs). Savagery
Social transmission of culture in place of genetic Hunting
transmission.
Use of statistics (data of 282 societies).
Hawaiian Kinship
Worked on Mexico’s peningrad caves.
Linked civilization to happiness instead of technology
and writing etc. Father Mother Mother Father Father Mother

Tylor is called as Father of modern anthropology.

Criticism:
Sister Brother Sister Brother Sister Ego Brother Sister Brother Sister Brother
Ethnocentrism and Evolutionary Bias: Western cultural
superiority and linear cultural evolution perspective. Sudanese Kinship
Ignoring Cultural Complexity: Oversimplification of
complex systems and neglecting intricate dynamics.
Mother's Brother Mother's Sister Mother Father Father's Brother Father's Sister
Lack of Empirical Evidence: Reliance on anecdotes
and limited empirical support.
Neglecting Indigenous Perspectives: Imposition of Maternal Maternal Sister Paternal
Ego Brother Parallel Paternal
Cross Cousins Parallel Cousins Cousins Cross Cousins
interpretations and reinforcement of colonial biases.
Eskimo Kinship
2. Morgan:
Book-”Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the
Human Family” (1871),”Ancient Society” (1877). Uncle Aunt Mother Father Uncle Aunt
Called as father of American Anthropology(along with
Boas).
Cousin Cousin Cousin Cousin Sister Ego Brother Cousin Cousin Cousin Cousin

Iroquois Kinship
Civilization

Phonetic alphabet and

development of writing systems Uncle Mother Mother Father Father Aunt

Cousin Cousin Sister Brother Sister Ego Brother Sister Brother Cousin Cousin
Higher Development of metal tools
Barbarism

Crow Kinship
Middle Domestication of
animals and plants
Uncle Mother Mother Father Father Aunt
Lower Invention of pottery

Cousin Cousin Sister Brother Sister Ego Brother Sister Brother Aunt Father
Higher Invention of bow and arrow
Omaha Kinship
Savagery

Middle Fishing; the discovery of fire

Lower Infancy of human race; Uncle Mother Mother Father Father Aunt

gather nuts and berries

Unilineal Cultural Evolution Mother Uncle Sister Brother Sister Ego Brother Sister Brother Cousin Cousin
155
 1st ethnographic fieldwork (League of Iroquois,1851:
helped them as lawyer).
Study of kinship terminology.
Morgan tried to link the shift from one stage to the
other through technological shifts like the use of fire,
bow, and pottery etc.
He further divided the savagery and barbarism into
substages.
Used questionnaire and genealogical studies.
Explained the evolution of social and political
organizations from (Societus: kinship based to Civitus:
Territory based).
Gave a five-stage classification/evolution of family
based on five types of marriages.
Criticism of Morgan’s Work:
Oversimplified cultural evolution, neglecting complexity
and diversity.
Eurocentric bias undermined non-Western cultures’
contributions.
Lack of empirical evidence for his theories.
Ignored cultural relativity and imposed Western values.
3. Frazer:
Books: (1) “The Golden Bough”-1890 (About magic and
religion). This new book challenges the conventional view that
Palaeolithic societies were exclusively nomadic hunter-
(2) “Totemism and Exogamy”-1910(Theory of soul for
gatherers, highlighting the diversity of human societies
origin of totem). during that time and questioning the theories put forth by
Exogamy originated due to belief in Totem, as dead Morgan.
people reside in totem and pregnancy is not biological
but due to totem hence people from same clan cannot
marry. Leslie White (America)
Called “magic as bastard sister of science”.
He focused on the evolution of religion and viewed the
progress of society or culture from the viewpoint of Neo-Evolutionary School Julian Steward(America)
the evolution of psychological or mental systems.

II. Neo Evolutionism: V. Gordon Childe(Britain)

Neo-evolutionism explained the evolutionary process
of culture, reviving the topic of cultural evolution.
It emerged in the 1930s as a response to the The parabolic curve
dismissal of 19th-century Evolutionism by Historical
Particularists. Classical evolutionary theory-unilinear evolutionary
Neo-evolutionism differed from its predecessor by scheme
relying on measurable information and avoiding value Neo evolutionary theory- Parabolic scheme
judgments.
It provided a common ground for cross-cultural analysis 3rd stage
1. Common ownership
and regained acceptance among anthropologists by
2. Nudism
the late 1960s. 3. Sex-freedom
Postulates: 2nd stage
Human societies evolve through stages. 1. Individual ownership
2. Body covered cloth
Stages are not necessarily linear, and cultural evolution
1st stage 3. Monogamy
is multilinear.
1. Common ownership
Emphasis on cultural ecology. 2. Shortage of cloth
Use of middle-range theory to connect cultural 3. Sexual promiscuity
156 practices with ecological and historical contexts.
 Emphasis on functionalism in understanding cultural White divided culture into three components:
practices and institutions. 1. Technological
Disfavoured the idea of “psychic unity” because men 2. Sociological
were uninventive but have limitless capacity to adapt &
3. Ideological/philosophy
imitate.
White argued that the technological aspect is the basis
Methods:
of cultural evolution; technological aspect is composed of
Cross-Cultural Comparison. material, mechanical, physical and chemical instruments,
Ethnography. as well as the way people use these techniques.
Quantitative Modelling.
Historical Analysis.
Comparative Archaeology.

Leslie White’s Law of Cultural Development can be

expressed as an equation: PHILOSOPHY
C=ExT
Conditioning Determining
Where:
C = Cultural development SOCIOLOGY

E = Energy captured and utilized by the society

T = Efficiency with which the energy is utilized

According to this equation, the level of cultural TECHNOLOGY

development of a society (C) is a product of the
amount of energy that it is able to capture and utilize
(E) and the efficiency with which it can use that
energy (T). Therefore, cultural development is directly
proportional to the amount of energy captured and
utilized, and to the efficiency with which it is used.

1. Leslie White (Technological determinism): Civilization

Book:(1).” The science of Culture”-1949. (2).” The evolution (factory,
Barbarism steam engine
of culture”- 1959.
(Agriculture, etc.)
Technology is the primary driving force behind cultural Savagery plough,
evolution. (free floating pot etc)
Cultural evolution is a result of an increasing energy energy)
capture and utilization.
Example of Leslie's law of cultural development
Societies evolve from simpler to more complex forms
due to technological advancements.
Technology drives the development of cultural V. Gordon Childe “Urban Revolution”
institutions.
Technological progress creates a hierarchy of Suggested that civilization resulted from increasing
civilizations based on their level of energy capture and specialization which was made possible by technological
innovations which allowed for increased production and
utilization. the accumulation of surplus
Criticism: In the fourth millennium, the development of effective
irrigation agriculture combined with fishing and animal
Julian Steward: Ecological and environmental factors husbandry to afford the surplus necessary to support a
are also important. growing number of specialists
Marvin Harris: Theory is too deterministic and ignores accumulation of surplus was assisted by water
cultural values and beliefs. transportation, pack animals, and newly invented
wheeled vehicles
Tim Ingold: Focus on energy capture fails to account
use of irrigation restricted the areas that could be
for social and cultural factors. cultivated effectively to those near water courses and
Clifford Geertz: Culture is more complex than just canals, thus causing and aggregation of the population
technology. proposes ten criteria to distinguish the earliest cities
from any older or contemporary village

157
 2. Victor Gordon Childe (1892-1957):
Sr. Archaeological Period Cultural Development
Books: “Man Makes Himself” (1936) and “Social Evolution” No.
(1951).
1. Evolutionary Events: 1 Palaeolithic Savagery
Childe described three major events in cultural
2 Neolithic Barbarism
evolution: the invention of food production,
urbanization, and industrialization.
3 Copper Age Higher Barbarism
He analyzed the transitions and impacts of these
“revolutions” to understand the overall evolutionary 4 Early Bronze Age Civilization
process and identify common factors.
2. Stages of Cultural Development:
Childe classified cultural developments based on Gordon Childe and the Darwinian Formula in Cultural
archaeological findings into four stages. Evolution:
Childe applied the Darwinian formula to cultural
3. Evidence and Diffusion:
evolution, interpreting variation as invention,
Childe established his neo-evolutionary theory based
hereditary as learning and diffusion, and adaptation
on archaeological evidence, including tools, pottery,
and selection as cultural adaptation and choice.
and the invention of agriculture.
He aimed to identify universal laws of culture
He recognized the importance of migration and cultural
change, considering it a valuable objective.
diffusion in the prehistoric period, acknowledging the
principle of diffusion. However, it is important to note that universal laws
themselves undergo change over the course of
4. V. Gordon Childe and the Darwinian Formula in
history, emphasizing the dynamic nature of cultural
Cultural Evolution:
evolution.
Childe applied the Darwinian formula to cultural
evolution, interpreting variation as invention,
hereditary as learning and diffusion, and adaptation Unilineal and Multilinear Evolution
and selection as cultural adaptation and choice.
He aimed to identify universal laws of culture change, Models of Cultural Evolution
considering it a valuable objective. According to the Unilineal
However, it is important to note that universal laws Evolution model (Le), all
themselves undergo change over the course of history, societies go through set
emphasizing the dynamic nature of cultural evolution. stages (foraging, square;
horticulture, triangle;
Criticism: agriculture, circle).
He did not differentiate between the old hunters and
According to the Multilinear
the hunters and food gatherers of today. Evolution model, societies
He relied upon too much on the archaeological data to adopt different evolution
explain the cultural evolution. strategies according to their
He categorically rejected the idea of universal environment and techniques
of subsistence.
precedence of matriarchy, sexual communism etc.,
as argued by the classical evolutionists, without giving
much details.
3. Julian Steward (1902-1972):
Book: 1. Diffusion and independent invention (1929) 2. Anthropologists
Theory of culture change (1955). Classification of Evolutionists
Classification of evolutionists:
1. Unilinear Evolution: Unilinear Universal Multilinear
Unilinear evolutionists, such as Tylor and Morgan, Evolution Evolution Evolution
proposed a scheme of cultural evolution consisting
of three stages: savagery, barbarism, and
civilization. Savagery Cultural Typical
While they recognized patterns and processes of Stages Cultures
change in specific cases, the postulated priority of Barbarism
matriarchal categorization limited the adequacy of
Unilinear evolution. Civilization
158
 The categorization of all pre-civilized groups into
the categories of “savagery” and “barbarism” is a
notable shortcoming.
2. Universal Evolution:
• Cultural core - deals with the abilty of the
Represented by V. Gordon Childe and Leslie White,
culture to survive (technology, knowledge,
universal evolution relates cultural stages to the labor, and family organization used to collect
overall culture of humanity. resources from the environment)
It disregards distinctive cultural traditions, local • Cultures in similar environments may have
variations, and culture areas that have developed as similar adaptations
a result of specific environments. • All adaptations are short-lived and
constantly adjust to local conditions
3. Multilinear Evolution:
• Cultural changes were due to changing
Multilinear evolution examines how societies adapt environmental conditions.
to their environment and goes beyond the unilinear
approach.
Julian Steward proposed analyzing typical, common
cultures representative of specific eras or regions,
considering technology, economics, and factors like
political systems, ideologies, and religion.
The multilinearity of the theory acknowledges that Contingent
Features
multiple factors drive the evolution of a society in
different directions simultaneously. Law
Redistribution
Cultural Ecology Model by Julian Steward: Primary
Features
Storage Tenure
Julian Steward proposed a cultural ecology model
Practices
for making systematic cross-cultural generalizations. Environment Institutions
The model analyses the interrelationship between
Division of
technology and environment to identify the Production labour
CULTURE
evolutionary important portion of a socio-cultural
system, called the culture core.
Not all features of a habitat and ecology are relevant Technology
to a socio-cultural system, and not all aspects of a Exchange
socio-cultural system are equally affected by man-
environment interaction. Language

Procedures of the Cultural Ecology Model: Symbols

Analysis of the interrelationship between technology
Myth Morals
and environment.
Analysis of the behaviour patterns involved in the
exploitation of a particular area using a specific
technology.
Analysis of how the behaviour patterns in the culture
core affect other aspects of culture. CLIFF NOTE
Weaknesses of Steward’s Scheme:
Unexplained concept of Multilinear evolutionism, as
the question of “how many is Multilinear” remains
unanswered.
Similarity of the culture core concept to Marxism
and its inherent confusion.
Criticism by Leslie White for confusing history with
evolution, as history deals with particulars while
evolution seeks to generalize.
Marvin Harris criticized the spurious nature of
cultural ecology and labelled it as the “core of
confusion.”
4. Sahlin & Service:
159
 Specific and General Evolution: TRAIT
Marsha D. Sahlins and Elman Service developed DIFFUSION
FROM OTHER
the concepts of Specific and General Evolution to SOCIETIES
reconcile Leslie White’s and Julian Steward’s views.
General Cultural Evolution:
Refers to the successive emergence of new levels of
all-around development. LANGUAGE ART

It is based on the amount of energy captured

and the progression from lower to higher levels of
RELIGION VALUES
organization.
Changes in the complexity and organization of
cultural forms result from changes in the amount of
SOCIOPOLITICAL
energy captured. SYSTEM
General evolution views culture as a closed system,
independent of particular and historic contexts. ECONOMIC
POPULATION
PATTERNS ORGANIZATION
Specific Cultural Evolution:
Specific Cultural Evolution is the historical sequence
of particular cultures and their lines of development.
EXPLOITATIVE
It is based on the efficiency of energy capture specific TECHNOLOGY
to each culture.
A particular culture may be less complex in the
general evolutionary scheme but may be the best
adapted to its environment.
ECOLOGICAL
Simultaneous Directions of Evolution: INFLUENCES
Evolution moves simultaneously in two directions:
Diversity: It creates diversity through adaptive The Model of Cultural Ecology
modifications.
Progress: Higher forms surpass lower ones, Specific
Specific
generating progress. Specific Evolution
Evolution
Evolution

l-2
e
Lev

CLIFF NOTE

Evolution of Culture
General Evolution (level 1)

Specific Specific Specific

Evolution Evolution Evolution

Specific & General Evolution

160
 Difference between Classical Evolutionism and Neo Evolutionism
Criteria Classical Evolutionism Neo-Evolutionism

Developed in the 19th century by scholars Developed in the 20th century by scholars
Background of such as Tylor, Morgan, and Spencer. such as L. White, J.Steward, Sahlin &
Development Service, M. Harris.

Tylor: Developed the concept of cultural White: Developed the concept of energy as
evolution and proposed a three-stage model the driving force of cultural evolution.
of development (savagery, barbarism, and Steward: Developed the concept of cultural
civilization). ecology and argued that societies adapt
Morgan: Developed the concept of kinship to their environment through a process
and proposed a seven-stage model of of cultural evolution. Harris: Applied the
Specific Works development (lower, middle, and upper concept of materialism to cultural evolution
savagery, lower, middle, and upper barbarism, and argued that the material conditions of
and civilization). Spencer: Applied the life are the primary determinants of cultural
concept of evolution to society and argued change.
that societies progress through a series of
stages from simple to complex.

Used a comparative approach, comparing Used a more holistic approach, considering a

different cultures to identify patterns of wider range of factors, such as environment,
Methods and Methodology development. technology, economics, and ecology, to
explain cultural change.

Proposed a unilinear model of evolution. Proposed a multilinear model of evolution.

Types of Evolution

Did not accept the diffusion of traits, arguing Accepted the diffusion of traits, arguing that
that all cultures developed independently. cultures can borrow ideas and technologies
Acceptance of Diffusion from each other.

Emphasized the development of cultural Placed greater emphasis on the processes

traits and social institutions. of cultural change and adaptation.
Focus on Cultural Evolution

Believed that cultural development was Acknowledged environmental factors but

Environmental influenced by the environment. also focused on social, economic, and
Determinism ecological factors.

Less emphasis on the interrelationship Emphasized the interplay and integration of

between different cultural traits. different cultural traits.
Concept of Cultural
Integration

Relatively simplistic in its approach. More complex and sophisticated than

classical evolutionism.
Complexity

161
 Content Value Addition
Historical particularism (Boas) Diffusionism
(British, German and American) Historical Particularism
1. Historical Particularism/Historicism: Franz Boas
Background: 1920s
Each society has a unique history
Developed as an alternative to worldwide theories of
and one should not assume universal
socio-cultural development.
laws govern their history or how
Rejected the grand models and theories of cultural they operate.
development advocated by evolutionists and
Focuses directly on an event itself
diffusionists.
and accounts for this event by tying
Leading Anthropologists: it in someway to environmental and
Franz Boas and his contemporaries, including Alfred historical factors that could explain
L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Robert Lowie, Paul, and the creation of the cultural variables.
Edward Sapir.
Methodology:
Emphasized detailed regional studies and the
collection of ethnographic data on individual cultures. Diffusionists Particularism Historicism
Studied the particulars of specific cultures to identify
the distribution of cultural traits and understand
cultural change processes.
Data Collection and Analysis: Boas + Fieldwork
Gathered as much data as possible about individual
• Studied language and culture among Native Americans
cultures before making assumptions or interpretations. esp. Kwakiutl of North Pacific coast
Used methods such as participant observation, oral • New York Columbia University... many influential
history, and ethnographic recording. students e.g Mead and Benedict
Stressed the importance of the four-field method of • Boas and students took criticised Unilinear Evolutionism,
anthropology, incorporating linguistic evidence. particularly idea of preordained evolutionary path
Types of Development:
Reconstructed the history of individual cultures by
piecing together detailed data from multiple cultures British School of German School of American School
Diffusion Diffusion of Diffmin
within a region.
Identified borrowed or invented culture traits through
G.E.Smith F.Ratzel Franz Boas
meticulous study.
Developed theories of cultural development based on a F.Graebner Clark Wissler
W.J. Perry
multitude of synchronic studies.
Acceptance of Diffusion: W.H.R. Rivers F.W.Smith A.L. Kroeber
Acknowledged the influence of stimuli on cultural
development and the potential for diffusion of traits. L. Frobenius
Accomplishments:
Shifted anthropology’s focus from grand theories to
diverse cultural expressions and regional studies.
Emphasized the interplay of countless factors Someone has
Other regions
influencing culture and cultural change. an Idea CULTURAL
Begin to use
Generated vast amounts of data that became valuable that helps his DIFFUSION the Idea
resources for subsequent studies. region
Criticism:
Criticized for the extensive collection of data without People
clear theoretical frameworks. travel and
share this
2. Diffusionism: Idea
Refers to the transmission of cultural characteristics
162 or traits from one society to others.
 Criticized the evolutionary idea of Psychic unity of
mankind. METHODS OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION
Believed inventions occurred once and were then
diffused to other places through imitation.
DIRECT DIFFUSION
Opposed the notion of progress from simple to complex
forms. 01 Direct contact between two cultures i.e.
trade, intermarriage, warfare.
Viewed primitive and modern as relative, making the
comparative method inapplicable.
History of Diffusionism Approach:
Developed by British and German-Austrian schools in FORCED DIFFUSION/
the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Diffusionists believed high civilization emerged in
02 EXPANSION DIFFUSION
One culture defeats another and forces its
beliefs customs on the conquered group.
cultural centres and spread outward.
Diffusion played a role in understanding how societies
change through the spread of culture traits.
Diffusionism was ethnocentric and only part of a INDIRECT DIFFUSION
comprehensive analysis of world cultures.
Holistic Approach:
03 Culture spread through middleman or
another culture.
A more comprehensive approach emerged,
incorporating diffusionism and opposing evolutionism.
Focuses on understanding the overall picture of
cultural change and adaptation.
Anthropological theories and approaches evolve and CULTURAL DIFFUSION
change over time. Barriers To Diffusion
Testing theories through anthropological research
enhances understanding of the world.
School of Diffusionism:
Physical Barriers in nature
1. British School of Diffusion (G. Elliott Smith, William 1 rivers, oceans, lakes and mountain
J. Perry, W. H. R. Rivers):
ranges.
G. Elliott Smith and William J. Perry:
considered “extreme diffusionalists” within the British
School.
Book: Smith & Perry - “The Diffusion of Culture” (1927)
and “The Origin of Civilizations.”
Smith studied the anatomy of mummies in Egypt Cultural
and observed the complexities of mummification Religious beliefs, Language,
procedures, leading him to believe it was an invention 2 Impedes the easy flow of idea and fads
from the united states and
unique to the Egyptians.
He linked mummification to other cultural traits such as English-speaking Canada to French
the construction of pyramids and stone monuments Canadians
(Megalithic). Seeing stone monuments in England,
he assumed them as prototypes of Egyptian culture,
cantered around the “sun worship belief system
complex.”
Smith aimed to support his hypothesis of a sun worship
belief culture complex and is considered part of the Political Boundary
can Impede or slow down the
heliocentric or pan-Egyptian school of thought. 3 dissemination of disease
He found evidence of similar cultural traits to the
Egyptians around the world, such as Mayan pyramids.
W. H. R. Rivers:
W. H. R. Rivers presented a more moderate diffusionalist
perspective.
163
Economic Factors
People in certain places cannot afford
4 to purchase a new commodity or
 3 dissemination of disease

Book: W. H. R. Rivers - “The History of Melanesian

Society” (1914) and his work on mortuary rituals among Economic Factors
the Todas and Australian aboriginals. People in certain places cannot afford
He employed the genealogical method and studied the 4 to purchase a new commodity or
Todas of Nilgiri Hills in 1906, focusing on their mortuary technological innovation
rituals.
He also examined mortuary rituals among Australian
aboriginals, including burial, cremation, and the
placement of corpses on platforms.
Rivers’ work contributed to the understanding of PYRAMID STRUCTURES AROUND
cultural diffusion and its impact on specific cultural THE WORLD
practices.
German School of Diffusion (Cultural Historical
School or Kulturkreise):
Methodology: The German School focused on
distinguishing cultural similarities based on functional Ziggurat of Tepe Sialk Pyramid of Djoser Pyramid of Khufu
Kashan, Iran 3000 BCE Memphis, Egypt - 2610 BCE El Giza, Egypt-2560 BCE
reasons and historical contact. They looked for
functional similarities based on function or form.
Friedrich Ratzel noted that while the use of bows and
arrows existed in other places, Africa and Australia
exhibited similarities in terms of specific materials
used, such as feathers from a particular bird and their Chogha Zanbil (Ziggurat) Tomb of King Kashta Qin Shi Mausoleum
Khuzestan, Iran - 1250 BCE Meroe, Nubia - 500 BCE Xi'an, China-210 BCE
arrangement. These similarities were attributed to
historical contact due to migration.
Inspired by Friedrich Ratzel, Fritz Graebner and Father
Wilhelm Schmidt led the German-Austrian diffusionist
school in the early 20th century. Tomb of the General City Borobudur Temple Prang Temple
City of Ji'an, China - 300 CE Java, Indonesia - 800 CE Kol Ker, Cambodia-940 CE
The German School proposed the existence and
diffusion of several different cultural complexes
(Kulturkreise) instead of assuming that all cultural
traits originated in one place and spread throughout
the world.
Ziggurat of Ur Pyramid of the Sun El Castillo
However, the German School provided little City of Ur, Iraq-2100 BCE Teotihuacan, Mexico-100 CE Chichen Itza, Mexico-1000 CE

documentation for the historical relationships it

assumed, and its viewpoint has been completely
abandoned. Criteria of Diffusion Proposed by Ratzel and
American School of Diffusion (led by Clark Wissler Frobenius:
and Alfred Kroeber): 1. Criterion of Form (Ratzel):
1. Influence of German School: Similarities between cultural elements not related
Franz Boas, born and educated in Germany, laid the to nature, material, or purpose indicate diffusion.
foundation of the American school of diffusion. Ratzel examined bow and arrow design in Africa
Boas’s ideas were influenced by the German school of and Australia as an example.
diffusion. Similarities attributed to historical contact and
diffusion, rather than functional reasons.
Each cultural group has its own independent
development and influences from others. Psychological makeup of people in different regions
also influences cultural similarities.
Culture is shaped by geography, climate, environment,
resources, and borrowings. 2. Criterion of Quantity (Frobenius):
2. Culture Area Concept: Proposed by Leo Frobenius, a student of Ratzel.
American diffusionists proposed the concept of Diffusion identified when multiple similar traits are
“culture area.” found between cultures.
Example: Bow and arrow similarities accompanied
Culture area refers to a geographical space where
by other cultural traits like house types, shields,
similar cultures are found.
masks, clothing, and drums.
Mapping the distribution of cultural traits in culture
164
 areas helps explain similarities and differences between
cultures. Understanding the Concepts:
Clark Wissler identified eight culture areas based on Culture Area: A culture area refers to a geographical
region where similar cultural traits and practices
subsistence patterns and other factors.
are found among different societies or ethnic
3. Age-Area Hypothesis: groups. These cultural similarities can include
language, customs, technologies, and social
Clark Wissler proposed the age-area hypothesis. organization. Culture areas are defined based
The wider the distribution of a cultural trait around a on patterns of cultural diffusion and interaction
culture center, the older the trait is considered. within a specific geographic space. For example,
Edward Sapir cautioned against assuming the point of the Native American cultures of the Great Plains
origin based solely on the age-area hypothesis. shared common features such as buffalo hunting,
tipi dwellings, and warrior societies, which defined
4. Culture Climax: the Plains culture area.
Alfred Louis Kroeber suggested using the term “culture Culture Climax: Culture climax refers to the point
climax” instead of culture area. within a culture area where the greatest radiation
Culture climax refers to the point where the greatest of cultural material has taken place. It represents
radiation of cultural material has taken place. the highest level of cultural development and
complexity within a specific region. Cultures at
Cultures become richer and more differentiated as the climax stage are typically characterized by
they develop religious hierarchies, norms, and customs. advanced social, political, economic, and religious
systems. For example, the Maya civilization in
Mesoamerica reached a culture climax with its
CLIFF NOTE monumental architecture, sophisticated calendar
system, hieroglyphic writing, and complex social
hierarchy.
Age-Area Hypothesis: The age-area hypothesis
suggests that the wider the distribution of a cultural
trait around a culture center, the older the trait is
considered to be. It assumes that cultural traits
spread outward from their point of origin, and the
extent of their distribution indicates their relative
age. For example, if a particular pottery style is
found in a wide area around a central region, it is
assumed to be older than a pottery style found
in a smaller area. The age-area hypothesis helps
archaeologists and anthropologists understand
the historical development and diffusion of
cultural traits.

Cultural and
natural
areas of
Native North
ARCTIC
America
NORTHWEST (1939)
COAST
SUBARCTIC

PLAINS
PLATEAU

BASIN
PRAIRIE EASTERN
WOODLANDS
CALIFORNIA

BAJA
CALIFORNIA N-E
MEXICO
SOUTHWEST

NATIVE NORTH AMERICA: MESOAMERICA

CULTURE AREAS
165
 Anthropologist Diffusionist School Important Works and Summary
Contributions

G. Elliott Smith British School “The Megalithic culture Believed that higher civilization was developed in Egypt
of Indonesia (1918)” and diffused throughout the world as other cultures
came into contact with the Egyptians. Emphasized
the uninventiveness of people and their preference for
borrowing ideas from other cultures.
William J. Perry British School “The Diffusion of Shared similar views with G. Elliott Smith regarding
Culture” (1927) the diffusion of cultural traits from Egypt. Believed
that people are inherently uninventive and prefer to
borrow from other cultures rather than develop ideas
themselves.
W. H. R. Rivers British School “The History of Developed the genealogical method and studied
Melanesian Society” mortuary rituals among the Todas of Nilgiri Hills
(1914) and Australian aboriginals. Contributed to the
understanding of cultural diffusion through studying
cultural practices across societies.
Friedrich Ratzel German School “The History of Introduced the concept of cultural circles
Mankind” (1885) (Kulturkreise) and emphasized distinguishing cultural
similarities based on functional reasons and historical
contact. Noted the similarities in material culture
between Africa and Australia due to historical migration.
Fritz Graebner German School “The Culture Circle” Expanded on the concept of cultural circles and
(1909) proposed the diffusion of several different cultural
complexes. Focused on the uninventiveness of people
and their tendency to borrow from other cultures.

Father Wilhelm German School “The origin and growth Worked alongside Fritz Graebner and emphasized the
Schmidt of Religion (1931)“ diffusion of cultural complexes and the borrowing of
cultural traits. Focused on historical contact as a key
factor in cultural diffusion.
Clark Wissler American School “The American Indian: Developed the age-area principle, suggesting that
An Introduction to the widely distributed cultural traits around a culture center
Anthropology of the are the oldest. Focused on attributing characteristic
New World” (1917) features of culture areas to geographical culture
centers.
Alfred Kroeber American School “Anthropology” (1923) Worked on cultural anthropology and emphasized the
importance of understanding cultures within their
unique geographic and historical contexts. Critiqued
diffusionism and advocated for cultural relativism.

CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

166
 Content Value Addition

Functionalism (Malinowski); Structural—

Functionlism (Radcliffe-Brown), Structuralism Theorist Cultural Responses
(Levi Strauss) August Comte Father of Positivism, introduced
social statistics and dynamics
Functionalism :
Definition: Functionalism is a theoretical orientation Bronislaw Founding father of British social
that examines the functions and roles played by various Malinowski anthropology
aspects of culture in maintaining a social system. Emile Durkheim Emphasized societal equilibrium and
Society as a System: Functionalism views society as role of social institutions
a system in which different parts work together to A.R. Radcliffe- Founding father of functionalism and
promote solidarity and stability. Brown structural-functional approach
Inter-relationship of Parts: Functionalism considers E.E. Evans- Notable anthropologist, initially
the interrelationship and interdependence of various Pritchard followed functionalism
parts of society, such as norms, traditions, customs,
and institutions (economy, kinship, religion). Sir Raymond Distinguished social and economic
Firth anthropologist
Analogies between Social Life and Organic Life:
Sir Edmund Influential anthropologist, shifted
1. Society as an Organism: Leach approaches throughout career
Propounded by Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
Lucy Mair Focused on social organization and
Compares society to an organism, highlighting advocated for applied anthropology
interdependence and functioning of different parts.
Talcott Parsons Contributed to structural-
Recognizes the phenomenon of Dysfunction, dealing functionalism and action systems
with the efficiency of functions performed by an
organism. Robert Merton Stressed importance of empirical
research, developed middle-range
Greek society distinguished between two conditions:
theories
Eunomia: Refers to good social order and social
health.
Dysnomia: Refers to ill social health. Cell Tissue Organ Organism
Emile Durkheim applied the notion of function to find
a basis for social pathology. Individual Group Community Society
2. Society as a Mode of Communication or Information
Transfer:
Views society as a mode of communication or
transferring information. Main School of
Functionalism
3. Society as a Dramatic Metaphor:
Suggests that society can be metaphorically viewed as
a dramatic representation.
(a) Malinowski’s Functionalism:
1. Integrated and Interrelated Customs and Institutions:
Radcliffe-Brown's
Malinowski believed that all customs and institutions in Malinowski's structural-
a society are integrated and interrelated. Functionalism functional
Changes in one aspect of society would lead to Approach
changes in other aspects.
Ethnography could start from any part of a society but
would eventually encompass the entire culture.
For example, studying Trobriand fishing could lead to Functionalism, as defined by Malinowski, involves
examining the economic system, magic, religion, trade, “the transformation of individual organic needs into
and kinship as interconnected institutions. cultural necessities and imperatives”. Within the
2. Needs Functionalism(Theory of Need): functional approach, it is the responsibility of the
researcher to identify the specific purposes served
Malinowski’s second strand of functionalism is known
by cultural elements within a cohesive framework.
as “needs functionalism.”
167
 Basic Needs Cultural Responses Through functional analysis of culture, we come to
understand that it is a product of human creation and
1. Metabolism Commissariat serves as a medium for achieving desired outcomes.
Culture should be seen as a tool or instrument for
2. Reproduction Kinship attaining specific objectives.

3. Bodily comfort Shelter

Impulse Act Satisfaction
4. Safety Protection 1. Drive to breathe Intake of Elimination of
oxygen CO2 in tissues
5. Movement Activities
2. Hunger Ingestion of Satiation
6. Growth Training food
3. Thirst Absorption of Quenching
7. Growth Hygiene liquid

4. Sex appetite Conjugation Detumescence

He proposed that humans have universal biological
needs, and customs and institutions are developed to
fulfill those needs. FUNCTIONAL THEORY OF INSTITUTIONS
The function of any practice is to satisfy these biological Malinowski’s Functional Theory of Institutions explains
needs, such as food and shelter. how institutions are created and maintained. According
There are three types of human needs: to Malinowski, institutions are established in response
1. Basic Needs/Primary Needs/Biological Needs: to people’s needs and interests, and their continuity is
sustained by shared beliefs and values.
Metabolism, Reproduction etc.
The theory consists of three main components:
2. Secondary Needs: 1. Charter: The charter encompasses the beliefs
Cultural tool - production, distribution, consumption, and values that justify the existence and purpose
trade etc to fulfill basic need. of an institution. It also defines the roles and
3. Integrative Needs: responsibilities of individuals involved in the
Tradition, Values, Religion, Art, Language etc. institution.
According to Malinowski, culture fulfills these various 2. Norms: Norms are the rules that govern behavior
needs through institutions. Institutions have specific within an institution. They specify what actions are
purposes aimed at maintaining social order and considered appropriate or inappropriate within the
continuity, and they involve context of that institution.
This approach is also referred to as “bio-cultural 3. Sanctions: Sanctions refer to the rewards and
functionalism” as it emphasizes the importance of punishments used to enforce the norms within
culture in fulfilling human needs. an institution. Positive sanctions, such as praise
or recognition, and negative sanctions, such as
3. Vital Sequences and Cultural Responses
disapproval or exclusion, can be employed.
Each basic need has corresponding cultural
mechanisms or responses.
For example, the need for food is fulfilled through Charter
the cultural response of a “commissariat” (food
procurement and distribution).
Reproduction is regulated through kinship, ensuring Personel Norms
the biological continuity of society.
4. 4-Fold Sequences and Symbolic Systems:
Malinowski also explores four-fold sequences known Material Apparatus
as “instrumental imperatives” and their cultural
responses.
Activities
These sequences include economy, social control,
education, and political organization.
He further examines the role of the symbolic system, Function
including religion, magic, beliefs, and values, in culture.
168
2. Radcliffe-Brown’s structural functionalism: S.no Assumptions of Structural Functionalism
Radcliffe-Brown’s Emphasis on Social Functions:
Influenced by the French Sociological School and Emile 1 A minimal integration of its parts is necessary for
Durkheim’s ideas. society’s survival.
Social phenomena are independent of psychological 2 The concept of function pertains to processes
and biological factors. that maintain the required integration or solidarity.
Social phenomena must be explained by other social
3 Structural features in every society can be
phenomena, not individual needs.
identified as contributing to the maintenance of
Studying social phenomena’s role in maintaining necessary solidarity.
social structures is crucial.
Radcliffe-Brown’s Concept of Function: Criteria Malinowski Radcliffe -Brown
Function is the contribution an institution makes in
maintaining social structure. View on Embraced Disliked the term,
Emphasizes social structure over individual needs ‘Functionalism’ the term and seeing it as an
and cultural factors. propagated it. ideology or philosophy.
Analogy between social life and organic life to explain Organism vs. Viewed an Highlighted the
the concept of function. Society organism and continuity of society
Continuity of structure maintained despite changes in society as over time, even with
constituent units. distinct. changes.
Social Structure and Institutions:
Study of Parts Studied the Believed society’s
Social structure is an arrangement of individuals in
structure and structure and function
institutionalized roles and relationships.
function of are inseparable and
Continuity of social structure is dynamic, with changing an organism should be studied
individuals but a consistent form. separately. together.
Social institutions provide norms, patterns of behavior,
status, and roles. Concept of Considered Saw culture as a
Culture culture as a secondary aspect,
Institutions describe and shape social structure.
significant encompassed within
Methodology:. concept. the study of social
Emphasis on intensive fieldwork and participant structure.
observation.
Focus Emphasized Focused on social
Focus on studying societies in operation and functional
biological structure and
interrelationships.
needs. relationships.
Fieldwork provides valuable information for
understanding customs and institutions. System of Proposed Identified institutions
Views on Historical Analysis: Relationships that society as sets of relationships
Functionalists prioritize studying societies at a specific is maintained maintaining the
point in time or over a short period. through society as a system.
cybernetic
Limited interest in long-term histories or conjectural feedback and
reconstructions. relationships.
Reliability of information from primitive societies’ long-
Social Reality Regarded the Argued that social
term histories questioned.
social as a phenomena should
Structuralism: distinct level be explained within
The structuralist paradigm suggests that the structure of reality. the social level.
of human thought processes is the same in all
Individuals Emphasized Considered
cultures.
the role of individuals
Structuralists believe that underlying thought replaceable.
individuals.
processes are reflected in various cultural institutions.
Structuralism aims to understand the underlying
meaning in human thought as expressed in cultural
acts.
Elements of culture must be understood in terms of
their relationship to the entire system. 169
 Structuralism assumes the universality of human
thought processes. CASE STUDY
Basic Premises:
Structuralism focuses on understanding human “The Andaman Islanders: Unveiling Structural
thought for cross-cultural comparisons. Functionalism”
Social structure in structuralism refers to the This study explores A.R. Radcliffe- Brown’s
structure of human thought processes. application of the structural functionalist
Social structure is a model applied to various social approach among the Andaman Islanders.
Investigating social structure, kinship, and
Claude Levi Strauss studied hundreds of myths and religious beliefs, Radcliffe-Brown revealed the
legends all around the world, from that he found out that crucial roles played by kinship groups, division
we as humans make sense of the world, people and of labour, and rituals in maintaining social
stability and cohesion within the community.
events by seeing and using binary opposites.

Culture Reason Mind Public Society Civilised

Levi-Strauss’s major works and publications
1. The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949): In
Nature Emotion Body Private Individual Primitive this book, Levi-Strauss argued that kinship systems
can be understood in terms of the principles of
reciprocity and exchange. He showed that many
studies. marriage rules can be reduced to a few basic types.
Concept of Models in Structuralism: 2. Totemism (1962): In this book, Levi-Strauss
A structure is a model that fulfills certain criteria and argued that totems are not simply symbols of
exhibits the characteristics of a system. animals or natural objects, but are also linguistic
Mechanical models have elements on the same scale and classificatory devices that help people to
as the phenomena, while statistical models have conceptualize and organize social relationships
elements on a different scale. and groups.
Models, scales, and distinctions help analyse and 3. The Savage Mind (1962): In this book, Levi-Strauss
explain phenomena. argued that “primitive” societies do engage in a high
Concept of Models in Structuralism: level of abstract reasoning, and that their thought
is not inferior to that of “civilized” societies. He
A structure is a model that fulfills certain criteria and showed how each culture has its own system of
exhibits the characteristics of a system. concepts and categories, and how these systems
Mechanical models have elements on the same scale are used to make sense of the world.
as the phenomena, while statistical models have
elements on a different scale.
Models, scales, and distinctions help analyse and Edmund leach’s Contribution in structuralism
explain phenomena.
Background Graduated with a first in mechanical
Methodology: science from Clare College in 1932.
Structures in structuralism are models with formal Spent four years working with a trading
properties that can be compared independently. firm in China, fuelling his interest in
other cultures. Obtained his PhD at the
Structural studies aim to identify and isolate levels of London School of Economics in 1947.
reality using ideal types and statistical models. Conducted fieldwork in various locations
The aim of anthropology is to construct mechanical in Asia.
models, while sociology and history focus on statistical
Major Works 1. Political Systems of Highland Burma: A
models. Study of Kachin Social Structure (1954)
and Contri-
Criticism: butions 2. Pul Eliya: A Village in Ceylon (1961)
Structural explanations are criticized for being Contributions to Structuralism and
imprecise and dependent on the observer. Critique of Levi-Strauss
Structuralism focuses on the structure of human “Political Examined political systems in Highland
psyche and lacks historical aspects or consideration Systems of Burma and introduced the notion of
of cultural change. Highland verbal categories. Criticized Radcliffe
Structuralism is criticized for not addressing human Burma” Brown and his successors for
(1954) constructing typologies directly from
individuality and depicting human thought as uniform
ethnographic data.
170 and invariable.
Structural analysis lacks external validation and cannot “Pul Eliya: Provided a meticulous cataloguing
be subjected to scientific scrutiny. A Village of land tenure holdings and kinship
in Ceylon” systems in a Ceylonese village. Shifted
(1961) social theory from descent group to
alliance theory. Revealed the socio-
religious feudal structure of the Kandyan
CLIFF NOTE kingdom.
Contribu- Key interpreter of Claude Levi-
tions to Strauss’s structuralism. Critiqued
Structur- Levi-Strauss’s analysis of Burmese
alism and kinship data. Insisted on an empirical
Critique basis for structuralist generalizations.
Emphasized understanding similarities

CASE STUDY

“Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study

of Kachin Social Structure”­ sions: Lessons
from Trobriand Islanders
It is an ethnographic study by Edmund
Leach, focusing on the Kachin people in
the highlands of Burma.
The book presents a cyclical pattern
of political change in Kachin society,
alternating between two systems: gumsa,
characterized by hierarchy and hereditary
chiefs, and gumlao, an egalitarian system
without chiefs.
Leach argues that shifts between these
systems are driven by changes in the
Kachin economy and political landscape.
The study’s findings have had a significant
impact on anthropological theory, providing
insights into political change beyond the
Kachin context.

CLIFF NOTE

171
 Culture and Personality School
Culture and personality:
Introduction:
The study of culture and personality is a branch of psychological anthropology that examines the relationship between
culture and individual personality.
It originated with Edward Sapir, influenced by German Gestalt psychologists, who emphasized organized patterns of
perception.
Sapir argued that culture should be understood as a personality organization, not just a set of behaviours.
Main Themes:
1. Correlation between Culture and Individual Personality: Two main themes of
Culture and personality studies aim to determine the range theoretical school
of personality types within a given culture and understand
the cultural influences on individual behaviours.
The development of individual personalities is seen as The relationship Correlation between
shaped by cultural practices, particularly child-rearing between culture and culture and individual
customs. human nature personality
2. Relationship between Culture and Human Nature:
Theoretical school explores how cultural norms and values shape human nature and behavior.
It emphasizes the cultural moulding of personality and the impact of socialization on individual development.
Basic Premises:
1. The cultural practices observed among individuals reflect their unique personalities.
2. Variances in people’s personalities can be attributed to differences in their respective cultures. Culture significantly
influences the development of personality traits in individuals.
3. The primary focus of the culture-personality school is to explore the interconnectedness between culture and personality.
4. It involves studying how culture manifests itself in the individual members’ personalities.
Criticism:
1. Failure to Demonstrate the Process: Culture determining personality and Disregard for Historical Analysis.
2. Unexplained Cultural Choice: Benedict’s assumption of cultural choice without explaining why societies choose specific
options.
3. Risks of Generalization: Applying individual personality
attributes to characterize entire cultures, as seen in Schools of thought
national character studies.
4. Contradictory Findings: Derek Freeman’s contradiction
of Mead’s findings in the Samoan study, highlighting Personality Culture Affects Both Culture and
discrepancies in male-female relationships. Affect Culture Personality Personality Affect
5. Critique of Generalizations: Marvin Harris’ critique of (Ruth Benedict) (Margaret Mead) each other
Mead’s generalizations about the emotions of Samoan girls.
6. Narrow Focus: Morris Opler’s criticism of the
configurationalist approach for its narrow focus on cultural
integration bases. Abram Kardiner Cora-Dubois
Ralph Linton
(Basic (Modal
7. Inadequacy of Basic Personality Structure Theory: (Basic Culture)
Personality) Personality)
Inadequacy in explaining personality trait variations in small
societies.

172
(A) Ruth Benedict(1887-1948):
Student of Franz Boas, influential anthropologist.
Documented the deteriorating Native American
societies in her PhD dissertation, leading to the study Personality
of culture and personality.
Introduced the concept of studying human culture in
terms of “pattern” rather than social content.
Book: “Patterns of Culture” (1934), a classic work in
anthropology.
Culture and Personality:
Benedict argued that patterns of culture emerge and
are reflected in the behavior of individuals within a
Child Culture
group.
Rearing
Basic institutions mirror the overall pattern of a culture.
Identified two types of geniuses in human society:
Apollonian and Dionysian.
Apollonian pattern characterized by peace, discipline,
and kindness, while Dionysian pattern characterized "Culture is Personality writ large"
by change and aggressiveness.
These geniuses shape the personality of group
members, influencing cultural characteristics. CULTURE
Cross-Cultural Studies: Levels of Culture
Fieldwork conducted among Zuni, Cochiti, and Pima
1. Culture traits:
tribes in America. individual tool, act,
Described different societies in terms of their basic or belief related to a
personality configurations. particular need
Zuni Society(Apollonian): 2. Cultural complexes:
Cooperative and non-excessive cluster of
in all aspects of life, emphasizing interrelated traits
group harmony and downplaying
individual superiority.
3. Culture patterns: combination
of a number of culture
Child training suppressed complexes into an interrelated
individuality, initiation whole
ceremonies lacked ordeal and
occurred in a group setting,
marriage was relatively casual, the fundamental
leadership was ignored personality characteristics
unique cultural of the people who grow
whenever possible, and death culture pattern configuration up in this culture are
was not accompanied by determine by its cultural
extensive mourning. configuration.
Kwakiutl Society(Dionysian):
Frenzied outlook with excess
being the norm, emphasizing
individual achievement over
group cooperation.
Child rearing practices
encouraged individualism,
initiation ceremonies involved
personal relationships with
the supernatural, marriage
entailed elaborate celebrations,
leadership involved constant power struggles, and
death rituals involved extensive mourning.
173
 (B) Margaret Mead METHODOLOGY OF NATIONAL CHARACTER STUDY:
Student of Boas Anthropologists have employed the psychological concepts
Anthropo psychological approach such as conditioned stimuli and responses, drives, rewards,
punishments, conflicts, dreams, ego systems, id impulses,
attitudes, values, cognitive orientations, ideas, etc.
NATIONAL CHARACTER STUDY:
Following the development of culture-Personality Key points:
school, many anthropologists attempted to study Cultural Description Precedes Analysis: According
the national characters (representative personality to Mead, the study of national character should
types) across cultures. precede any analysis. Technology, economics, social
organization, art, religion, language-all the usually noted
National character studies are a type of culture-
aspects of a culture should be described with sufficient
personality research that focus on identifying
economy and precision so that the culture scene within
regularities of psychological processes within
which the character factors operate may be known.
specific national groups. These studies attempt to
understand how shared institutions and cultural Analysis of Processes and mapping regularities: Once
factors contribute to the character traits found the culture is described then we may focus on the
among members of a nation. processes. National character studies attempt to map
regularities of psychological process, as of emotion,
The origins of national character studies are motivation, and learning, which are characteristic of
intimately linked to the exigencies of World War specified groups. The focus is on identifying patterns
II. The United States’ entry into the war created a of character among members of a national group that
demand for understanding enemy cultures, allied can be attributed to factors of shared nationality.
cultures, and the American national character itself,
Consideration of historical context:- The study of
all for the purpose of informing wartime strategy
national character requires considering the historical
and morale
context of personality development, acknowledging
Few National character studies: that culture is not directly presented to and learned by
Mead:- Mead also wrote about national character. the individual at any point in the socialization process.
Hired in World War II by the Office of Strategic Use of statistical technique:- While anthropologists
Services (OSS), Mead researched the national may focus on delineating patterns, they must use
character of England and compared it to that of statistical techniques to assess the validity of these
USA.   She determined that in each society the norms patterns.
for interaction between the sexes differed, leading to Interdisciplinary Collaboration: National character
many misunderstandings between the two otherwise studies can benefit from interdisciplinary collaboration.
similar cultures. Teamwork allows for cross-stimulation and a deeper
In her well-known book ‘Coming of Age in Samoa’, understanding of the interplay between culture and
based on nine months intensive fieldwork, she personality.
compared Samoan with American adolescent girls.
She hypothesized that the stresses related to Criticism of methodology:
puberty in girls were culturally and not biologically Reliance of secondary sources: To study Japanese
determined, as her study showed such stresses national character, Ruth Benedict gathered material
were mainly associated with American adolescents from historical documents, literature readings of
whereas the Samoan adolescents had relatively an Japanese life and interviews of Japanese immigrants.
easy transition into sexual maturation. After going through all these data properly, she analysed
In “Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive and arrived at many significant conclusions about the
Societies” (1935)”, Mead compared three cultures Japanese society. To study culture at a distance it was
(Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli) to explore first of its kind in the anthropological research.
the impact of culture on personality and showed Issue of Sampling: One of the most significant
how cultural practices shape personality traits in challenges is the sampling of individuals within a nation.
different societies. The size and complexity of national groups make it
difficult to obtain representative samples.
In her study ‘Keep Your Powder Dry: An
Anthropologist Looks at America (1942)’, she dealt Risky Generalisations:- Applying individual personality
with the national character of America. She did attributes to characterise whole cultures in national
not find difference in the personality of a baby in character studies is considered to be risky. For
America as compared to Japan and Russia. Thus, example, Freeman strongly criticised whose findings
the early personality was similar. They gradually are completely contradictory to those of Meads. In
start differing as the growth follows and family her Samoan study while Mead found the girls carefree
education and school education become effective. about sexual experimentation whereas Freeman found
a strict virginity complex among them.
174
 Benedict:- In “The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Issues with background theory:- psychology has not
Patterns of Japanese Behaviour (1946)”, Benedict yet provided a solid and consistent framework for
used ‘Content Analysis method’ to study a culture understanding personality. This creates challenges for
from distance and concluded that Japanese culture anthropologists who seek to integrate psychological
employs two distinct methods of child-rearing: theory into their national character studies.
nurturing with love and care during childhood Issue of biases:- National character studies, particularly
(symbolised by Chrysanthemum) and strict discipline those focused on wartime strategy, risked reinforcing
and demand for adherence to cultural traditions during ethnocentric biases and justifying colonial and imperial
adolescence. As adolescents, they face a tougher life, power structures. For near-correct generalisations,
are expected to be independent, and often become anthropologists should conduct their research
aggressive due to a lack of elder support, symbolized independently of political pressures. Dante Moreira
by the Sword. Benedict argues that the Japanese are a Leite’s work, O Carater Nacional Brasileiro, argues that
people of contradictions. They are peaceful and warlike, national character theories can function as a form of
cooperative and individualistic, humble and proud. This ideology that masks underlying political and economic
duality is at the heart of Japanese culture. realities.
Geoffrey Gorer:- In “The People of Great Russia: A
Psychological Study” (1949)”, Gorer linked childrearing Gender Consciousness
practices with adult personality using a Neo-Freudian • Theory: Gender roles differ in different societies, they
approach. Russian technique of swaddling their depend on the type of culture that is present.
infants led them to develop personalities that are cold
• Today, individuals are influenced by their culture as they are
and distant.
told that there is an ideal message that men and women are
However, interest in studying national character suppose to do a certain task, while in a different culture, it
declined after the 1950s. may be considered to be the opposite and may lead to bad
impressions from another cultures perspective.
(C) Ralph Linton:
Book: Culture Background of Personality:1945 Child Development
Basic Personality Structure Theory: • Children learn from what they see.
Co-founder of the basic personality structure • Theory: Behavior and personality can be improved and
theory with Kardiner. that they are the result of the influences in the society.
Sought to establish a basic personality for each Today, children learn based on what they see daily.
culture. •
whether it is good or terrible, they still do it because in
Argued that individuals acquire a common set of some scenarios, children want to fit in and are forced to do
habits, forming a basic personality of the society. things that they do not agree with. Children nowadays are
Types of Culture and Status: mostly influenced by their peers as there is a major
improvement to technology. This is due to media. Their
Identified three types of culture: real culture, ideal culture,
human behavior can change depending on the people they
and culture construct. spend time with or due to the several stereotypes that
Real culture represents the actual behavior of media portrays in society.
society members in specific situations.
Ideal culture is formed by philosophical traditions
and includes cultural traits regarded as ideals.
Culture construct refers to our understanding
and study of culture as an abstraction from actual CLIFF NOTE
human behavior.
Introduced the concept of overt and covert culture.
Overt culture includes visible, explicit aspects of
culture.
Covert culture encompasses underlying, implicit
aspects of culture.
Role of Status and Social Inventors:
Explored the different types of roles played by
individuals in society.
Distinguished between ascribed and achieved roles.
Ascribed roles are obtained through birth or
inherited characteristics.
Achieved roles require effort and qualification. 175
 Coined the term “social inventors” for individuals
who deviate from traditional norms, imitate new Primary Secondary
Basic
behaviours, or make new discoveries. Institutions Institutions
Personality
Core-Periphery Hypothesis: Childrearing mediates Religious beliefs,
practices between taboo systems,
Core represents dominant cultural norms, values, that influence rituals, folktales
Primary and
and behaviours. personality: Secondary that influence
Periphery refers to marginal groups or subcultures discipline, Institutions primary
nurturance, etc. institutions.
with distinct cultural traits.
Core culture reflects mainstream patterns, while
periphery culture showcases alternative expressions.

(D) Abram Kardiner(Basic Personality): Basic Personality Structure

Adult personality characteristics that are
Book: “The Psychological Frontier of society”-1945 projected into secondary institutions.
Basic Personality Type:
Developed the concept of “basic personality type”
along with Ralph Linton.
Basic personality type refers to a collection of Female
Drought Limited Food
fundamental personality traits shared by normal Infanticide
members of a society, acquired through cultural
adaptation.
Argued that childhood experiences and common But results Check
childrearing procedures in a society contribute to the Polyandry in more men Population
than women Growth
formation of basic personality traits.
Basic personality type exists within the context
of primary cultural institutions such as kinship,
Women give leads to Demonification
childrearing, sexuality, and subsistence. less time to shared hatred of women in
Secondary cultural institutions, including religion, children for women folklores etc.
rituals, and norms, shape the expression of the basic
personality structure. Marquesas of Polynesia: Basic Personality Formation
Psychological Testing and Research Methods:
Kardiner utilized psychological tests such as the
Rorschach or “ink-blot” test and the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) to gather data. CLIFF NOTE
The TAT involved presenting respondents with
pictures and asking them to explain or describe the
images.
Psychological testing was combined with observation
of behavior frequencies, collection of life histories, and
analysis of oral literature.
These research methods aimed to uncover and
understand the relationship between culture and
personality.

(E) Cora Du Bois(Modal Personality): Concept of Basic Personality

Data Collection and Analysis: Basic personality, as defined by Abram Kardiner, is a
Cora Du Bois conducted fieldwork on Alor Island in the set of fundamental traits shared by individuals within
Dutch East Indies. a society.
Collected ethnographic and psychological data through
various methods. Concept of Modal Personality
Used projective tests such as Rorschach and Modal personality refers to the most frequent type
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). of patterned individual behavior observed within a
Gathered information on child-rearing practices, life culturally bounded population. It represents the typical
histories, dreams, and behaviors. personality structure that occurs most commonly
within a society, although it may not be universal to all
Independent evaluations by specialists confirmed the members.
176 validity of the test procedures.
 Modal Personality Concept:
Veg. Supply Meat supply
Modal personality refers to the statistically most
common personality type within a society. Women Men
It represents the typical patterned individual behavior
observed in a culturally bounded population. Leave children in care of older siblings
Developed to explain the variation in personality types
Results in
within a given culture.
Combines interplay between culture and personality, Neglect & Inconsistency
allowing for cultural influences on behavior.
Affect personality
Findings on Alor Island:
Alorese people exhibit characteristics such as suspicion,
antagonism, emotional outbursts, and jealousy. Suspicion Lack of Frustration
Lack interest in their surroundings, show slovenly Confidence & hatred in
workmanship, and lack goal orientation. folklore
Absence of idealized parental figures, limited capacity Sexual Dol affect alorese personality
for sustained creative effort, and lack of imagination.
Maternal neglect during infancy and early childhood
is seen as a significant factor in shaping Alorese
personality.

Cultural materialism (Marvin Harris): The Cultural Materialist

1. Introduction/Background of the Theory: Cake of Culture
Cultural materialism is an anthropological theory developed SUPER STRUCTURE
by Marvin Harris in 1968.
• Art, music, dance, literature, advertising
It emphasizes the role of material conditions, such as • Rituals, mythology, theology, ideology, science
technology and the environment, in shaping culture. • Sports, games, hobbies
The theory focuses on the interrelationships between a
culture’s infrastructure, structure, and superstructure.
Cultural materialism seeks to understand how material STRUCTURE
factors influence the social and cultural aspects of a society. Domestic Economy Political Economy
2. Basic Postulates: • Family structure • Political organization,
• Domestic division of labor factions, clubs, associations,
Materialism: Physical world impacts human behavior, corporations
and human behavior can be understood through natural • Domestic, socialization,
enculturation, education • Division of labor, taxation
scientific methods. and tribute
Infrastructure-Structure-Superstructure Model: Culture • Age and sex roles
• Class, caste, urban, rural
consists of three levels. The infrastructure (mode of • Domestic discipline. hierarchies
Hierarchies sanctions
production and reproduction) shapes the structure • Discipline, police/military
(domestic economy and political economy), which control
influences the superstructure (art, religion, science). • War
Deterministic View: Material conditions have a significant
impact on cultural practices, beliefs, and values. INFRASTRUCTURE
Adaptation: Cultures evolve and adapt in response to Mode of Production Mode of Reproduction
environmental and technological factors. •Subsistence technology • Demography
Probabilistic Determinism: Material conditions • Techno-environmental • Mating patterns
probabilistically determine cultural traits. relationships
• Fertility and mortality
3. Methodology: • Eco-systems • Nurturance of infants
Empirical Research, Comparative Analysis etc. • Work patterns • Contraceptives, abortion,
technologies, infanticide
4. Criticism of Cultural Materialism:
a. Vulgar Materialism: Marxists criticize cultural materialism
for neglecting the influence of superstructure on cultural change.
b. Opposition by Structuralists: Structuralists oppose cultural materialism’s ethnocentric etic perspective.
c. Postmodernist Rejection: Postmodernists reject cultural materialism’s scientific methods, favouring relativism and
particularism in studying culture. 177
 Famous Studies
1. Marvin Harris studied the religious taboo on consuming cows in India, arguing that it was related to the ecological
and economic importance of cattle as sources of labour, milk, and fertilizer.
2. Harris analyzed the cultural practice of widow burning (sati) in India, linking it to economic factors such as inheritance
patterns and the status of widows in agrarian societies.

Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider and Geertz):

Overview:
Symbolic anthropology focuses on studying how individuals interpret and understand their surroundings, including the
actions of others within their society.
It emerged as a reaction to structuralism, which focused more on linguistic meanings derived from cultural aspects.
Symbolic anthropology emphasizes the importance of symbols and mental terms in understanding cultures.
Premises: There are two major premises governing symbolic anthropology.
The first is that “beliefs, however unintelligible, become comprehensible when understood as part of a cultural system
of meaning”.
The second major premise is that actions are guided by interpretation, allowing symbolism to aid in interpreting
conceptual as well as material activities.
Approaches:
Traditionally, symbolic anthropology has focused on religion, cosmology, ritual activity, and expressive customs such as
mythology and the performing arts.
As implied above, symbolic anthropology can be divided into two major approaches. One is associated with Clifford
Geertz and the University of Chicago and the other with Victor W. Turner at Cornell. David Schneider was also a major
figure in the development of symbolic anthropology, however he does not fall entirely within either of the above schools
of thought.
Symbolic Approach (Victor Turner):
Turner focuses on symbols as operators in social processes.
Symbols constitute shared meanings and instigate social action.
Social transformations occur through the arrangement and context of symbols.
Methodology:
Symbolic anthropology is based on cross-cultural comparison.
It utilizes a literary-based approach, incorporating literature from various disciplines.
Symbols are examined across different aspects of social life, considering culture as a whole.
Accomplishments:
Symbolic anthropology shifted the focus of anthropology towards culture and interpretation rather than grand theories.
It broadened anthropological sources to include philosophy and sociology.
Geertz emphasized the role of symbols as vehicles of culture and the perspective of actors within a culture.
Turner investigated how symbols actually function in social contexts.
Criticism:
1. Marxist Critique:
Symbolic anthropology neglects the historical conditions necessary for the development of non-cultural practices.
It describes symbolic systems without explaining them, focusing solely on individual systems.
2. Cultural Ecology Critique:
Symbolic anthropology lacks reproducibility in research, making it difficult for other researchers to obtain similar results.
Different anthropologists may interpret the same symbol differently, leading to subjectivity concerns.

178
(1) Interpretive Approach (Clifford Geertz):
Thick Description:
Interpretivism in Anthropological Historical Discourse:
Understanding Culture through Layers of Meaning
Used by Evans-Pritchard in his literature on Nuer Religion.
Thick Description:
Geertz’s work is seen as the flagship of this tradition and a
Involves peeling back layers of meaning like an
paradigm shift in anthropological writing.
onion.
Geertz’s “The Interpretation of Culture-1973” became a
Goes beyond surface observations.
landmark in interpretive anthropology.
Unveils cultural, historical, and individual
Geertzian Anthropology: dimensions.
Geertz proposed interpretative analysis to study culture Provides deeper understanding of social and
and the webs of significance. cultural phenomena.
Culture should be analyzed through interpretive methods Surface Level:
rather than experimental ones. Represents the observable behavior or event in
Culture is expressed through external symbols used by a culture that provides a basic understanding but
society, and these symbols shape individuals’ perception lacks deeper meaning.
of the world. First Layer: Immediate Context
Symbols are vehicles of culture and should be studied to Includes visible actions, words, and gestures that
understand cultural meanings. offers insights into the immediate situation.
Utilized Gilbert Ryle’s notion of “Thick Description” to Second Layer: Cultural Context
define the aim of anthropology. Involves shared meanings, symbols, values, and
Geertz emphasized drawing large conclusions from norms that shapes interpretations and actions
densely textured facts and engaging with complex within the cultural framework and provides deeper
specifics. understanding of behavior significance.
Example: Balinese Cockfight: Third Layer: Historical Context
Geertz’s study of Balinese cockfighting linked it with status Considers historical, social, and political factors
hierarchy, societal tension, and kinship bonding etc. that influences cultural meanings and practices
Influence and Popularization: and reveals broader forces shaping behavior.
Geertz’s work popularized interpretive anthropology. Core Layer: Individual Level
Focuses on subjective experiences, motivations,
Other scholars such as Victor Turner (Ndembu), Mary
and intention that recognizes individual agency
Douglas (Natural Symbols), and David Schneider also
and personal meanings and interprets actions
practiced interpretive anthropology.
within cultural and historical contexts.

Deep Play
Introduction:
“Deep Play” is a seminal work by Clifford Geertz, illustrating
symbolic anthropology through the analysis of Balinese
cockfighting.
1. Balinese Cockfight: Cultural Context
Balinese cockfights are a traditional cultural practice in Bali,
Indonesia.
They symbolize social hierarchy, status, and masculinity within
Balinese society.
2. Symbolic Meanings and Interpretations:
Deep Play: Balinese Cockfight
Cockfighting serves as a symbolic representation of various
aspects:
a. Status and Prestige: The size, strength, and aggressiveness of the roosters reflect their owners’ social standing.
b. Masculinity: Cockfighting is associated with the concept of male bravado and courage.
c. Social Order and Hierarchy: The outcome of the fights establishes a hierarchy among participants.
d. Economic Transactions: Bets placed on the fights create economic exchanges and reinforce social ties.
179
 3. Balinese Culture and Identity:
The cockfight is deeply intertwined with Balinese culture and identity:
a. Aesthetics: The fights are accompanied by rituals, music, and elaborate presentations, enhancing the overall
cultural experience.
b. Community Cohesion: Cockfights foster social connections and bonding among participants and spectators.
c. Emotional Release: The fights provide an outlet for emotions and tensions within Balinese society.
4. Lessons and Interpretations:
Geertz’s study offers several insights:
a. Culture as a System: Cockfighting reveals how cultural symbols and rituals reflect and reinforce social structures
and values.
b. Thick Description: Geertz emphasizes the importance of detailed observation and interpretation to understand
cultural practices fully.
c. Symbolic Anthropology: The study demonstrates how symbolic meanings shape human behavior and social
interactions.
d. Contextual Understanding: The interpretation of cultural practices must consider historical, social, and individual
contexts.

(2) Symbolic Approach (Victor

Turner’s Study of Ndembu Social Drama and Liminality
Turner):
1. The Nkanga ceremony
1. Symbolic Approach:
Background on Turner and Van Gennep:
Victor Turner adopts a symbolic approach, emphasizing
Turner was influenced by anthropologist Arnold van
the role of symbols in initiating social action.
Gennep, who developed the theory of rites of passage
Influenced by Emile Durkheim, Turner investigates the in his book “The Rites of Passage” (1909).
ways symbols function within society.
Van Gennep proposed that rituals mark and facilitate
2. Symbols as Operators in Social Processes: the transition of individuals from one social status to
Turner views symbols as “operators” within the social another.
process, exerting determinable influences on individuals Rites of Passage and Liminality:
and groups.
Rites of passage are rituals that accompany significant
Symbols constitute shared meanings and play a pivotal life transitions, such as birth, puberty, marriage, and
role in inclining people towards specific actions. death.
3. Social Transformations: These rituals involve a three-stage process: separation,
Through the arrangement and context of symbols, liminality, and incorporation.
social transformations occur. Liminality refers to the transitional phase during which
Symbols tie individuals to societal norms, resolve individuals are betwixt and between their old and new
conflicts, and facilitate changes in social status. social statuses.
4. Shifting Focus to Ritual Symbolism: It is a period of ambiguity, where normal social roles
Turner’s research among the Ndembu in Africa led him and structures are temporarily suspended.
to shift his focus from economics and demography to The Ritual around the Mudyi Tree:
ritual symbolism. The ritual around the Mudyi tree among the Ndembu
He examines symbols not as cultural vehicles, but as people serves as a rite of passage, specifically for girls
dynamic forces within the social process. during their puberty.
5. Departure from Geertz’s Perspective: The ritual reflects elements of separation, liminality,
Turner’s approach to symbols differs from Clifford and incorporation.
Geertz’s focus on symbols as cultural expressions. The neophyte’s seclusion and association with the
Turner investigates symbols as active agents in social Mudyi sapling symbolize the liminal phase of the ritual.
dynamics, contributing to social cohesion and change. The Mudyi tree represents the transformative journey
6. Symbolic Influence on Social Norms: and the nurturing ties between a mother and child.
Symbols, through their arrangement and context, have Social Drama and Resolution:
a determinable influence on individuals and groups, Social drama arises from conflicts and tensions within
shaping their adherence to social norms.
180
 a social unit, disrupting the social order.
Turner’s study focuses on how rituals and symbolic
actions address and resolve social drama.
The ritual around the Mudyi tree, along with other
redressive mechanisms, helps reintegrate the initiate
into the community.
2.The Mukanda Ritual
The Mukanda ritual is a coming-of-age ceremony for boys
among the Ndembu people of Zambia. It is a three-stage
process that includes induction, seclusion, and return to
normal life.
Induction: begins with the formal invitation of a senior
Structure of Rites de Passage according to van Gennep 1909 circumciser. The oldest and best-developed of the boys
to be initiated is sent to the circumciser. The boys are
then circumcised and secluded in a forest camp.
Seclusion: lasts for several weeks. During this time, the
boys are taught about Ndembu culture and tradition.
They are also subjected to a series of tests and ordeals.
Return to normal life: marks the end of the Mukanda
ritual. The boys are welcomed back into their
communities as men. They are now eligible to marry
and participate in adult activities.
Victor Turner studied the Mukanda ritual in the 1950s. He
argued that the ritual is a process of liminality, or being in-
between. During the Mukanda ritual, the boys are neither
children nor adults. They are in a state of flux, where they
are free to explore new identities and possibilities.
Turner also argued that the Mukanda ritual is a form of
Boys to Men among the Ndembu from Victor Turner’s ‘The communitas, or a sense of shared identity and purpose.
Forest of Symbols’. The boys are brought together through the ritual and
experience a sense of unity and belonging. This sense of
communitas is important for the Ndembu people, as it
helps to bind them together as a community.
Feminine and Maternal Principle

Tribal Pregnancy
customs CLIFF NOTE
Apprenticeship
State of of the tasks,
married woman rights and duties
Matrilineal
filiation of the woman
State of
woman
Relation
mother-child Breast
development
Breast Breast-feeding

Mother's milk

<< Mudyi >>

(tree that secretes a white latex)

The Nkanga Ceremony

181
 (3) David Schneider:
1. Definition of Culture:
Schneider defined culture as a system of symbols and meanings.
He emphasized that culture is not solely based on regular patterns of behavior, but rather encompasses symbols that
represent something else.
2. Kinship as a Cultural System:
Schneider argued that kinship is a cultural system, not solely a biological or social phenomenon.
He focused on the connections between cultural symbols and observable events, aiming to identify the symbols and
meanings that govern societal rules.
3. Categories in American Kinship:
In American kinship, Schneider identified two fundamental categories: “blood” and “affinity.”
He explored how these categories shape kinship relationships and social roles.
4. Influence and Departure from Structuralism:
While Schneider retained and modified Levi-Strauss’ concept of culture as a set of relationships, he did not completely
break from the structuralist approach.
His ideas about cultural symbols and their connections to observable events distinguished him from scholars like
Geertz.
5. Impact on Anthropology:
Schneider’s work has been influential in the field of symbolic anthropology and beyond.
He contributed to the understanding of kinship as a cultural construct and the importance of symbols and meanings in
shaping social systems.

Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin):

1. Introduction
Cognitive anthropology focuses on the cultural understanding encapsulated in words, narratives, and material culture,
shared among individuals.
It explores the relationship between society and human thought, studying how social groups perceive and comprehend
objects and phenomena.
Cognitive anthropology covers a wide range of concepts, from physical to abstract aspects of the world.
2. History of Cognitive Anthropology
In the 1950s, cognitive anthropology emerged as a new methodology called “Cognitive,” “Ethnoscience,” or “New
Ethnography,” criticizing traditional ethnography for its lack of standardized methods.
Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau, Hobbes, and Locke, cognitive anthropology emphasized the
interaction between society and the mind.
Linguistic theory played a significant role in the development of cognitive anthropology, particularly through the work of
Kenneth L. Pike and the concept of “emic” and “etic” categories.
Scholars like Whorf, Sapir, Goodenough, and Frake explored the relationship between language, culture, and human
thought, developing methods such as structured interviews and componential analysis.
3. Premises
Cognitive anthropology focuses on understanding how people perceive and interpret their surroundings, artifacts, and
environment.
It considers the indigenous point of view and aims to make ethnographic studies more scientific and replicable.
Cognitive anthropology has gone through four major phases, exploring symbolism, cultural wisdom, psychological
theorizing, and the study of prototypes and schemas.
The field has shifted from prototype theory to schema theory and has embraced connectionism as a theoretical
framework.
Current research in cognitive anthropology includes the study of metaphor, meaning, emotions, socialization, and the
cognitive structures associated with physical actions.
Harold C. Conklin’s Work on Colour Categorization among the Hanunoo
Introduction:
182 Harold C. Conklin: Anthropologist in ethnoecology and linguistics.
 Studied Hanunoo folk botany and encountered challenges in native colour classification.
Importance of Colour Differentiation:
Colour plays a crucial role in flora identification and classification.
Used in both botanical classification and popular systems of categorization.
Conklin explored the biological adjectives of colour in botanical classification.
Cultural Variation in Colour Classification:
Language influences the classification of colours across different cultures.
Each culture has its own unique way of categorizing millions of colours.
English has over 3000 categories for colour names.
Cognitive Anthropology and Colour Classification:
Conklin’s work reflects the ideas of Cognitive Anthropology.
Hypothesized that colour classification influences colour perception.
Hanunoo’s cultural-based colour terms vary significantly from other cultures.
Hanunoo Colour Classification:
Level 1 Terms identified by Conklin:
1. (ma) biru: Relatively darker shades, associated with blackness.
2. (ma) lagti: Lighter shades, similar to white.
3. (ma) rara: Redness or shades of red.
4. (ma) latuy: Green appearance.
Contrast and Overlapping:
Conklin observed contrasting aspects not based on colour categorization.
Examples: Light and dark, dryness and wetness.
Sub-panels within the colour system had overlapping categories.
Social Relevance and Colour Categories:
Colour categories extend beyond flora to various aspects of Hanunoo life.
Food and raw products named with extensions of Level 1 terms.
Manufactured goods desired from darker categories, while lighter ones are less desirable.
Conklin’s Observations:
Hanunoo’s forest surroundings have shades of green.
Green beads are considered unattractive in decorative artifacts.
Conklin’s findings shed light on the cultural significance of colour categories.
Contributions of Harold C. Conklin:
Extensive research in Southeast Asia, particularly the Philippines.
Pioneered investigations of indigenous tropical forest agriculture.
Made important contributions to the study of kinship terminology.
Investigated color perception and categorization in the Hanunoo.
Critique by Berlin and Kay:
Brent Berlin and Paul Kay presented a study challenging Conklin’s findings.
Argued for universal tendencies and cultural development in color categories.
Opposed the cultural relativism suggested by Conklin’s publication.
II. Stephen Tyler’s Work in Cognitive Anthropology
1. Background:
Stephen Tyler, anthropologist in cognitive anthropology.
Ph.D. from Stanford University.
Influenced by linguists and philosophers like Chomsky and Wittgenstein.
2. Book and Summary:
“The Said and the Unsaid: Mind, Meaning, and Culture” (1978).
Explores the relationship between culture, cognition, and communication.
Argues for the interplay of explicit and implicit elements in cultural systems.
3. Approach to Cognitive Anthropology:
Emphasizes language, culture, and cognition’s role in shaping human thought and behavior.
183
 Views culture as a system of shared meanings and symbols.
Focuses on cognitive processes like categorization, metaphor, and inference.
4. Compositional Analysis:
Compositional analysis: Breaking down cultural phenomena into cognitive components to understand underlying
structures.
5. Criticism:
Criticisms of Tyler’s Work:
Overemphasis on linguistic analysis, neglecting other cultural aspects.
Limited attention to socio-political context and power dynamics.
Failure to consider historical processes and social inequalities in shaping cognition and culture.

Post-modernism in anthropology:
Background: Postmodernism in anthropology emerged as a critical response to modernism, challenging its foundations
and questioning the construction of social realities. It started as a movement in the arts and architecture, rejecting
conventional norms and seeking alternative explanations. Over time, postmodernism expanded into various fields, including
anthropology, where it aimed to deconstruct established social hierarchies and explore the plurality and interconnectedness
of different cultural phenomena.
Premises:
Relativism: Postmodernist anthropologists reject the idea of universal truth and argue that knowledge is constructed
within specific cultural and historical contexts.
Discourse and Power: Language and power dynamics play a crucial role in shaping social realities. Postmodernists
analyse how language constructs and influences our understanding of culture.
Reflexivity: Anthropologists should critically reflect on their own biases and positions of power, acknowledging their
subjectivity and the limitations of objectivity.
Main Thinkers and Their Work:
Clifford Geertz: Emphasized the interpretive and symbolic aspects of culture, advocating for thick description and
an understanding of culture’s symbols and meanings.
Sherry B. Ortner: Explored the intersections of culture, power, and gender, highlighting feminist perspectives and
social inequalities.
James Clifford: Examined the role of travel and cross-cultural encounters, emphasizing multiple perspectives and
situational knowledge.
George Marcus: Contributed to reflexive ethnography, promoting critical self-reflection in anthropological research.
Critical Methodologies in Postmodern Anthropology
Reflexivity: Challenging Objectivity
Power and Discourse Analysis: Uncovering Hidden Dynamics
Fragmentation and Discontinuity: Questioning Unified Identities
Emphasis on Local Contexts: Contextualizing Cultural Practices
Collaboration and Dialogue: Redefining Research Relationships
Classification of Postmodernists:
Structuralist/poststructuralist: Draw on French thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, focusing on
power dynamics and the role of language in shaping social structures.
Feminist/postcolonial: Examine gender, race, and colonialism, critiquing dominant narratives and advocating for
inclusive perspectives.
Reflexive/ethnographic: Engage in self-reflection, critically examining their own biases and positions of power in the
research process.
Criticism:
Relativism and epistemological challenges: Critics argue that postmodernism undermines the possibility of objective
knowledge and makes cross-cultural comparisons difficult.
Lack of empirical grounding: Critics claim that postmodernism is overly theoretical and lacks concrete evidence to
support its claims.
Ethical concerns: Critics suggest that postmodernism can lead to a disregard for ethical standards and a lack of
184 accountability in research.
Significance: Despite criticisms, postmodernism in anthropology has made significant contributions. It has challenged
dominant narratives, emphasized reflexivity and multiple perspectives, and fostered a more inclusive approach to studying
cultures and societies. Postmodernism encourages anthropologists to be aware of their biases and power dynamics,
promoting a nuanced understanding of cultural phenomena within their contexts.

Anthropolog- Anthropolo- Notable Works Basic Postulates Example/Case Criticisms

ical Theory gists Study/Famous
Study
Classical Tylor (1871), Tylor’s “Primitive Culture” All societies Comparative Eurocentric
Evolutionism Morgan (1871), Morgan’s “Ancient evolve from study of religious bias, linear
(1877), Society” (1877), Frazer’s “The simple to beliefs and progression,
Frazer Golden Bough” (1890) complex stages. practices in lack of empirical
(1890) different cultures evidence
Historical Boas (1911) Boas’ “The Mind of Primitive Cultures are Boas’ study on Insufficient
Particular- Man” (1911) unique products the impact of focus on social
ism of historical de- environment on structure, limited
velopment. physical traits of generalizability
immigrants
Diffusionism Rivers (1914), Rivers’ “The History of Cultural traits The spread Lack of empirical
Boas (1928), Melanesian Society” (1914), spread through of agriculture evidence,
Frobenius Boas’ “General Anthropology” borrowing and techniques overemphasis on
(1932) (1928), Frobenius’ “The Voice diffusion. across different diffusion
of Africa” (1932) regions
Functional- Malinowski Malinowski’s “Argonauts of Cultures serve The study Neglect of
ism (1922) the Western Pacific” (1922) specific functions of Trobriand cultural variation,
to meet human Islanders’ limited attention
needs. economic and to historical
social systems factors
Structur- Radcliffe- Radcliffe-Brown’s “Structure Society functions The analysis of Overemphasis on
al-Function- Brown (1952) and Function in Primitive as an integrated kinship systems social structure,
alism Society” (1952) system of inter- in different neglect of
connected parts. societies individual agency
Structural- Lévi-Strauss Lévi-Strauss’ “Structural Universal pat- Analysis of myths Ignores historical
ism (1958), E. Anthropology” (1958), terns and struc- and kinship struc- context, down-
Leach (1961) E. Leach’s “Rethinking tures underlie tures in various plays agency and
Anthropology” (1961) cultural phenom- cultures individual varia-
ena. tion
Culture and Benedict Benedict’s “Patterns of Culture shapes Mead’s study on Overgeneraliza-
Personality (1934), Culture” (1934), Mead’s individual person- gender and sex- tion, lack of em-
Mead (1928, “Coming of Age in Samoa” ality and behavior. uality in Samoan pirical evidence
1935), Linton (1928), Linton’s “The Study of society
(1936), Man” (1936), Kardiner’s “The
Kardiner People of Alor” (1945)
(1945), Cora-
du Bois
Neo-Evolu- Childe (1951), White’s “The Evolution of Societies prog- Analysis of cultur- Simplistic model,
tionism White (1959), Culture” (1959), Steward’s ress through al adaptation and neglect of histori-
Steward “Theory of Culture Change” stages of techno- ecological factors cal factors
(1955), (1955), Sahlins’ “Evolution logical develop-
Sahlins and Culture” (1960), Service’s ment.
(1960), “Primitive Social Organization”
Service (1962)
(1962)

185
 Cultural Ma- Harris (1968) Harris’ “The Rise of Anthropo- Cultural practices Study of ecologi- Reductionist
terialism logical Theory” (1968) determined by cal factors in the approach, ne-
material condi- collapse of an- glect of cultural
tions. cient civilizations meanings
Symbolic Turner Turner’s “The Forest of Sym- Focus on symbols Geertz’s analysis Geertz’s analysis
and Interpre- (1967), bols” (1967), Schneider’s “Cul- and meanings in of Balinese cock- of Balinese cock-
tive Schneider ture and Personality” (1972), cultural systems. fight as a cultural fight as a cultural
(1972), Geertz’s “The Interpretation symbol symbol
Geertz of Cultures” (1973)
(1973)
Cognitive Tyler (1969), Tyler’s “Cognitive Anthropol- Study of cogni- Conklin’s exam- Limited empirical
Theories Conklin ogy” (1969), Conklin’s “Ethno- tive processes ination of Apache evidence, cogni-
(1974) botany of the Chiricahua and and categoriza- plant classifica- tive bias
Mescalero Apache” (1974) tion in cultural tion system
systems.
Post-mod- Various Clifford’s “The Predicament Critiques fixed Examination of Lack of coher-
ernism of Culture” (1988) meanings and power relations ence, difficulty in
advocates for and cultural rep- defining a unified
multiple perspec- resentations approach
tives.

CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

186
 Chapter: 8
CULTURE, LANGUAGE AND
COMMUNICATION

SYLLABUS Past year

themes/questions
A) NATURE, ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
LANGUAGE
Glottochronology (10 marks, 2023)
B) VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Major Branches of Linguistic Anthropology and
C) SOCIAL CONTEXT OF LANGUAGE USE Language Use in Social and Cultural Settings (15
Marks, 2021)
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (10 M, 2020)
Variations in Language Usage and Social Inequality
(20 M, 2020)
Exploring the Difference between ‘Emic’ & ‘Etic’ and
its Study of Language (10 Marks, 2015)
The Relationship between Linguistics and Social-
Cultural Anthropology (10 M, 2019)
Influence of Culture on Language: Examining the
Structure and Content (15 Marks, 2018)
Non-Verbal Communication: A Brief Overview (10
M, 2017)
Theories on the Origin of Spoken Languages:
Biological and Cultural Perspectives (30 Marks,
2010)

187
 Introduction: Children learn language as they learn culture. Language is a shared system of sounds, words, meanings,
and grammatical rules that allows us to communicate complex, precise information. This ability to communicate is one of
the main things that distinguishes humans from other animals.

Helen Keller(Author and Activist), who was deaf and blind, was brought outside by her teacher. She felt the cool water
on her hand as her teacher spelled the word “water” into her palm. Helen suddenly understood the meaning of the
word, and it was like a door opening to a new world. She felt a sense of wonder, hope, and joy, and she was eager to learn

Key points covered in this chapter are:

1. The Remarkable Qualities of Language:
Language as a unique and complex form of communication
2. Unconscious Rules and Meaningful Interaction:
Unconscious rules governing the combination of sounds and words
Enabling meaningful interaction among language users
3. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication:
Accompaniment of nonverbal means such as body movements and spatial relationships
Variation in interpretation across cultures
4. Universal Meanings in Nonverbal Expressions:
Some nonverbal expressions and gestures with universal meanings
5. Language as a Cultural Platform:
Intricate link between language and cultural aspects
Language as a platform for expressing beliefs, values, and traditions
6. Culture’s Influence on Language:
Language as a behaviour shaped by culture

Language and Culture

Language acts as both a mirror reflecting cultural values and a mould shaping how individuals perceive and interpret
the world. For instance, the specific terms used within a language to denote kinship relations, social hierarchies, or
cultural practices reveal underlying cultural values and beliefs.
Learning a language inherently involves engaging with the culture it represents. For example, acts like using
gestures, tone of voice, or figures of speech are culturally specific.
According to Rossi Landi language acquisition is intrinsically linked to cultural learning and cognitive development
within a specific societal framework.
Language serves as a powerful marker of cultural identity. Speaking a particular language connects individuals to a
specific community and heritage.

188
Nature, origin and characteristics of language:

Content Value Addition

Definition: “Language is a system of conventional spoken Understanding Language:
or written symbols and patterns through which human Acquisition, Multilingualism, and Uniqueness:
beings, as members of a social group and participants in
its culture, communicate.” 1. Language Acquisition: Individuals develop the ability to
communicate through vocal sounds during childhood,
Evolution of Language: allowing them to convey information, express emotions,
Evolution of Hominids and Brain Expansion: and influence others.
Hominid evolution accompanied by increased brain 2. First Language and Second Language Acquisition:
size. People initially acquire their first language or mother
Expansion of the cerebral cortex, associated with higher tongue from parents or caregivers, and some may
functions, including symbolic and cultural capacities. later learn additional languages to varying degrees
The Human Brain and Language: of proficiency, with bilingualism being relatively
uncommon.
3. Uniqueness of Human Language: Language is
a distinctive human trait, separate from animal
communication, characterized by its infinite
productivity and creativity, enabling communication on
any topic, and its adaptability to new discoveries and
modes of thought.

CASE STUDY

Kanzi, the Bonobo Language User

Kanzi, a bonobo, learned to communicate
using lexigrams, demonstrating impressive
language abilities. He could understand and
use hundreds of symbols to make requests and
engage in meaningful interactions. However,
Kanzi’s language use lacked productive syntax
and open-ended creativity, distinguishing it
from human language.
The human brain is divided into two hemispheres.
Linguistic skills are closely identified with one
hemisphere.
Broca’s area in the left hemisphere influences language
production and grammar.
Wernicke’s area, also in the left hemisphere, is
associated with word and sentence comprehension.
Human Anatomy and Speech Production:
Vocal organs form the vocal tract, enabling speech
production.
The larynx
controls the
release of
air and aids
in speech
production.
Constriction
by the tongue,
lips, and nose allows for vowel and consonant sounds.
189
 The Science of Language: Linguistics and
Linguistic Anthropology:
Linguistics, the science of language, encompasses
descriptive linguistics and historical linguistics.
It is a highly technical subject that delves into divisions
such as phonetics, grammar, and semantics.
Linguistic anthropology focuses on understanding
language as a social and cultural phenomenon.
Importance of Language:
Communication tool: Language facilitates social
interaction and relationship building.
Speech and communication: Language enables
the use and understanding of words or symbols for
effective communication.
Knowledge and competitiveness: Proficiency in
multiple languages enhances competitiveness in a
knowledge-driven world.
Global connectivity: The Internet has revolutionized
communication, connecting people worldwide.
Cultural significance: Language shapes and defines
cultures, reflecting the distinct features and values of
a society.
The Nature of Language:
There are three theoretical perspectives on the nature of
language -
1. Structural View: Language is seen as a system of
structurally related elements used for transmitting
meaning, including phonological units, grammatical
units, grammatical operations, and lexical elements. It
focuses on linguistic analysis and understanding the Speech Vs Language: Linguists, notably Saussure,
structural aspects of language. distinguish between speech and language. Speech
2. Communicative View: Language is viewed as a vehicle pertains to the production of sounds from the voice box,
for expressing functional meaning, with emphasis on whereas certain birds, like parrots, can imitate human
semantic and communicative dimensions. Research speech to some extent. However, the ability to mimic
areas include sociolinguistics, semantics, and sounds differs significantly from acquiring syntax.
pragmatics, aiming to learn expressive communication Conversely, deaf individuals effectively communicate
functions and categories of meaning. using sign language, which is considered a fully-
3. Interactional View: Language is primarily seen as a developed, complex language. It implies that the
means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal evolution of modern human language necessitated
relations and social transactions. Research areas both the anatomical development of speech apparatus
encompass interactional analysis and conversational and neurological changes in the brain to support
analysis, aiming to understand how people initiate and language itself.
sustain conversations.
Characteristics of language: Phonological: Pertaining to sounds, intonation, and
rhythm.
1. Language as a System:
Lexical Semantic: Relating to words and their
Phonological, lexical semantic, syntactic, discourse,
meanings.
and sociolinguistic levels.
Syntactic: Involving grammar and rules of sentence
2. Dynamic Nature:
structure.
Constantly changing in terms of words and
meaning. Discourse: Concerned with written and spoken
language in context.
3. Regional and Social Variation:
Sociolinguistic: Examining language variation
Dialects based on regional differences.
based on social factors.
190 Sociolects influenced by social class or occupation.
4. Individual Variation: Investigating Origins:
Idiolects reflecting individual linguistic differences. The absence of primitive languages and limited traces
5. Symbolic and Arbitrary: of early languages poses challenges in reconstructing
Words as symbols with arbitrary connections to language origins.
their meanings. Some linguists explore the acquisition of language by
children and the development of creole languages to
Origins of Language:
gain insights into language origins.
Exploring Language Emergence and Development
(A) Development of Pidgin and Creole Languages-
1. Uncertain Timeline:
1. Contact Situation:
The exact emergence of spoken language remains
unknown. Power imbalance between groups leads to language
shift, with the dominant language replacing the native
Archaeological evidence suggests extensive
language.
symbolism in art and ritual by around 50,000 years
ago. In some cases, contact situations result in the
development of a new language.
Some believe language might have originated even
earlier, considering genetic similarities between 2. European Colonial Context:
Neanderthals and modern humans. Colonial powers establish commercial enterprises
2. FOXP2 Gene: relying on imported labour, often slaves.
The FOXP2 gene is associated with language ability in Laborers from diverse societies communicate using a
recent populations. simplified language, incorporating linguistic features
from various languages.
Both Neanderthals and modern humans share this
gene, leading to speculation that Neanderthals may Vocabulary in the pidgin language is predominantly
have possessed language as well. drawn from the masters’ language.
However, gene presence alone does not provide 3. Pidgin Languages:
definitive evidence of language, as genes can serve Pidgins are simplified languages lacking complex
multiple purposes. linguistic features found in established languages.
3. Importance of Comparative Research: Limited to specific communication settings, pidgins
Studying communication systems in other animals aids may not fully develop into complete languages.
in understanding the emergence of human language. 4. Development into Creole Languages:
Animal communication systems lack the open-ended Children, exposed to pidgin as their first language,
power of human language. contribute to its expansion and grammatical complexity.
It is widely believed that genetic changes occurred Pidgin languages may evolve into creole languages.
in human evolution to enable language after the Creoles incorporate vocabulary from another language
divergence from apes. (often the masters’ language) but possess distinct
4. Individual Language Development: grammatical structures different from both the
The development of individual languages is not solely masters’ language and the laborers’ native languages.
biologically determined. 5. Grammatical Similarities:
Over 6,000 mutually unintelligible languages exist, Creole languages exhibit striking grammatical
indicating diverse linguistic systems. similarities globally.
The complexity and sophistication of languages are not These similarities suggest the inheritance of certain
determined by technological advancements. grammar features shared by all humans.
5. Cultural Influence on Language: Intonation is used in creoles for questioning, while word
Technologically simpler societies possess languages order remains unchanged.
with comparable sound systems, vocabularies, and Creoles express future and past tenses using particles
grammars to more complex societies. (e.g., English “shall”) between subject and verb.
All languages have the capacity to adapt and expand in Double negatives are employed in creole languages
response to cultural changes. (e.g., Guyana English Creole “Nobody no like me”).
Vocabulary richness in different languages may vary 6. Universal Language Features:
based on the cultural importance of specific events or Many language aspects may be universal due to human
natural phenomena. wiring or shared experiences.
For example, the use of specific sounds in words related
to frogs may be common across languages due to the
sounds made by frogs. 191
 Development of Pidgin and Creole Languages

Laborers from diverse societies Pidgin Language Children Creole Language

European Colonial Context

Simplified language
incorporating
linguistic features Vocabulary
from masters' language

Pidgin Languages
Simplified language
lacking complex
linguistic features

Limited to specific
communication settings

Development into Creole Languages

Expansion and
grammatical complexity
Evolution into
Creole languages
Incorporate vocabulary
from another language
Distinct grammatical
structures

Grammatical Similarities
Striking grammatical
similarities globally

Use of intonation
for questioning

Word order remains

unchanged

Future and past

tenses using particles

Double negatives
employed

Universal Language Features

Many language aspects
may be universal

Use of specific sounds

related to frogs
common across languages

Laborers from diverse societies Pidgin Language Children Creole Language

192
(B) Children’s Acquisition of Language-
1. Early Language Capability:
Infants have the ability to learn any language’s sounds and grammar.
By 6 months, infants can distinguish sounds from all known languages.
2. Development Milestones:
Around 12-13 months, children can name objects and actions.
By 18-20 months, they use single words to represent whole
sentences.
Children learn stressed sound sequences, even in sign
languages.
3. Telegraphic Speech:
At 18-24 months, children progress to two-word sentences.
They omit less important words and follow basic word order
conventions.
4. Grammar Similarities and “Errors”:
Children’s speech patterns resemble creole languages.
They use intonation for questions and employ double negatives. A lot of language instruction occurs by pointing to
Linguists debate the existence of an innate grammar. something and saying
Future research on children’s language acquisition and the study of creole languages may provide insights into the origins
of human language. While aspects of grammar may be universal, understanding the variation among the world’s thousands
of languages remains a crucial area of study for linguists.

Theories of origin of language:

There are currently two main hypotheses regarding the
origin of the first language, but neither can be disproven
based on present knowledge.
1. Divine Creation Hypothesis: This hypothesis suggests
that language is a gift from the gods to humans. It
posits that humans were inherently created with the
ability to use language. While it cannot be proven
that language is as old as humans, it is observed that
wherever humans exist, language exists. Stone Age
tribes have languages with expressive potential and
grammatical complexity comparable to languages like
English, Latin, or Greek.
2. Natural Evolution Hypothesis: According to this
hypothesis, humans acquired a more sophisticated
brain through evolutionary development, enabling
the invention and learning of language. Simple
vocalizations and gestures inherited from primate “The Elusive Nature of Language Origins”
ancestors transitioned into a creative language system Scientifically evaluating competing hypotheses on the
within a generation or two. This hypothesis suggests origin of language is challenging, leading to a ban on
that as soon as humans developed the capacity for discussions by the Royal Linguistic Society in the 19th
creative language, the formation of a specific system century. Presently, such attempts are not given much
of forms with meanings would have been the inevitable serious consideration.
next step.
The question remains: How did humans devise the first
language, whether through divine gift or evolution?
CLIFF NOTE
Two main hypotheses emerge:
1. The Imitation Hypothesis: suggesting language
originated from mimicking natural sounds or
movements.
193
 a) “Ding-Dong” Hypothesis: Language began when
humans started naming objects, actions, and Theories of the Origin of Language
phenomena after recognizable sounds associated
with them. The first human words were verbal icons, 1 The Bow-wow 2 The Ding-dong
representing an exact image of their meaning. Theory Theory
Onomatopoeia (imitation of sound) played a role, Human speech Correspondence
originated in between sound and
but it is limited and varies across languages. sense, by a law of
man's attempt
b) “Pooh-Pooh” Hypothesis: The first words originated to imitate the nature, a mysterious law
from involuntary exclamations of emotions like sounds of 1 2 of harmony, that
dislike, hunger, pain, or pleasure, eventually leading nature everything that is struck
rings and rings in a
to more developed ideas. However, emotional
peculiar way
exclamations are a small part of language and 4 3
language-specific.
The Pooh The Gesture
c) “Bow-Wow” Hypothesis: Vocabulary developed from 4 3 Theory
imitations of animal noises, suggesting the first pooh Theory
human words were connected to their meanings in Origin of language in Language originates
time and space. Onomatopoeic words differ across involuntary exclamations in gesture
sounds
languages, indicating that entire vocabularies didn’t
derive from them.
d) “Ta-Ta” Hypothesis (Gestural Hypothesis): Charles 1861, historical linguist Max Müller published a list of
Darwin proposed that speech developed as a form speculative theories concerning the origins of spoken
of mimicking hand gestures using speech organs. language
Language may have originated from imitated Pooh-pooh
gestures, making the first words lip icons of hand
gestures. Human gestures, like onomatopoeic
words, vary across cultures.
2. The Necessity Hypothesis: proposing that language
developed in response to a pressing need within the
community.
a) “Warning” Hypothesis: Language evolved from
warning signals, alerting others to dangers or
threats.
b) “Ye-He-Ho” Hypothesis: Expressive chants and
songs played a role in language development,
fostering unity and emotional communication.
c) “Lying” Hypothesis: Language emerged to deceive
and manipulate others, allowing communication
contrary to truth.

CLIFF NOTE

“The Tower of Babel: Exploring Linguistic Diversity in Ancient

Narratives”:

This 16th century painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder

depicts the well-known story of the Tower of Babel in
the biblical Book of Genesis. From an anthropologist’s
viewpoint, the story of the tower is one of several ancient
examples, among them a Mayan and a Sumerian text, that
strive to explain the diversity of the world’s languages.
The idea that humans spoke one language before they
dispersed across the world remains a popular theory
194 among anthropological linguists.
Verbal and non-verbal communication:
Language and Communication:
Verbal and nonverbal communication are essential aspects of language.
Speech and writing are fundamental faculties in language.
Meaning is conveyed not only through speech sounds but also through facial expressions, tone of voice, body
movements, and gestures.
Nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, play a significant role in conveying emotions and establishing emotional
contact.
Nonverbal cues are culturally determined and vary among different communities.
Telephone conversations lack visual cues, making them less effective compared to face-to-face conversations.

Content Value Addition

Verbal Communication: Structure

Structure of Verbal
of Verbal Communication
Communication:
The study of language entails comprehending various
aspects, including the production and reception of sounds. Language
It necessitates evaluating the following levels in detail:
1. Phonology:
Phonology is the study of sounds and is divided into Phonology (Sounds)
two branches:
Phonetics
Morphology (Meaningful
Phonemics Communication of sounds)
Phonetics involves the production, transmission, and
reception of speech sounds. Syntax (Meaningful
2. Morphology: Contribution of words)
Morphology focuses on understanding the form of
language.
Symantics (Meaning)
It examines the smallest units of meaning or
grammatical function called “morphemes.”
3. Syntax:
Syntax refers to the analytical arrangement of words CASE STUDY
within a sentence.
It involves specific rules that determine how words are
Inuit Throat Singing: Non-Verbal
organized to form a correct sentence.
Communication among the Inuit People
4. Semantics: Researcher
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, Dr. Colleen Dell conducted research on Inuit
phrases, and sentences. throat singing, a traditional form of non-verbal
communication practiced by the Inuit people
Non-verbal communication: of the Arctic regions. Her study focused on the
Non-verbal communication involves the transmission role of throat singing in conveying emotions,
and reception of various messages through the sensory building social connections, and preserving
channels of the human body, apart from linguistic cultural identity within Inuit communities
means. Several models of non-verbal communication
exist, encompassing different forms of expression and
interpretation.
1. Para-linguistics: This field examines the connection
between specific vocal patterns and emotional
expressions. It encompasses the study of non-verbal
speech sounds such as hissing, shushing, whistling,
initiation sounds, as well as variations in pitch,
hesitations, and speaking rate.
2. Kinesics: Kinesics refers to communication through
195
 body movements. It encompasses actions, physical or
physiological responses, automatic reflexes, posture, CASE STUDY
facial expressions, gestures, and other forms of bodily
motion. Researchers like Birdwhistell have contributed
to the study of Kinesics with a contextual approach. Warlpiri Sign Language: Indigenous Sign
Language System Researcher
3. Proxemics: Proxemics focuses on non-verbal Dr. Carmel O’Shannessy conducted extensive
behaviour that utilizes the spatial dimension of research on Warlpiri Sign Language, an
communication. It involves the unconscious use of indigenous sign language system used by the
interpersonal distances during interactions. Edward Warlpiri people of Central Australia. Her study
Hall, in his book “The Hidden Dimension,” identified focused on documenting the grammatical
four social distances: intimate, personal, social, and structure, vocabulary, and cultural nuances
public. of the sign language, highlighting its vital role
in communication and cultural preservation
4. Sign language: Sign language is employed by the
within the Warlpiri community. The Warlpiri
deaf community to communicate through hand and consider it impolite or shameful to have a
body movements. Different countries have developed conversation with certain relatives. A man
their own sign languages, such as American Sign should not speak directly with his mother-in-
Language (ASL), British Sign Language, and French law, for example.
Sign Language. ASL, for example, relies on visual
information related to shape, orientation, location, and
movement of hands and palms. It also incorporates
head movements, eye movements, facial expressions,
and more.

CLIFF NOTE

CASE STUDY

Mudras in Indian Classical Dance: Non-Verbal

Communication in Dance Forms
Dr. Sunil Kothari, researched the use of mudras
(hand gestures) in Indian classical dance
forms such as Bharatanatyam and Kathak.
His study delved into the intricate language
of mudras, their meanings, and their role in
conveying emotions.

196
Social Context of Language Use:

Content Value Addition

Speech and Social Context - Examples and
Concepts:
1. Speech Variation Based on Social Roles:
Different social roles (friends, bosses, children,
siblings, teachers) require varying verbal and nonverbal
behaviour.
People adjust their speech and actions based on the
specific individuals they are interacting with and the
overall situation.
Cultural knowledge plays a crucial role in understanding
appropriate behaviour and modifying communication
to fit social scenes.
2. Terms of Address Reflecting Relationship and Social Speech Variation Based on Social Roles: Strangers shake
Inequality: hands when they meet; friends may touch each other more
Address terms (first names, titles) reveal the nature of warmly. How we speak to others also differs according to
relationships and social hierarchy. the degree of friendship.
Higher-ranking individuals may address lower-ranking
individuals using their first or last name.
Cultural examples include the use of formal and
informal terms of address in Spanish-speaking cultures
(Don, Señora) based on relative status.
3. Gender-Based Speech Differences:
Historical differences in speech between men and
women existed, influenced by societal expectations
and cultural norms.
Women were often expected to avoid profanity and
use more “feminine” words, reflecting gender roles
and class distinctions.
Women’s movement and media influence have led Speech Variation Based on Social Roles: Japanese
to fewer differences in vocabulary usage between honorifics include rules about formality and politeness,
genders. many of which are related to the relative status of the
individuals interacting.
4. Cultural Variations in Speech Behavior:
Different cultures exhibit customs and norms that Language and gender equality: Does English promote
influence speech behaviour. sexist thinking or reflect existing gender inequalities?
Examples include phonetic differences between men Understanding the impact of language on culture is
and women in languages like Grosvenor and Yukaghir. crucial for advocates of gender equality.
Polynesia and Micronesia had distinct respect 1. Linguistic representation of gender inequity in
languages with different speech styles and words for English: Words like “man” and “he” may subtly
addressing the noble class. reinforce the idea of male importance, while gender-
5. Contextual Norms and Honorifics in Korean and specific terms like “chairman” and “policeman”
Japanese: contribute to gendered job roles and perceptions.
Korean and Japanese languages have complex 2. Language’s influence on perception: Experimental
contextual norms called honorifics, governing studies indicate that the use of male-oriented
formality and politeness. terminology in texts leads to the perception of men
being depicted more frequently, suggesting that
Speakers choose verb forms and pronouns based on language shapes our thoughts and assumptions.
relative status and address others accordingly.
3. Exploring the relationship between language
Honorifics still apply in some contexts, reflecting social and gender equality: Comparative research on
status and reinforcing cultural norms of respect. different societies and their language structures
is needed to determine if male-oriented languages
197
 6. Linguistic Taboos in Different Cultures: correspond to greater male dominance in society.
Taboos exist in all societies, including linguistic taboos 4. The push for change: Advocates for gender
where certain words are prohibited. equality strive to modify English usage to be more
Yanomamö of Venezuela avoid uttering the names of inclusive, although efforts to introduce gender-
important or deceased relatives in front of their living neutral pronouns have faced challenges. However,
kinfolk. linguistic shifts, such as using gender-neutral
Zulu of southern Africa forbid women from using the terms like “chair” or “police officer,” are gradually
names of their husband’s father or brothers. emerging.
7. Speech as Presentation of Self and Control of
Impressions:
Speech style, word choices, and mannerisms are part
Berlin and Kay Color Sequence
of self-presentation, telling others about our identity.
People unconsciously adjust their speech to manage
the impressions others have of them.
Language is a powerful tool for persuasion and
influence, used strategically by politicians to control
public opinions.
8. Language as an Instrument of Power:
Political speech demonstrates language’s power to
shape public opinion.
Candidates and political parties choose words and
phrases to evoke positive emotions and attach to their A graphical representation of the evolution of basic color
programs. words.
Language can be used to control discourse, information,
and manipulate public perception.
CASE STUDY
Relationship Between Language and Culture:
(A) Cultural Influences on Language
“The Inuit Language: Unveiling the
1. Lexical Content and Cultural Characteristics:
Multifaceted Vocabulary of Snow and Ice”
Vocabulary reflects cultural characteristics as Dr. Laura Martin’s study on the Inuit people
experiences, events, or objects are given words based revealed their diverse vocabulary for snow and
on cultural influences. For example, different languages ice, reflecting their reliance on these elements
have varying numbers and classifications of basic color for shelter, hunting, and transportation in
terms. the Arctic. This highlights the intricate link
Researchers Berlin and Kay found a universal between language, environment, and cultural
practices within the Inuit community.
sequence in the evolution of basic color terms. For
instance, languages typically evolve from two to eleven
basic color terms in a predictable manner.
2. Basic Color Words:
Basic color words vary across languages. For instance,
CASE STUDY
English has basic color words like red, green, and blue,
while other languages may have different numbers and The Pirahã People and the Conceptualization
classifications. of Ownership
Cultural factors, such as technological specialization, In a study of the Pirahã people of Brazil,
and biological factors, like eye pigmentation, anthropologist Daniel Everett found that they
contribute to the variation in basic color terms. lack a possessive transitive verb like “have.”
Instead, they use a variety of other expressions
3. Developmental Sequences in Lexical Domains: to convey ownership, such as “my house” or
Similar to basic color terms, general terms for plants “the house of my father.” Everett argues that
and animals also follow developmental sequences. this lack of a possessive verb reflects the
For example, in some languages, general plant terms Pirahã’s non-materialistic worldview. They do
may evolve from “plant” to “tree,” “bush,” “grass,” and not place a high value on possessions, and
“vine.” they do not see ownership as a form of power
or control.
More complex societies tend to have a larger number
of general terms for plants and animals, reflecting
198
 cultural and environmental influences.
4. Vocabulary Size and Social Complexity: Sapir-Whorf
Total vocabulary size increases with social complexity, Hypothesis
considering specialized terms used by various
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that
specialists. However, the core vocabulary common the language individuals first speak directly
among non-specialists remains relatively constant influences the way that they see and react to
across languages. the world.
The hypothesis is conceptualized into two
Some domains, such as specific plant names, may branches. The "weak" Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
decrease in size with social complexity. For example, indicates that people's thoughts are just
urban North Americans may have fewer specific influenced by their native language. This term is
plant names compared to individuals in small-scale called linguistic relativism.
The "strong" Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states
societies. that native language determines the way
5. Grammar and Cultural Influence: individuals think about different concepts.
Cultural influence on the grammatical structure of a
language is less extensively studied but is present. For
example, the Navajo language emphasizes detailed
descriptions of events and movement, reflecting the
nomadic experience of the Navajo people.
6. Language and Conceptualization of Ownership:
The conceptualization of ownership can influence
language structure. For instance, some languages lack
a possessive transitive verb like “have,” instead using Edward Sapir (1884-1939)
alternative expressions. The presence of the verb Edward Sapir was an American
“have” often correlates with the development of private anthropologist-linguist, who is widely
property in complex societies with social inequality. considered to be one of the most
important figures in the early
(B) Linguistic Influences on Culture: development of the discipline of
linguistics. Sapir studied the ways in
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis which language and culture influence
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed the each other, and he was interested in the
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, suggesting that language relation between linguistic differences,
and differences in cultural world views.
influences how individuals perceive and conceive This part of his thinking was developed
reality. by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into
Whorf compared English and Hopi languages and the principle of linguistic relativity or the
"Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.
noted that English categorizes time and space
discretely, while Hopi does not. English has a discrete
past, present, and future, with events occurring at
specific times, whereas Hopi views events as ongoing Benjamin Lee Whorf
processes without fixed segments of time. (1897-1941)
Whorf believed that these linguistic differences shape Benjamin Lee Whorf was an American
the way Hopi and English speakers perceive the world. linguist and fire prevention engineer.
Whorf is widely known as reveal the
Evidence and Perspectives: "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis", but Whorf
Contemporary linguists generally do not support the called it the principle of linguistic
idea that language determines thought. However, relativity, because he saw the idea as
having implications similar to Einstein's
they acknowledge that certain language features principle of physical relativity.
may facilitate specific patterns of thought.
Poetry and metaphors demonstrate how words
and phrases can be applied to subjects beyond their
literal meanings, showcasing potential influences of
language on thought.
CLIFF NOTE
Testing the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is challenging
because researchers must isolate the effects of
language from other cultural factors.
Studying Children’s Concept Development:
One approach to understanding the relationship
between language and culture is to observe how
199
 children in different cultures, speaking different
languages, develop concepts as they grow up. ESKIMO LANGUAGE 1
If language influences the formation of a concept, GANA FALLING SNOW The two linguist
children in societies where the language emphasizes AKILUKAK FLUFFY FALLEN have documented
that concept should acquire it earlier. SNOW hypothesis with the
APUT SNOW ON e m p i r i c a l
GROUND knowledge of Indian
CASE STUDY KAGUKLAICH SNOW DRIFTED
and Eskimo. When
IN ROWS there is no camel or
similar words in
PIGSIRPOG DRIFTING SNOW
some languages place greater emphasis on Eskimo language.
gender differences than others. Studying GIMUGSUG SNOWDRIFT There are many
children’s gender identity development words about snow.
in Hebrew (gender emphasis), English
(moderate gender emphasis), and Finnish
(minimal gender emphasis) revealed that 2
Hebrew-speaking children acquired stable
Another example is that in
gender identity earliest, followed by English
language of Aboriginal, there are
and Finnish speakers. no directional concepts like right,
le, front and back. There are
directions as North, South, East
and West. In this case,
Language Differences and Experimental Predictions: Aborigines have to know what
Another approach is to predict performance in direction it is.
experiments based on language differences. CLOCKWISE

NORTH-WEST NORTH-EAST
CASE STUDY NORTH
LEFT RIGHT

Comparing Yucatec Mayan and English, it

was predicted that English speakers would RIGHT LEFT
WEST EAST
recall the number of presented items LEFT RIGHT
more accurately due to English’s linguistic
requirement to indicate singular or plural. RIGHT LEFT
Yucatec Maya allows nouns to be neutral
SOUTH
regarding number, creating ambiguity. SOUTH-WEST SOUTH-EAST
In experiments, Yucatec Mayan speakers
were less likely to describe the number of
objects in a picture compared to English 3
speakers, aligning with their language’s
We can also see Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in the "Arrival" movie.
lack of emphasis on indicating number. One of the main character is linguist Louise Banks. She has been
authorised by the government to communicate with the aliens. In
the movie, hypothesis was used to say that aliens use the symbol
language and that the complexity of sentences could not be
translated into a single output of each sentence.
CLIFF NOTE

Criticism:
1. Language is more flexible than this suggests.
2. Not having the language doesn't mean we can't
understand the concepts.
3. Language change happens - if language was
determining our thoughts we'd never have new ideas!
4. The 'strong' model of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has
fallen out of favour
200
Chapter: 9
RESEARCH METHODS IN
ANTHROPOLOGY
SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
FIELDWORK TRADITION IN ANTHROPOLOGY
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TECHNIQUE, METHOD AND Describe various methods of qualitative data
METHODOLOGY analysis. Highlight some popular computer
TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION softwares used in qualitative analysis. (20 marks,
Observation 2023)
Interview Glottochronology (10 marks, 2023)
Schedules Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and
Questionnaire Participatory Learning and Action. (10 marks,
Case Study 2022)
Genealogy Write the historical development of fieldwork
Life History tradition in anthropology till recent times. (15
Oral History marks, 2022)
Secondary Sources of Information Discuss various tools of data collection in
Participatory Methods conducting anthropological research. (20 marks,
2021)
ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION OF
DATA What is experimental ethnography? (10 marks,
2020)
How have interpretation and presentation of data
changed from classical to contemporary writing in
anthropological texts? (15 marks, 2020)
Discuss phenomenology as a research method in
anthropological studies. (15 marks, 2019)
Evaluate participant observation in producing
anthropological knowledge. (15 marks, 2019)
Define ethnography and present a brief history of
ethnography studies. (20 marks, 2018)
How is the case study method helpful in
understanding a social phenomenon? Explain with
a suitable example. (20 marks, 2018)
Elucidate the basic characteristics of
anthropological fieldwork methods. (15 marks,
2017)

201
 FIELDWORK TRADITION IN ANTHROPOLOGY NOTE

Anthropology is widely recognized as a “field science” due Margaret Mead notes: “We still have no way to make
to its reliance on first-hand experiences and real-world an anthropologist except by sending him into
data to understand human societies. the field: this contact with living material is our
Unlike mere assumptions and theories, anthropology distinguishing mark.”
seeks to authenticate its findings through the
collection of first-hand knowledge. This is where
fieldwork, as a crucial approach in anthropological History of Fieldwork in Anthropology:
study, comes into play. Early Dependency on Reports:
Here, we will explore the significance of fieldwork and Scholars relied on reports from missionaries,
its longstanding tradition in anthropology, highlighting travellers, and administrators.
how it has evolved as a methodology over time and Fieldwork was not a primary method of investigation.
played a pivotal role in advancing anthropological Early Field Expeditions:
research. E.B.Tylor’s expedition to Mexico and L.H.Morgan’s
The Concept of Fieldwork: work among the Iroquois.
Powdermaker (Fieldwork on race, gender, social British Expeditions:
dynamics research.) defines fieldwork as “the study of W.H.R. Rivers and A.C. Haddon organized the
people and of their culture in their natural habitat.” Torres Straits expedition in the Pacific region.
Fieldwork involves the researcher immersing Franz Boas and Fieldwork Revolution:
themselves in the place of investigation for an extended Boas’ first fieldwork among the Eskimos.
period to gain first-hand experience and collect data. Introduction of first-hand ethnographic data,
Fieldwork is a flexible and adaptable process that cultural relativism, and participant observation.
allows anthropologists to modify their approaches, Contribution of Bronislaw Malinowski:
develop new techniques, and devise strategies to
Malinowski’s significant contributions to fieldwork
overcome unforeseen challenges.
and British social anthropology.
Fieldwork is equally important for all subfields of Emphasis on intensive ethnographic research,
anthropology. participant observation, and local language
communication
Cultural Biological Women in Fieldwork:
anthropology anthropology Elsie Clews Parsons’ fieldwork in the American
fieldwork involves living fieldwork studies human Southwest.
among communities, and non-human primates Boas’ students, including Ruth Benedict and
observing their customs, in their natural habitats,
and understanding the examining physical
Margaret Mead became leading anthropologists
cultural factors shaping characteristics and genetic through their fieldwork contributions.
their lives. data to understand Establishing Anthropology as a Science:
evolution and human
variation. Advancements in fieldwork methodology.
Anthropology’s recognition as a legitimate scientific

Linguistic Archaeological
CLIFF NOTE
anthropology includes excavations,
fieldwork focuses on analyzing material
in-depth language remains to reconstruct
studies, engaging with past societies and
native speakers to cultures, considering
document structures and spatial and temporal
sociolinguistic patterns. contexts.

Traditionally, the word “field” indicates the area where

the members of the group to be researched by the
investigator live. However, today, the “field” may also
be the internet, a museum, a school, an eating joint,
etc.
202
 discipline.
From the Armchair to the Field
Key Words and Meaning
Fieldwork: Research in the field, which is any place
where people and culture are found.
Armchair Anthropology
• Scholars relied on reports by travelers, Ethnography: Studying and documenting the culture,
1 missionaries, and explorers.
• Limited direct experience or interaction with the
cultures studied.
customs, and social interactions of a particular
group of people through immersive fieldwork
Participant observation: Basic fieldwork method
in cultural anthropology that involves living in a
Verandah Anthropology culture for a long time while gathering data.
• Anthropologists traveled to European colonial territories.
• Lived near, but not with, the people they studied and
interacted with the locals primarily on the verandah of
2 Multisided research: Fieldwork conducted in more
than one location in order to understand the
residences. culture of dispersed members of the culture or
relationships among different levels of culture.
Participant Observation
• Bronislaw Malinowski lived among the Trobriand
3 Islanders, participatingin their activities.
• Learned the locallanguage to communicate
directly.
RELEVANCE OF FIELDWORK IN
ANTHROPOLOGY:
1. Authentic Data:
Direct Observation Conducted in a natural setting, facilitating first-hand

4
• Morgan interacted directly with the Iroquois people in data collection through emic perspective (insider’s
their territory.
• Challenged Euro-American perceptions of Native view) and ensuring data authenticity.
American tribes. 2. Differentiating Views:
Provides data that differentiates between emic
Recording Cultural Data (internal) and etic (external) views, revealing the gaps
between “what people think,” “what people say,” “what
5
• Mid 20th century anthropologists aimed to document
disappearing cultures. people do,” and “what people say they ought to have
• Conducted fieldwork in small, isolated cultures and done.
gathered data following the principle of holism.
3. Revealing Reality:
Multisited Research Allows researchers to uncover the reality of

6
• Globalization and mass communication necessitated new people’s lives by closely interacting with informants,
research methods. investigating, validating, and interpreting the actual
• Multisited research conducted in multiple locations to behaviours and practices, going beyond normative or
study global-local connections and migrant populations.
idealized expectations.
4. Insider’s Perspective and Contextual Understanding:
COVID-19 and Fieldwork
Fieldwork provides a holistic understanding of cultural
7 Anthropologists adapted during the pandemic by
studying their own lives and families, while also
exploring virtual spaces, maintaining fieldwork
practices and phenomena, capturing the complexity
and context of people’s lives, through long-term
traditions under unusual circumstances.
immersion and participant observation.
Enhances cultural relativism and provides a nuanced
Contemporary Approaches analysis by exploring local meanings, social structures,
• Study larger-scale cultures and cultural dynamics in a
globalized world.
• Emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches, technological
advancements.
8 power dynamics, and symbolic systems, going beyond
theoretical frameworks or secondary sources.
5. Adaptation to Changing Times:
Fieldwork in anthropology continues to evolve to
address the challenges posed by globalization,
CLIFF NOTE interconnectedness, and cultural transformations.
Enables the study of larger-scale cultures,
transnational connections, diasporas, and cultural
hybridity.
Facilitates the exploration of cultural change, social
dynamics, and the impact of external forces on
local communities, employing innovative research
methodologies such as multisited research and digital
ethnography.
203
 CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Malinowski in the Trobriand Islands Victor Turner among the Ndembu people in
Zambia, exploring rituals and social structure
Dr. Bronislaw Malinowski conducted extensive
fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands, located in Through his participation in Ndembu rites of
Papua New Guinea. Living among the Trobriand passage, such as initiation ceremonies and
Islanders for several years, Malinowski studied healing rituals, Turner gained an insider’s
their kinship systems, economic practices, and perspective on the symbolism and meaning
religious beliefs. His seminal work, “Argonauts embedded in these practices. His ethnographic
of the Western Pacific,” provided a detailed work highlighted the significance of ritual and
account of Trobriand society and introduced symbolism in Ndembu society and contributed
the concept of participant observation as a to the development of symbolic anthropology.
central method in anthropology.

CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Arjun Appadurai’s multisited fieldwork in
Margaret Mead in Samoa, studying Mumbai
adolescent development and sexual Dr. Arjun Appadurai conducted multisited
behaviour fieldwork in Mumbai, India, examining the
Focusing on adolescent development and effects of globalization on urban life. His
sexual behaviour. Her research challenged research focused on the influence of global
prevailing notions of universal adolescence media, consumer culture, and transnational
and sexual morality by documenting a more migration on the formation of urban identities
permissive and relaxed attitude towards and social dynamics. Appadurai’s book
sexuality among Samoan youth. Mead’s “Modernity at Large” provided insights into the
work, particularly her book “Coming of Age ways in which globalization reshapes cultural
in Samoa,” emphasized the importance practices and identities in contemporary
of cultural context in shaping individuals’ urban contexts.
attitudes and behaviours.

Doing Fieldwork:
CASE STUDY Field Methods in Different Anthropological Branches:
Biological Anthropology: Surveys, samples,
anthropometric measurements, primate observation.
Laura Nader among the Zapotec Archaeological Anthropology: Landscape surveys,
sampling, artifact study, excavation.
Laura Nader conducted fieldwork among
Linguistic Anthropology: Participant observation,
the Zapotec people in Oaxaca, Mexico. She
interviews, sound recording.
examined their legal practices and discovered
a stark contrast between the formal legal Socio-cultural Anthropology: Participant observation,
system and community’s traditional dispute interviews, questionnaires, case studies.
resolution mechanisms. While Zapotec
individuals would often publicly state their
support for the formal legal system, they CLIFF NOTE
primarily relied on local customary laws
and community leaders to resolve conflicts,
highlighting the divergence between stated
beliefs and actual behaviours.

204
 Anthropology Preparation Fieldwork

Surveys
Selecting a research topic
Samples
Biological
Anthropology
Anthropometric Measurements Choosing a research site

Primate Observation
Research funding
Landscape Surveys

Sampling Health Precautions

Archaeological
Anthropology
Artifact Study
Permission to conduct research
Excavation

Learning the local language

Participant Observation
Linguistic
Interviews
Anthropology Personal Specialized
Equipment and Supplies
Sound Recording

Participant Observation Field Equipment

Interviews
Socio-cultural
Anthropology
Questionnaires

Case Studies Guiding Theories and Approaches:

Historical Influence: Early positivist approach focused
Variations in Fieldwork: on objectivity and quantitative research.
Varied scenarios influence fieldwork methods based Interpretive Approach: Introduced subjective analysis
on research topics, locations, and available resources. and the importance of the respondents’ perspective
Quantitative Data: Used by biological anthropologists, (emic) over the researcher’s standpoint (etic).
involving census, surveys, mapping, statistical analysis.
Qualitative Data: Emphasized by social
anthropologists, focusing on participant observation, Guiding Theories and Approaches
interviews, ethnography.
Fieldwork Process:
Guiding Theories
General Processes: Establishing familiarity, maintaining and Approaches
field diaries, learning local language, building rapport
with the community. User
Specific Processes: Researcher gains knowledge Early Positivist Interpretive
of community institutions, designs interview guides, Approach Approach
collects data through interviews, case studies, and life Objectivity and
histories. Guiding Theories and Approaches: Quantitative Research

Subjective Analysis
and Respondents'
CLIFF NOTE Perspective (Emic)

User Early Positivist Interpretive

Approach Approach

205
 Analysis and Reporting:
Collected data is analyzed, and conclusions are inferred Ethical dimension in Anthropological reserch
to create reports or theses.
Two events in the Project Camelot: U.S. govenment employed
Ethical Issues in Field Work: anthr opoligist to collect information for
1950s and 1960s political purpose in South America
Research has an ethical dimension when it involves promoted a
reconside ration of Vietnam War: Raised question about the
creatures with whom we have moral relations. government ’s use of ethnographic
anthr opologists’ role information and the protection of reserch
Ethical issues can arise from the selection of a in research participants
controversial topic that may be objected to by the
studied population. Pro-War Position: Some argued the anthr
opologists should support the U.S. military
Risks and Impacts: effort and provide information to subvert
communism
Fieldwork exposes lives, relationships, and equations to Divisive Positions
Protection of Participants Postion:
the researcher, carrying potential risks and impacts. Emphasized the responsibility to protect the
people being studied, opposing the war and
The intentions of the researcher are academic and western imperialism
professional, but the impact on the population studied
can be significant. In 1971, the American Anthropological
Association (AAA) adopted a code of ethics
Framework for Resolving Ethical Issues: Primary Responsibility: Ensuring the safety
Adoption of a Code of reserch participants
Confidentiality: of Ethics
Opposition to Convert Research: Cultural
Researchers should protect the identities and anthropology does not condone undercover
confidentiality of research participants. reserch

Building rapport and trust with respondents is

HTS seeks to employ cultural anthropologists
crucial to encourage openness while ensuring their in on-the-ground military operations
information is not broadcasted. Controversy Aim: Reduce wartime casualities by lever
Surrounding the aging cultural knowledge
Consent: Human Terrain Ethical Dilemma: Joining the HTS may require
System (HTS) providing information about local people to
Researchers must obtain informed consent from the military, potentially causing harm and
respondents before probing into their lives. com promising the principle of ‘do no ham’.

Respondents should be informed about the

research nature, objectives, use of findings, and
potential effects. Participation should be voluntary. Divisive Positions:
Utility: Pro-War Position: Some argued that
Researchers have a moral responsibility to utilize the anthropologists should support the U.S. military
information provided by respondents productively. effort and provide information to subvert
communism.
Consideration should be given to how the research
can be accessible and beneficial to the community Protection of Participants Position: Emphasized
studied. the responsibility to protect the people being
studied, opposing the war and Western
Knowledge and its Transmission:
imperialism.
Dissemination of knowledge through the research
findings is an important ethical concern. Adoption of a Code of Ethics: In 1971, the
American Anthropological Association (AAA)
Researchers should carefully consider what to
adopted a code of ethics.
reveal and what not to, balancing the community’s
interests and issues. Primary Responsibility: Ensuring the safety
of research participants.
Thus, researchers should be mindful of their moral Opposition to Covert Research: Cultural
responsibilities while in the field. anthropology does not condone undercover
research.
History of evolution of code of Ethics: Controversy Surrounding the Human Terrain
System (HTS): HTS seeks to employ cultural
Two events in the 1950s and 1960s prompted a anthropologists in on-the-ground military
reconsideration of anthropologists’ role in research. operations.
Project Camelot: U.S. government employed Aim: Reduce wartime casualties by leveraging
anthropologists to collect information for political cultural knowledge.
purposes in South America. Ethical Dilemma: Joining the HTS may require
Vietnam War: Raised questions about the providing information about local people to
government’s use of ethnographic information the military, potentially causing harm and
and the protection of research participants. compromising the principle of “do no harm.”
206
Collaborative research & Ethical issue: An approach FIELD-METHODS IN ANTHROPOLOGY/
to learning about culture that involves anthropologists TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
working with members of the study population as
partners and participants rather than as “subjects.” (1) Observation
Ethical dilemmas in collaborative research include Observation is a widely used method in social research,
obtaining informed consent and ensuring confidentiality including anthropology. It involves systematically
and privacy of participants’ information. observing individual and collective behaviour in real-life
settings or laboratories.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TECHNIQUE, METH- It requires establishing rapport with the members
OD AND METHODOLOGY being observed and paying attention to minute
details.
Technique Method Methodology The researcher records their observations
accurately, without interpreting or attributing
Refers to Refers to a Refers to personal meaning.
specific skills, broader the overall The ideal type of observation for anthropological
tools, or approach theoretical and fieldwork may depend on the research context and
procedures or strategy philosophical objectives.
used in the employed in framework
1. Controlled observation: Observation conducted in an
research conducting guiding the
artificially created environment, such as a controlled
process, such research, research
experiment or setting, where the researcher has
as participant including the process.
control over various factors.
observation, selection and Methodology
interviews, application Merit: Provides the researcher with control over
encompasses experimental conditions and variables.
surveys, or of specific the theoretical
data analysis techniques. Demerit: The observed behaviour and reactions
assumptions, may differ from real-life situations, potentially
techniques. Methods provide concepts, and limiting the generalizability of the findings.
Techniques are a framework or principles that
practical aspects plan for collecting shape the 2. Uncontrolled observation: Observation conducted
employed and analysing research design, in a natural environment without external control or
to collect data and may data collection, influence.
data or carry be influenced analysis, and Nonparticipant observation method: A method of
out specific by theoretical interpretation. observation where the researcher does not actively
tasks within perspectives participate in the observed activities or events but
a research or research collects data by observing from a distance.
project. objectives.
Example: An anthropologist studying cultural identity CASE STUDY
among indigenous communities:
Technique: The Method: The Methodology:
researcher uses researcher Guided by a In Search of Respect: Exploring Urban
participant adopts a constructivist Poverty and Drug Culture through
observation qualitative perspective, the Nonparticipant and Quasi Participant
to gather data research researcher aims Observation in New York City’s Slums
by living within method, to understand Philippe Bourgois, an anthropologist,
the community, combining how individuals conducted a notable nonparticipant and quasi
observing social participant construct and participant observation study in the slums
interactions, observation negotiate their of New York City. His research focused on
rituals, and daily with in-depth cultural the lives of drug dealers and the impact of
activities. interviews to identities, poverty, violence, and drug addiction on their
explore cultural informing the community. Bourgois immersed himself in
identity. selection of the environment, spending extended periods
research of time with the individuals involved in the
methods drug trade. While he aimed to maintain a
and providing nonparticipant role, the nature of the study
a theoretical sometimes required him to take on a quasi-
framework for participant role to gain deeper insights. His
analysis.
207
 fully immerses themselves in the group,
ethnographic work, documented in the book “In sometimes concealing their true identity.
Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio,” 2. Quasi participant observation: The researcher
shed light on the complexities of urban poverty openly declares their role as a researcher while
and drug culture in marginalized communities. participating in the group’s activities.

Active
Acceptable Non-
participation
role within disruptive
Advantages Limitations in social
the context presence
events
Objectivity and Subjectivity can
neutrality can be still influence the
maintained due to observation.
detachment from the The presence of a third
observed group. person may cause the Observation
Living and Full
Allows for self- group to alter their association of behavior
sharing in
observation and behaviour artificially. as a group and
everyday life
member interactions
introspection to identify Limited rapport and
biases and prejudices. trust may result in
Helps the observer people withholding
understand the their true feelings and
weaknesses and opinions. Conversations Holistic
strengths of the group The observer’s for study of the
by maintaining distance. detachment may lead understanding community
to suspicion and hinder
real insight into the
phenomena
Advantages Limitations

CASE STUDY Obtains authentic Researcher’s cultural

and comprehensive biases may influence
information observations
Napoleon Chagnon’s Participant Observation Observes natural Time-consuming
among the Yanomami behaviour of the group process
Provides deeper Initial cultural shock for
Napoleon Chagnon conducted extensive insights into the the researcher
participant observation among the Yanomami, phenomenon Not all phenomena are
an indigenous tribe residing in the remote Enhances observable
regions of Venezuela and Brazil. Living understanding of the
among them for extended periods, Chagnon Historical data
cultural context collection is not feasible
documented their daily activities, rituals, and
social interactions. Through his immersive Captures emic
fieldwork, he uncovered the intricate kinship perspectives of the
structures, subsistence strategies, and the role natives
of violence in Yanomami society. Chagnon’s Allows exploration of
ground breaking research challenged sensitive topics
prevailing notions, providing valuable insights
into human behaviour, cultural dynamics, and This method gave rise to a widely used form of
the unique challenges faced by indigenous anthropological research known as Participatory Action
communities in the Amazon rainforest. Research (PAR).

PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)

&PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR):
Participant observation method: Participant Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA):
observation method: The researcher actively
Definition: Approach used by NGOs and development
engages in the activities of the group being studied.
agencies for community involvement in development
1. Total participant observation: The researcher projects.
208
 Developers: Robert Chambers and Gordon Aims for organizational transformation.
Convey(Developed RRA which evolved into PRA). (2) Interview Method:
Purpose: Incorporate local knowledge and opinions in A research technique that involves gathering verbal
project planning and management. data through questions or guided conversation

Introducing PRA Surveying and

Understanding Rules of the Interview
approach to the group dynamics
sampling. through role
locals. Choose a disturbance-
reversals and Respect the interviewee's
feedback sessions. free location for the
privacy, if needed.
interview

Designing and Ensuring Discussions and

implementing a inclusive semi-structured Ensure there is no
revenue participation. interviews with Use short, interesting, language barrier between
management plan focus groups. and clear questions. the interviewer
and interviewee.

Steps:
Participatory Action Research (PAR): Avoid asking threatening Show genuine interest in
or tricky questions. the interview process.
Definition: Approach emphasizing co-learning,
participation, and organizational transformation.
Nature: More of an approach than a specific method of
inquiry.
Maintain control of
Observe and note the
Purpose: Professional social researchers collaborate the interview as the
interviewee's reactions.
with organization members to study and transform the investigator
organization.
Characteristics:
Ongoing organizational learning process. Conduct the interview
in a friendly and respectful
Emphasizes co-learning and participation.
manner

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)

Method Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA between at least two people.

Types of Interview:
Participatory Action Research (PAR)
Structured or non-structured interview
Individual interview or group interview
Quick assessment of rural areas
Formal or informal interview
Approach Community engagement and participation Short term or prolonged interview
Interview with a schedule or interview without a
Collaborative research with communities schedule

Identify intervention areas

Purpose Incorporate local knowledge and opinions CLIFF NOTE

Transform organizations and social structures

Observations, interviews, data collection

Key Activities Participatory exercises, knowledge sharing

Focus groups, mapping exercises, action planning

209
 himself.
Prepration of Interview
Types of questions in a questionnaire:
1. Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in
Interviewer
Problem Interview Guide Informants their own words. They are useful for gathering detailed
Understand the problem information and exploring respondents’ thoughts and
feelings.
Throughly studing the
reserch problem beforehand For example: What do you think is the most important
factor in choosing a teaching method?
Prepare interview guide
2. Closed-ended questions provide a list of possible
Creating a written document outlining the
different aspects of study
answers for respondents to choose from. They are
useful for gathering quantitative data and quickly
Providing a flexible framework for assessing respondents’ opinions. For example:
unstructured interviews.

Allowing the interviewer to apply their

Do you think the nuclear family system is suitable for
own judgment and intelligence Kerala?
Select informants (a) Very suitable
Carefully choosing key informants who are knowledgeable (b) Suitable
about the reserch problem (c) Not suitable
Ensuring that informants have relevants insights (d) Not at all suitable
and perspectives
3. Contingency questions are a type of closed-ended
Interviewer Problem Interview Guide Informants question that only applies to a subset of respondents.
They are used to gather more detailed information
from a specific group of respondents. For example:
Process of Interview
Have you ever participated in a tribal marriage?
Rapport Recording
Probing Respondent (a) Yes
Interviewer building the response
(b) No
Establish friendly
relationship If yes, how many times have you participated in a tribal
Build trust marriage?
Create comfortable
atmosphere (a) Once
Ask relevant questions (b) Twice
Explore remote topics (c) Thrice
Bring respondent back to topic
(d) More than thrice
Record data
Avoid memory errors It is important to choose the right type of question for each
Record question in your questionnaire. Open-ended questions
response are best for gathering detailed information, while closed-
ended questions are best for gathering quantitative

CLIFF NOTE
Focused on a specific topic or general interview
(3) Questionnaire
Questionnaire is considered as the heart of social survey
because it is the main technique of data collection
employed in survey method. It is a better instrument
for obtaining information about personal life, feelings,
expectations or future plans.
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions in a
definite order and form.
The systematic compiling of questions is necessary in
a questionnaire.
It is distributed to obtain responses from respondents.
210 The respondent is expected to fill up the form by her/
 Advantages Limitations However, it is important to be aware of the limitations of
questionnaires before using them.
Large coverage: Non-literate or less (4) Schedule
Questionnaires can be educated persons:
used to collect data Questionnaires may A schedule is a data collection tool that is used to collect
from a large number of not be suitable for information from respondents through the use of a
people, which can be collecting information series of questions that are asked and answered by the
useful for research that from non-literate or researcher. Schedules are typically used in qualitative
requires a large sample less educated persons.
size. This is because The key difference between a questionnaire and
Low cost: these individuals may a schedule lies in who fills out the questions. A
Questionnaires are a not be able to read questionnaire is completed by the respondents
relatively inexpensive or understand the themselves, while a schedule is filled out by the
way to collect data. questions. researcher in the presence of the respondent.
The only costs involved Adequate response
are the cost of printing rate: The response
and distributing the rate to questionnaires research, but they can also be used in quantitative
questionnaires, and the can be low. This means research.
cost of analysing the that researchers may A schedule is more advantageous than a questionnaire
data. not get enough data to in several ways:
Efficiency: answer their research
Rapport: Establish rapport, clarify questions for better
Questionnaires can be questions.
responses.
administered quickly Misinterpretation
Purpose Explanation: Engage respondents, ensure
and easily, which can of questions:
understanding.
save time and money. Respondents may
misinterpret questions Data Completeness: Improved usability, comprehensive
Anonymity:
or give incomplete responses.
Respondents can
remain anonymous answers. This can Efficiency: Immediate clarification saves time and
when completing a make it difficult to costs.
questionnaire, which analyze the data. Data Quality: Enhanced accuracy, reduced follow-up
can encourage them to needs.
be more honest in their Types of schedules:
answers.
There are five main types of schedules:
Preliminary tool:
Observation schedules: These schedules are used to
Questionnaires can be
collect data on a specific aspect of a phenomenon by
used as a preliminary
observing the behaviour of individuals or groups.
tool for conducting an
in-depth study. This Document schedules: These schedules are used to
can help researchers to collect data from documents, such as official records,
identify the key issues autobiographies, and other written materials.
to be explored in the Rating schedules: These schedules are used to collect
in-depth study. data on attitudes, behaviours, and opinions by asking
respondents to rate their agreement or disagreement
with a series of statements.
data. Contingency questions can be used to gather more
Evaluation schedules: These schedules are used
detailed information from a specific group of respondents.
to collect data on the effectiveness of programs or
Overall, questionnaires are a useful tool for collecting data. services by asking respondents to rate their satisfaction
with the program or service.
Interview schedules: These schedules are used to
CLIFF NOTE collect data through face-to-face interviews. The

CLIFF NOTE

211
 Advantages Limitations a social phenomenon or a social unit, which may be a
person, family, community, institution or an event.
They can be used to They can be time- Essential characteristics of Case Study are:
collect data on a wide consuming to develop
It is an intensive, comprehensive and detailed study of
range of topics. and administer.
a social unit
They can be used They can be expensive
It helps to understand the personal as well as the
to collect data to administer.
hidden dimensions of human life
from a variety of They can be difficult
sources, including The Case study method helps retaining the holistic and
to administer to
individuals, groups, and meaningful characteristics of real-life events – such as
illiterate or non-literate
documents. individual life cycles, small group behaviour, etc.
respondents.
They can be used They can be biased if Sources of Data for Case Study:
to collect both the questions are not In Case Study, information may be collected from
quantitative and carefully designed. various sources. The important sources include -Life
qualitative data. histories, Personal documents, letters and records
They can be used to
collect data quickly and Advantages Limitations
efficiently.
In-depth analysis: Potential errors in
Enables thorough case selection and
examination and observation.
researcher asks the questions and records the understanding. Difficulty in drawing
answers.
Sensitive data generalizations from
(5) Case study collection: Suitable for a limited number of
Case Study means intensive study of a case. Case is a social investigating sensitive cases.
unit with a deviant behaviour. It is a method of qualitative areas. Lack of uniform and
Detailed exploration: standardized system
Reveals diverse habits, for recording case
History: traits, and qualities. history.
Frederic Le Play first introduced the case-study Informing hypothesis Potential distortion
method into social science in 1829. Herbert Spencer formulation: Provides of quality due to
was the first to use this method in ethnographic clues for further investigator’s bias.
studies. research. Time-consuming and
costly in certain cases

analysis. It is extensively used in psychology, education,

sociology, anthropology, economics and political science. Biographies Information obtained through interviews
It aims at obtaining a complete and detailed account of Observation.
Few famous case studies:
1. Franz Boas’ study of Kwakiutl potlatch ceremonies,
Types of Case Study: examining the social and economic significance of
1. Descriptive:- these rituals in the indigenous culture of the Pacific
It is used to explore a specific event or issue Northwest.
to identify the key facts, what happened and 2. Bronislaw Malinowski’s study of the Trobriand
who was/is involved. Islanders, focusing on their kinship systems, economic
It can be used to compare two instances of practices, and the role of magic and religion in their
an event to illustrate how one is similar to the society.
other. 3. Clifford Geertz’s study of the Balinese cockfight,
It generally does not include solutions or analyzing the cultural symbols, rituals, and social
recommendations dynamics embedded in this traditional form of
2. Problem-solving:- It aims to critically examine entertainment in Bali, Indonesia.
an issue related to a specific individual or group, (6) Genealogical Technique(GT):
and then recommend and justify solutions to the
The GT method, derived from W.H.R. Rivers’ book “Kinship
issue, integrating theory and practice.
and Social Organizations” in 1911, is a well-established
procedure in ethnography. It allows researchers to identify
important links of kinship determined by marriage and
212
descent. This method gained popularity through the letters, diaries, school records, legal papers, and news
works of influential anthropologists such as W.H.R. Rivers clippings.
and L.H. Morgan. Modes of Administration:
Origins and Pioneers: Narrative Approach: Emphasizes the active
W.H.R. Rivers: Introduced the GT method in his construction of life stories through the interaction
Torres Strait expedition and popularized it in his between the interviewer and interviewee.
study on Todas. Published “Genealogical method in Realist (Inductive) Approach: Begins with a hypothesis
anthropological enquiry” in 1910. and uses a series of interviews to gather facts that can
L.H. Morgan: Utilized the GT method in his study of the be incorporated into the hypothesis.
Iroquois Indians. Neopositivist Approach: Focuses on validating pre-
Procedure: existing theory by asking questions that guide the
research.
Tracing Pedigree: The GT method involves tracing
the genealogical table of the informant, known as Ego, Advantages:
through whom the relations are established. Open-Ended and Less Directive: Allows for a flexible
exploration of the informant’s life.
Information Gathered: The GT method proves useful in
gathering information related to: Comprehensive Insights: Provides detailed descriptions
of acts, events, relationships, and circumstances in a
Kinship Terminology
particular life.
Rules of Descent
Disadvantages:
Rules of Marriage and Residence
Time-Consuming: The process of conducting life
Family Structure history interviews can be lengthy.
Succession of Chieftainship, etc.
Significance of Genealogy and Kinship in Preindustrial
Societies: CASE STUDY
Integral to Social Aspects: Genealogy and kinship are
deeply linked to the religious, political, and economic
aspects of preindustrial societies. “Nisa: The Life and Times of a !Kung Woman”
Occupational Patterns: The economy revolves around (1981)
system-oriented activities, with entire kin groups
In the study conducted by anthropologist
involved in the same occupations.
Marjorie Shostak, the focus is on the life
Ascribed Status of Chiefs: Chieftainship is an inherited history of Nisa, a Ju/’hoansi woman from the
ascribed status within a particular kin group. Kalahari Desert in southern Africa. Shostak
Primitive Beliefs: Preindustrial societies often adhere adopts a method that allows Nisa to narrate
to beliefs like totemism and ancestor worship, strongly her own story, providing intricate details
associated with genealogy. about her childhood and her experiences with
(7) Life History: multiple marriages. The value of this study lies
in gaining insight into Nisa’s perspective and
Life history is a qualitative, in-depth description of an understanding her unique experiences, rather
individual’s life as narrated to the researcher. These than solely seeking objective truth. However,
accounts are social constructions that require further controversy surrounds certain aspects of
investigation and reinterpretation. the narrative, as some anthropologists have
The life history method was first used when interviewing raised concerns about potential distortions
indigenous peoples of the Americas, particularly Native or inaccuracies within Nisa’s account. Despite
American leaders, to gain insights into their personal these debates, the study contributes to a
lives. It found significant development in the 1920s deeper understanding of Nisa’s life and offers
with the landmark work “The Polish Peasant in Europe valuable cultural and personal insights.
and America” by W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki.
Key Elements:
Researcher: Listens, thinks, and asks probing
questions.
CLIFF NOTE
Informant: The person who reveals the information.
Tools and Methods Used:
Interviews: Conducted with the informant.
Historical Data: Information from sources such as
213
 adopted the practice of allowing their hair to
become matted, symbolizing their personal
suffering. Obeyesekere employs a method
that involves analyzing the psychological
afflictions experienced by these devotees,
including sexual anxieties, and explores the
significance of their matted hair. His findings
reveal that the devotees’ matted hair serves
as a representation of their suffering and
bestows upon them a special holy status,
granting exemption from the rules of married
life, including conjugal sexual relations. This
study sheds light on the intricate interplay
between personal experiences, religious
beliefs, and social status within the context
of Hindu devotion, offering insights into the
complex dynamics at play in the lives of these
devotees.
Marjorie Shostak interviewing Nisa during fieldwork
among the Ju/’hoansi in 1975.

Limited Generalizability: Findings may not be easily Advantages Limitations

generalized to broader populations. Unrecorded Stories: Subjectivity and
Subjectivity: Relies on the researcher’s personal skills Oral history captures Verification: The
and perceptions of the interviewee. facts and stories that subjective nature of oral
(8) Oral History: may not be found history necessitates
in official or written careful verification and
Methodology:
records, particularly comparison with other
Recorded Interviews: Oral history involves conducting personal experiences sources of information
interviews between narrators who have personal of significant events like to ensure accuracy and
experience of historically significant events and wars, genocides, and reliability.
knowledgeable interviewers. other tragedies. Limited Scope: Oral
Goal of Adding to the Historical Record: The purpose Insights into Primitive history focuses on
of oral history is to contribute to the historical record Societies: It is a individual experiences
by gathering first-hand accounts and narratives. valuable method for and perspectives,
Characteristics: documenting past which may not capture
Primary Source: Oral history is considered a primary events and traditions in the broader historical
source of historical information. primitive or preliterate context or provide
Subjectivity: As a spoken account, oral history societies where written a comprehensive
reflects the personal opinions and perspectives of the records may be limited. understanding of
narrators, making it subjective rather than presenting Preservation of complex events.
an objective or verified narrative. Indigenous Knowledge: Ethical Considerations:
Supplementing the Historical Record: Oral histories Oral history helps Ethical dilemmas can
are often used in conjunction with other primary and preserve indigenous arise when dealing with
secondary sources to provide a more comprehensive knowledge and cultural sensitive or traumatic
understanding of history. heritage, ensuring that topics, requiring careful
important aspects of a consideration of the
community’s history are potential impact on
CASE STUDY documented. narrators and their well-
Diverse Historical being.
Viewpoints: By
Life histories of four Sri Lankan Hindu collecting narratives
devotees (1981) from a range of
Anthropologist Gananath Obeyesekere delves individuals, oral history
into the life histories of four individuals who provides diverse
embraced Hindu religious devotion and perspectives on
214 historical events.
 Anthropologists use sampling methods to study
(9) SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION /
diverse cultural groups and phenomena.
CONTENTS ANALYSIS METHOD:
Sampling allows for efficient data collection while
Definition: Secondary sources refer to data that has
accounting for challenges such as population size,
already been collected and analyzed by someone else,
dispersion, and accessibility.
providing researchers with pre-existing information.
Types of Sources: Secondary sources can be
categorized into published sources, such as
reports, government publications, historical
documents, books, and newspapers, as well as CLIFF NOTE
unpublished sources like letters and unpublished
research reports or biographies.
Content Analysis Method:
Development and Application: The content
analysis method was first developed and applied
by anthropologist Ruth Benedict during World War
II. She studied the Japanese settled in the USA by
analyzing the contents published in newspapers
and organizing them meaningfully. Her book
“Chrysanthemum And The Sword” (1946) is an
example of the application of content analysis in
cultural anthropology.
Purpose: Content analysis is useful for studying
patterns of behaviour from a distance when
fieldwork and first-hand information collection are
not possible.
Texts in Cultural Anthropology:
Collection and Analysis: Cultural anthropologists
collect and analyze textual materials, including
written or oral stories, myths, plays, sayings,
speeches, jokes, everyday conversations, and
internet and social media content.
Example: Franz Boas recorded extensive texts
from American Indians of the Northwest Coast
of Canada, including myths, songs, speeches, and
ritual accounts. These collections serve as valuable
records of cultures that have changed over time
and are consulted by tribal members to recover
forgotten aspects of their culture.
Modern Application: Anthropologist Anna Kata
conducted a study analyzing internet websites
for the social discourse about the dangers of
vaccination. She examined several websites
using content analysis to identify shared themes
and found prominent themes related to safety,
effectiveness, alternative medicine, civil liberties,
conspiracy theories, religion, misinformation, and
emotional appeals. This analysis helps identify
areas that require specific attention in combating
anti-vaccination views.
(10) Sampling Method:
Sampling is a crucial method in anthropology
for gathering data and making inferences about
populations.
It involves selecting a subset of individuals or elements
from a larger population for study.
Sampling ensures the representativeness and validity
215
of research findings in anthropology.
 Sampling Method Description Advantages Disadvantages Example

Simple Random Randomly selecting - Free from bias. - Difficult to obtain. Drawing names from
Sample participants from the a hat.
population.
Systematic Sample Choosing items based - Reduces bias. - Can introduce bias if Selecting every 5th
on a fixed rule (e.g., the pattern coincides person from a list.
every 10th item). with population
pattern.
Stratified Sampling Dividing the - More accurate None major. Surveying equal
population into results. proportions of
categories and men and women
sampling from each. separately.
Quota Sampling Setting quotas for - Useful for Not a genuine random Interviewing more
different categories unrepresentative sample. children than adults
and selecting samples or difficult for a survey on
accordingly. sampling situations. computer games.
Cluster Sampling Selecting random - Less expensive and - Not a genuine Selecting random
clusters and sampling time-consuming. random sample. cities and surveying all
all individuals within households within the
each cluster. chosen cities.
Multi-stage Sampling A more complex form - Easier to implement None major. Sampling schools
of cluster sampling, than single-stage within randomly
with larger clusters cluster sampling. selected districts,
further subdivided for then selecting
targeted sampling. students within the
sampled schools.

Simple Random sampling Stratified Random Sampling

Systematic sampling

Cluster Random Sampling

216
Multistage sampling Example: Investigating the role of emotions and
embodiment in religious ceremonies, exploring how
individuals’ bodily experiences and emotional states
are intertwined with their religious practices.
4. Examining Inter-subjectivity and Social Interaction:
Phenomenology allows for the exploration of inter-
subjective experiences and the dynamics of social
interaction. It focuses on how individuals engage with
others, navigate social relationships, and construct
shared meanings.
Example: Analyzing the lived experiences of
participants in communal activities such as festivals
or cooperative work, exploring how intersubjective
experiences shape social cohesion and cultural
identity.
5. Capturing Cultural Narratives: Phenomenology
enables researchers to capture and analyze cultural
narratives, stories, and personal accounts. It provides a
framework for understanding the narrative structures
Quota Sampling and cultural meanings embedded within them.
Example: Conducting in-depth interviews or oral
histories to gather personal narratives of individuals
from specific cultural groups, aiming to understand
their life experiences and the cultural values
embedded in their stories.
Claude Levi-Strauss, a prominent anthropologist
known for his contributions to structuralism,
incorporated phenomenology in his studies. He
utilized folk stories, religious tales, and fairy tales
11) Phenomenology in Anthropological to delve into the underlying structures of human
Research: thought and perception. One of his notable works,
1. Understanding Cultural Meaning: Phenomenology “The Elementary Structures of Kinship,” focused on
helps anthropologists uncover the meanings and analyzing kinship systems across various cultures.
interpretations individuals and communities attribute Levi-Strauss aimed to uncover the cognitive
to cultural phenomena. It allows researchers to explore structures and symbolic meanings embedded
the lived experiences and perspectives of individuals in kinship terminology, exploring how individuals
within their specific cultural and social contexts. perceive and categorize familial relationships, and
Example: Studying the cultural significance of rituals how these perceptions shape social organization.
in indigenous communities and examining how L.P. Vidyarthi, an anthropologist specializing in Indian
individuals experience and interpret these rituals in society and culture, employed phenomenology to
their daily lives. explore cultural practices, emotions, and symbolic
2. Exploring Subjectivity and Perception: Phenomenology meanings. In his book “The Sacred Complex of
allows researchers to investigate subjective Hindu Gaya,” Vidyarthi examined the pilgrimage
experiences, perceptions, and consciousness. It site of Gaya in India and the rituals associated
focuses on how individuals make sense of their with it. He delved into the intertwined nature of
world, emphasizing their first-hand accounts and individuals’ emotions, beliefs, and experiences
descriptions. within the context of the sacred rituals performed
Example: Examining how individuals perceive and at Gaya. Vidyarthi emphasized a phenomenological
experience their environment, landscapes, and approach to understanding the cultural significance
natural phenomena, and how these perceptions of the site, paying attention to the gestures, facial
shape their cultural practices and beliefs. expressions, and emotional experiences of the
participants in these rituals.
3. Uncovering Emotions and Embodiment:
Phenomenology facilitates the exploration of
emotions and embodiment within cultural contexts.
It helps researchers understand how individuals
experience and express emotions, as well as how
bodily sensations and experiences are intertwined with
cultural meanings. 217
 concurrent flows of activity viz,
ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND
1. Data Reduction:- Process of selecting, focusing,
PRESENTATION OF DATA simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data
that appear in the field notes
Data Analysis in Anthropology: 2. Data Display:- An organized, compressed assembly
Analysis and interpretation of data is the most crucial of information that permits drawing of conclusion
phase in social science research. But, the challenge faced and action. Looking at display helps us to understand
by the social science researcher is to make sense of a what is happening.
massive amount of data, reduce the volume of information, 3. Drawing Conclusion and Verification:- It stems from
identify significant patterns, and construct a framework data display which is verified and cross-checked
for communicating the essence of what the data reveal. while the researcher is in the field.
1. Qualitative Data Analysis: Data analysis techniques in qualitative research
It consists of ‘detailed descriptions’ of situations, Codification:- Coding is the formal representation
events, people, interactions, observed behaviours, still of analytical thinking. Codes are tags or labels for
or moving images and artifacts. assigning units of meaning to the descriptive or
These data are also available in the form of ‘direct inferential information compiled during a study. Codes
quotations’ from people about their attitudes, beliefs, are efficient data-labelling and data retrieval devices.
and thoughts; ‘excerpts’ or ‘entire passages’ from They empower and speed up analysis. Creating a start
documents, correspondence records and case list of codes prior to field work is helpful. Codes are two
histories. In addition to these, verbal data gathered types - Descriptive Codes and Pattern Codes.
through open ended questionnaires, observations, and Categorization:- It is a process of identifying patterns
interviews are also mostly qualitative in nature. Code Meaning
Examples- descriptive field notes, narratives, myths,
songs. Prog Programme
Presentation of qualitative data relies on people’s own
Org Organization
words and stories.
In case of qualitative data, there are no formulae Ob Observation
for determining significance. There are no ways
of perfectly replicating the researcher’s analytical in the data; recurring ideas, themes, perspectives and
thought processes. There are no straightforward tests descriptions that depict the social world under study.
for reliability and validity. In short, there are no absolute
Indigenous typologies:- Typologies are classification
rules. Because each qualitative study is unique, the
systems made up of categories that divide some
analytical approach used will be unique.
aspects of the world into parts. Indigenous typologies
Decision about qualitative data analysis strategies is (classification schemes) are expressed by participants
dependent upon: and are generated through their analysis of how they
1. The conceptual framework of the study, use language and what they express.
2. The attendant research questions, and, Content analysis:- There are three approaches that a
3. The strategy for research and design. researcher may adopt in content analysis. They are: (i)
There are three alternatives available for deciding characteristics of content, (ii) procedures or causes of
qualitative data analysis strategies: content, and (iii) audience or effects of content.
1. Ongoing Analysis Versus Analysis at the end:- In Triangulation:- Triangulation may be defined as the use
the ongoing analysis phase, the analysts formally of two or more methods of data collection in the study
reflect about the data, ask analytic questions and of some aspect of human behaviour. Denzin (1978)
write analytic notes throughout the study. Those has identified four basic types of triangulation: (i) Data
who analyse at the end, wait until all (or most) of Triangulation - the use of a variety of data sources in a
data are gathered and then begin the task of asking study; (ii) Investigator Triangulation -the use of several
analytic questions. different researchers; (iii) Theory Triangulation - the
2. Structured or Open-ended Analysis:- In a structured use of multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of
strategy, analytic categories have been identified data; and (iv) Methodological triangulation - the use of
at the conceptualization and design phase. Open- multiple methods to study a single problem.
ended analysis, in contrast, pose grand questions, Computer software can assist in sorting and analyzing
are open to the unexpected, and let the analytic qualitative data.
direction of the study emerge as it progresses.
SPSS:- SPSS Professional Statistics provides
3. Analysis Related to Qualitative Genre. techniques to examine similarities and dissimilarities in
Components of Qualitative Data Analysis data and to classify.data, identify underlying dimensions
218 The decision about data analysis is followed by three in a data set. It includes procedures for cluster, k-cluster,
 discriminating factor, multidimensional scaling, and Finding relationships within collected data.
proximity and reliability analysis. SPSS Advanced Linking the results of one study with others.
Statistics includes procedures for logistic regression, Developing hypotheses or theories for future use.
log-linear analysis, multivariate analysis and analysis of Understanding abstract principles underlying the
variance. findings.
SAAS:- The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) package 2. Importance: Interpretation is crucial as the usefulness
calculate descriptive statistic of your choice e.g., Mean, and utility of research findings depend on it.
Standard Deviation etc.
3. Challenging Task: Interpretation requires careful
NUDIST:- NUDIST (non-numerical unstructured data consideration and analysis to avoid inaccurate
indexing, searching and theorizing) program studies conclusions.
large databases such as ethnographies with extensive
interviews. 4. Linking Research: Interpretation helps researchers
connect their findings with other studies based on
NVivo and ATLAS:- It performs coding, annotation, similar abstract principles.
relationships, visualization, collaboration etc.
5. Core of Research: Interpretation forms the core of
Example: Lila Abu-Lughod’s book “Writing
research as it provides a deeper understanding and
Women’s Worlds” conveys Egyptian Bedu women’s
meaningful insights.
narratives, organizing them into thematic clusters
like marriage, production, and honour. Presentation of Research Data:
2. Quantitative Data Analysis: 1. Definition: Presentation involves conveying the
Quantitative data describes an empirical event or research data, analysis, and interpretations in a final
phenomenon in a numerical system with the help of report.
different scales of measurement - nominal, ordinal, 2. Steps in Report Writing:
interval and ratio. Example- Numeric data obtained a. Logical explanation of the subject matter.
through surveys, polls, and census. b. Preparation of the final outline.
Statistical methods and software may be used for c. Creation of a rough draft.
analysis. d. Rewriting and polishing.
Allows for calculations, comparisons, and inference e. Preparation of the final bibliography.
testing. f. Preparation of the index. g. Writing the final draft.
Example: Analyzing low-income household budgets 3. Components of a Report:
in Jamaica, researchers used computer analysis to a. Statement of the problem being studied.
divide sample households into income groups and
b. Research procedure, including study design, venue
calculate expenditure percentages for different
selection, and sample nature.
categories like food, housing, and transportation.
c. Techniques used for data collection, analysis, and
Types of Quantitative Data Analysis: interpretation.
Descriptive Analysis: Examines variables and their d. Major findings and results.
relationships to the phenomenon they influence. e. Implications of the research results for theory and
Inferential Analysis: Tests hypotheses and validates practice.
conclusions. 4. Types of Reports:
Ethnographic Analysis: Ethnographic analysis may a. Technical reports: Emphasize technical details and
involve studying the organization of cultural domains specific methodologies.
into taxons or analyzing cultural symbols and themes b. Popular reports: Emphasize readability and
in a society. attractiveness to a broader audience.
Other Approaches: 5. Qualities of a Good Report:
Interpretive Approaches: Some anthropologists use a. Readability and clarity.
artistic and interpretive methods to provide fresh b. Freedom from technical or grammatical errors.
understandings of people’s lives, prioritizing detail and
c. Originality in presenting research findings.
richness over scientific verifiability.
Use of Computers: Computer analysis aids in sorting Other themes related to Research in Anthropology
and analyzing large quantities of data, but the accuracy
and quality of results depend on careful inputting and
coding schemes.
Interpretation in Data Analysis:
Definition: Interpretation involves drawing meaningful
inferences from analyzed data.
1. Purpose of Interpretation: 219
 Examples of ethnographic films:
Experimental Ethnography:
Experimental ethnography is a key approach to Film Limitations
fieldwork that involves utilizing and reapplying
existing and assumed knowledge throughout Allegories of This ethnographic film
research activities and practices. Its objectives are Marriage (2023) delves into the marriage
twofold: By Shrila Soren or bapla ceremony of
(Department of Santhals which takes place
To ensure that the research is meaningful and
Anthropology, in Jharkhand, India. An
beneficial to the communities involved, and,
University of Delhi) attempt has been made to
To innovate the methods of fieldwork with understand the nuances of
the purpose of developing new theories and marriage rituals with kinship,
alternative forms of ethnography. gender, and ecology.
Experimental ethnography has similarities to
applied anthropology, as both aim to achieve The Songs We When even the eldest
practical outcomes. However, experimental Sing, The Drums member of community is
ethnography focuses on three main objectives: We Beat (2011) unsure about performing
Effecting Social Change:-Influencing a an important tradition, the
traditional community’s interaction with Kaasik community of the
modernity or modernization. By Kombong Nocte tribe in Arunachal
Policy and Political Action:-Generating Darang Pradesh’s Tirap District
knowledge to help create governmental embarks on a journey to
policies or to support political actions by non- reconnect with their past
governmental groups. while contemplating their
Cultural Revitalization:- Assisting communities cultural future.
in rediscovering and revitalizing their cultural
traditions in response to challenges from
globalization, Western dominance etc.
Alternatively, experimental ethnography is also
understood as an approach to studying and GLOTTOCHRONOLOGY
interpreting the cultures of everyday life that uses It is the estimation of time depth which separates a
the techniques of experimental filmmaking, like pair of languages.
montage, found footage and surrealism, to create Glottochronology and lexicostatistics are closely
new ways of seeing the world around us. related concepts. Lexicostatistics is more
It is conceived both as a field of study and as concerned with using the quantitative similarity
a creative mode of ethnographic research and in the lexicon of two languages for descriptive
output. purposes, such as the estimation of the degree of
mutual intelligibility.
Lexicostatistics is an attempt to provide the more
precise dating that is needed. The idea traces back
CLIFF NOTE to American linguist, Morris Swadesh (1909-67),
and Robert Lees (1922- 96) who were inspired by
the method of carbon-14 dating.
The challenge is to find something in language that
can be shown to decay in time in some lawful way.
So, this method was used by them in the late 1940s,
to estimate the time of separation between two
genetically related languages or speech forms,
on the basis of the number of shared native lexical
items (cognates) they have.
The most difficult part of this enterprise is in
determining whether an item is a cognate or not.
Basic assumptions:
1. The first basic assumption of lexicostatistics is that
some parts of the vocabulary of any language are
assumed, on empirical evidence, to be much less
subject to change than other parts. This basic
220
 core vocabulary includes such items as terms
for parts of the body, natural objects, common CLIFF NOTE
activities, pronouns, body parts, lower numerals,
etc., and a set of words which deals with universal
phenomena that must be present in all languages.
This concept is similar to Sapir’s idea of a basic
nucleus of morphological structure.
2. The second basic assumption of lexicostatistics
is that the rate of retention of basic vocabulary
items is relatively constant through time. That is,
given a certain number of basic words in a certain
language, a certain percentage of these words will
remain in the language after a thousand years of
vocabulary loss.
3. The third basic assumption is that the rate of loss
of basic vocabulary is approximately the same in all
languages.
4. If the percentage of true cognates within the core
vocabulary is known for any pair of languages,
the length of time that has elapsed since the two
languages began to diverge from a single parent
language can be computed, provided that there
are no interfering factors through migrations,
conquests, or other social contacts which slowed
down or speeded the divergence.

CASE STUDY

A lexicostatistical study of the Khasian

languages: Khasi, Pnar, Lyngngam, and Wae
(K.S. Nagaraja et al, 2013)

In this study, cognates were identified

manually and a lexicostatistical matrix for 5
Khasian varieties was generated.
Khasi-Pnar- Lyngngam group was found to
have ambiguous structure.
In this study glottochronological calculation
for Khasi-Pnar separation was 694 years.
Another study, ‘A Lexicostatistic Study of
Khasi And Lyngngam”, an attempt is made
to determine the time of separation from the
common/parent speech form of Khasi and
Lyngngam.
Khasi is mainly spoken in the east Khasi
hills; whereas Lyngngam is spoken in the
west Khasi hills. It is an accepted fact that
these two speech forms are very close to
each other.
These two languages became separate
some 1.89 millennia back.

221
 Chapter: 10
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

SYLLABUS Previous Year

Questions
Human Genetics: Methods and Application : Methods
for study of genetic principles in man-family study
Race and Ethnicity (10 marks, 2023)
(pedigree analysis, twin study, foster child, co-twin
method, cytogenetic method, chromosomal and karyo- Gene expression (10 marks, 2023)
type analysis), biochemical methods, immunological Polygenic inheritance (10 marks, 2023)
methods, D.N.A. technology and recombinant Elucidate the different forms of malnutrition.
technologies. Describe protein-calorie malnutrition with suitable
Mendelian genetics in man-family study, single factor, examples. (15 marks, 2023)
multifactor, lethal, sub-lethal and polygenic inheritance What assumptions must be met for a population to
in man. be in genetic equilibrium? Explain the importance
Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection, of genetic equilibrium. (15 marks, 2023)
Mendelian population, Hardy-Weinberg law; causes Describe the causes of structural abnormalities of
and changes which bring down frequency-mutation, chromosomes with suitable examples. (15 marks,
isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic 2023)
drift. Consanguineous and non-consanguineous Pedigree analysis in genetic counselling. (2022)
mating, genetic load, genetic effect of consanguineous
and cousin marriages. Balanced and transient genetic polymorphism.
(2022)
Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations in man,
methodology. Genetic imprinting in human diseases. (2022)
(a) Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders). What is meant by health? Is the burden of life style
diseases on the rise? Justify your answer with
(b) Sex chromosomal aberration- Klinefelter (XXY), suitable examples. (2022)
Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other
syndromic disorders. What do you understand by blood group systems?
How is HLA system different from those based on
(c) Autosomal aberrations- Down syndrome, Patau, red cell antigens. (2022)
Edward and Cri-du-chat syndromes.
“Chromosomal aberrations can play havoc with
(d) Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic the human body and mind.” Explain with suitable
screening, genetic counseling, human DNA examples. (2021)
profiling, gene mapping and genome study.
Is race a valid and biologically meaningful concept?
Race and racism, biological basis of morphological (2021)
variation of non-metric and characters. Racial criteria,
racial traits in relation to heredity and environment; What is acclimatization? Discuss the adaptive
biological basis of racial classification, racial responses to high altitude and cold climate. (2021)
differentiation and race crossing in man. Racism and Eugenics. (2020)
Age, sex and population variation as genetic marker: Genetic drift. (2020)
ABO, Rh blood groups, HLA Hp, transferring, Gm, Describe the impact of infectious diseases on
blood enzymes. Physiological characteristics-Hb level, indigenous population. (2020)
body fat, pulse rate, respiratory functions and sensory How may numerical aberrations in sex chromosomes
perceptions in different cultural and socio-economic lead to genetic disorders? (2020)
groups.
How do marriage rules impact the gene pool of
Concepts and methods of Ecological Anthropology : populations? (2020)
222
Bio-cultural Adaptations—Genetic and Non-genetic
factors. Man’s physiological responses to environmental Describe the biocultural responses to extreme
stresses: hot desert, cold, high altitude climate. climatic events. (2020)
Epidemiological Anthropology: Health and disease. Describe the impact of infectious diseases on
Infectious and non-infectious diseases, Nutritional indigenous populations. (2020)
deficiency related diseases. Critically examine the demographic and
epidemiological consequences with rise in food
production and sedentism. (2020)
Differentiate between transient and balanced
genetic polymorphisms. Illustrate your answer with
suitable examples from human populations. (2019)
Implications of mutation in evolution. (2019)
With reference to the somatoscopic and
morphometric characteristics commonly used for
racial classification, make critical comments as to
whether’ Race’ is a valid concept. (2019)
‘Human adaptations are always bio-cultural
in nature’. Discuss with reference to human
adaptation to high-altitude climate. (2019)
Categorize Genes that influence human Survival.
(2018)
Describe the mechanism for structural anomalies
of autosomes with diagrams. (2018)
Race is a Myth. Justify its Present Day Relevance.
(2018)
Distinguish between adaptation, adaptability and
acclimatization with examples. (2018)
Narrate evolution of disease and major causes of ill
health in human populations. (2018)

223
 1. PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION A pedigree is a diagram of family relationships (called
Family tree) in which symbols are used to represent
Human genetics is the scientific study of inherited human people, and lines are used to represent genetic
variation. Human genetics is more an applied science than relationships.
a fundamental science. A primary goal of human genetics
Since, traits are passed down in families in different
is to identify DNA sequence variants that influence
patterns, Pedigrees can illustrate the patterns (mode
biomedical traits, particularly those related to the onset
of inheritance) of genetic diseases by following the
and progression of human disease.
history of specific characteristics (phenotypes) as
they appear in a family.

METHODS FOR STUDY OF GENETIC

PRINCIPLES IN MAN-FAMILY STUDY Terms used in Pedigree Analysis:

In genetics, family studies are studies to know whether 1. Proband:- The affected individual is called the
a disease or trait “runs in a family”. proband.
Family studies can be mainly classified into 3 types: 2. Affected:- If an individual is known to have
1. Aggregation studies:- Family medical history is symptoms of the disease, individual is termed
gathered in case studies for aggregation studies affected. To denote ‘affected’, the symbol is
in order to determine whether a particular disease filled in.
in one family member raises the possibility of 3. Carrier:- A carrier is someone who does not
that disease being passed down to other family have any symptoms of the disease, but who can
members. This could be related to either genes or pass the disease on to subsequent generations
environmental factors. because they are a heterozygote. To indicate a
2. Linkage studies:- When two genes on a DNA carrier, the symbol is half-filled.
sequence on the same chromosome are inherited 4. Homozygous:- Homozygous means that the
together, it is called Linkage. Linkage studies aim organism has two copies of the same allele for a
at identifying specific genetic loci that have a gene. For example, IAIA
moderate to large effect on risk. 5. Heterozygote:- In a heterozygote, two alleles
are of different types. Of both, only one allele
Chromosome (dominant one) is expressed exclusively. For
example, IAIO.
Gene 1
Gene 1 6. Dominant:- For a disease caused by dominant
Gene 1 allele, only one allele needs to be inherited for an
Gene 2 Gene 2 Gene 2 individual to be affected.
7. Recessive:- For a disease caused by recessive
Linked Not Linked Not Linked
alleles, both alleles needs to be inherited for an
individual to be affected.
3. Associational studies:- Each gene has its specific
location and position on a chromosome, called as
loci. Association studies aim at detecting loci with Symbols used in drawing a Pedigree chart:
relatively small effects on risk.

Twins (Monozygotic)
Gene Alleles
Unaffected:
Female Male Unknown
Decreased Twins Siblings Adopted
(Circle) (Square) Sex
(Dizygotic)
Gene Affected: P
Locus Miscarriage Miscarriage Carrier Carrier for
X-linked trate

3 2
Mating Consanguinous Divorced Number No Offspring
mating or Separated of children

Marriage Line
For Example Generation
I Line of Descent

II

224 Homologous Chromosomes Sibling Line

Different Pedigree Patterns: For AR disease, both parents of an
Pedigrees can be analyzed to determine the mode of affected individual carry at least
transmission for a genetic disease viz.: one copy of the disease-allele and
1. Dominance - whether the disease alleles are the individual needs to inherit both
dominant or recessive. alleles for causation of disease.
2. Linkage - whether the disease alleles are X-linked Key characteristics:
(on the X chromosome) or autosomal. Autosomal The gene is located on autosome.
Pedigrees for various modes of genetic transmission Recessive (AR) Two copies of the mutant gene
are as follows: is necessary for phenotypic
Eg- Many manifestations. Both parents
Mode of Genetic Key Characteristics and Pedigree inborn errors can be unaffected carriers of
Transmission Pattern of metabolism, the disease. Individual needs to
such as inherit both alleles for causation
“Autosomal” means that the gene
phenylketonuria of disease.
in question is located on one of the
autosome (non-sex chromosome). (PKU); Red- Males and females are equally
“Dominant” means that a single green color affected.
copy of the mutated gene (from blindness and Consanguinity is often present.
one parent) is enough to cause the hemophilia A.
Autosomal disorder.
Dominant (AD) Key characteristics:
Gene is located on an autosome
(non-sex chromosome)
Eg-
Achondroplastic It manifests in the heterozygous
dwarfism, Marfan state.
syndrome, Both males and females are Key characteristics:
Huntington’s equally affected. (In AR and AD,
The mutant gene is on the
disease both sexes are affected equally)
X-chromosome.
Male to male transmission is
possible. One copy of mutant gene in
males and two copies of mutant
gene in females are needed for
phenotypic effect. Because males
have only one X-chromosome,
any male that inherits an X-linked
Key characteristics: X-linked recessive disease allele will be
recessive (XR) affected by it (assuming complete
The gene responsible for disease penetrance).
is located on the X-chromosome.
Usually males are affected
The pattern of inheritance Eg- Some and transmission is through
resembles autosomal dominant. forms of colour heterozygous (carrier) females.
No male to male transmission. blindness, Thus, while in XD, females are
X-linked Affected males have no normal Duchenne’s affected more frequently, in XR
dominance (XD) daughters and no affected muscular males are affected more.
sons. Thus, if the father carries dystrophy
(DMD), No male to male transmission
the abnormal X gene, all of his
Eg- Some types hemophilia. because a male with an affected
daughters will inherit the disease
of Rickets, allele on his single X chromosome
and none of his sons will have the
Vitamin D is hemizygous. Thus, a male can’t
disease.
resistant rickets, be affected by a single autosomal
Because females have twice recessive allele, but can be
orofacial digital as many X-chromosomes as
syndrome. affected by a single X-linked
males, females tend to be more recessive allele. For a XR disease,
frequently affected than males in the son must have inherited the
the population. disease from his mother only, and
his father can be unaffected.

225
 All daughters of affected (because they develop from the same maternal
males will be carriers. Healthy egg, fertilized by a single sperm, which splits after
heterozygous carrier females fertilization). Non-identical twins share on average
pass the disorder to affected 50% of their segregating alleles.
sons. So from affected males, Also both identical and non-identical twins grow up in
it can be transmitted to male the same home environment at the same age (called
grandchildren through carrier equal environments assumption). Thus, identical and
daughter (‘diagonal’ or ‘Knight’s non-identical twins differ only in the genetic influences
move’ transmission). they share, but not in the environmental influences
they share.

TYPES OF TWIN STUDIES:

1. Classic Twin studies:-
It compares phenotypic resemblances of
Monozygotic (MZ) and Dizygotic (DZ) twins.
Since, MZ twins derive from a single fertilized egg
and therefore inherit identical genetic material,
Key characteristics: comparing the resemblance of phenotypic
Only males are affected. characters of MZ twins for a trait or disease with
Affected males must transmit the DZ twins offers the first estimate of the extent to
Y-linked which genetic variation determines phenotypic
disorder to their sons.
inheritance. variation of that trait.
2. Multivariate analyses:
Eg- Male It involves simultaneous analysis of correlated trait.
infertility. This type of analysis involves:

Key characteristics:
Trait is transmitted through
Mitochondrial affected females.
inheritance. Affected males give rise to
unaffected offspring.
Eg- Inherited
blindness
(Leber’s
hereditary optic
neuropathy)

2. TWIN STUDY
Twin studies are studies designed to measure
the contribution of genetics as opposed to the
environment, to a given trait. Direction of phenotypic casuality;
Twin study design offers the possibility to disentangle Causes of co-morbidity of two or more traits:
the effects of genes (nature) and environment multivariate modelling of environmental and genetic
(nurture). Thus, twin studies provide a strong basis for correlations between traits.
exploring the importance of any potential risk factors
Multivariate modeling to obtain genotypic (or
on a trait by controlling the genetic variations.
environmental) values for individuals.
Basis of Twin study: Analysis of longitudinal data to study causes of
All humans share 99.9% of their DNA. The 0.1% that phenotypic stability and tracking over time.
is not shared causes individual differences and are Testing of Genotype × Environment (GXE) using
called segregating alleles. Identical twins (called measured environmental indices.
226 monozygotic) share 100% of their segregating alleles
3. Co-twin control study: UTILITY OF TWIN STUDY:
There are case–control studies of MZ twins Twin studies estimate the proportion of genetic and
who are perfectly matched for genes and family environmental influences on human characteristics
background. Such studies can also be used to study (often called traits), such as personality traits, cognitive
gene expression in discordant twins. traits and psychiatric disorders, multifactorial traits
4. Extended Twin Study: (such as body height and weight, neuroticism and
blood lipid levels) and complex diseases (such as
It involves studies of twins and their families.
obesity, depression and cardiovascular diseases).
Parents of twins can be included to study cultural
This tool is mainly utilized to estimate the heritability
transmission and G × E covariance.
of traits and to quantify the effect of a person’s shared
Parents of twins can be studied in a quasi- environment (family) and unique environment (the
longitudinal design to determine genetic and individual events that shape a life) on a trait.
environmental stability.
LIMITATIONS:
Co-variance: Covariance measures the direction of 1. Twin studies do not tell us which and how many genes
the relationship between two variables. A positive that are involved in a disorder.
covariance means that both variables tend to be
2. Genetic and environmental factors might interact and
high or low at the same time.
correlate with each other. Thus, opposing “nature” to
Longitudinal study:- Longitudinal studies employ “nurture” is often misleading.
continuous or repeated measures to follow
3. Certain mutations (called de novo mutations) can
particular individuals over prolonged periods of
happen after the fertilized maternal egg has split and
time.
therefore lead to small genetic differences between
Quasi-longitudinal design: A quasi-longitudinal identical twins.
study design approximates longitudinal studies
4. Results from twin studies cannot be directly
by collecting data at multiple points in time, but
generalized to the general population, due to lack of
it may not strictly follow the same participants
randomization.
or have regular intervals. It can involve different
participants and has flexible time. 5. Many twin registries depend on the voluntary
participation of twins. This leads to volunteer bias
or recruitment bias, a special type of selection bias,
Assortative mating (assortative mating occurs which may lead to overinclusion of identical and female
when individuals choose partners based on their twins, resulting in overestimation of the heritability of
similarity or dissimilarity in certain traits) can be the trait or condition under study.
studied if spouses of twins are included; social
6. Though lot of changes happened in the field of genetics
interactions and special twin effects, such as
over time, twin studies today are also based on the
prenatal hormone transition, the ‘private language’
same assumptions that were made back in 1920s.
of twins and shared prenatal environment, can be
Many of these are deeply flawed.
studied if siblings of twins are included.
Maternal effects, Genotype × Environment
3. FOSTER-CHILD
correlation and imprinting can be studied if offspring
of MZ twins are included. This method is used to understand nature vs nurture
debate on development of traits (usually mental). It is
used to find the effect of environment.
Concordance rates:
The total variance in phenotypes (VP) in a population METHODOLOGY:
can be broken into a genetic component (VG) and Children are selected at random. So genetic variation
an environmental component (VE): that is, VP = gets eliminated.
VG + VE. They are placed in homes classified as good, average
Thus, the heritability is the proportion of the total and poor. Since assignment is random, the distribution
variance represented by the genetic variance: (VG/ of genetic traits is uniform. Then few year later, they
VP). are tested.
A twin pair is concordant if both co-twins have the
same phenotype. For example, Chichago study had showed that IQ
A MZ concordance rate that is less than 100% is proportional to ‘Quality of home’. It implies that
means that environmental factors influence the ‘environment’ has huge impact on IQ.
phenotype.

227
 4. CO-TWIN METHOD
CASE STUDY In this method, identical twins and co-twin and
fraternal twin and its co-twin are separately studied.
Then results are compared.
The Transracial Adoption Study
(The Minnesota Study) This pairwise analysis results in ‘double counting of
traits’. Thus rates are higher in co-twin methods, as
The study followed a group of African American twin concordance counted twice.
children who were adopted by White families So, there is a deviation in result of twin and co-twin
and compared their development, identity methods. Proband wise analysis is used in co-twin
formation, and psychosocial well-being with method to eliminate this error.
those of African American children raised in
Any twin can be registered and the other twin traced.
African American families.
The study found that both heredity and
environment affected IQ. Children whose
Proband wise analysis
biological parents had high IQ also did well. As The affected child is referred to as a proband or
did children of foster parents with high IQ. propositus.
The method compares the observed proportion of
families with affected children (“proband”) to the
proportion expected under a single-gene inheritance
model (like dominant or recessive).
CASE STUDY
LIMITATIONS:
Same as Twin method.
Laurito A et al, School climate and the im-
pact of neighborhood crime on test scores,
2019 5. CYTOGENETIC METHOD
Cytogenetics is a branch of genetics that is concerned
Violence in a neighborhood can depress with the structural and functional studies of the cell,
measures of cognitive ability for school-aged especially the chromosomes.
(5–17 years old) children in that community.
It involves analyzing the structure, number etc. of
chromosomes to understand genetic abnormalities
and their impact on reproductive biology.
UTILITY: The chromosome is studied at Metaphase stage
(Aligned and condensed). A staining agent may be
Foster child is a key tool in behavioral genetics and
used to clearly see the structure of chromosomes.
often combined with twin studies to make heritability
estimates. Methods:
LIMITATIONS 1. Karyotying
According to Osborne 1951, foster child method has 2. Analysis of G-banded chromosome
following limitations: 3. Molecular Cyto-genetics
1. The assumption that early placement into foster a. Comparative genome hybridization (CGH)
homes is unaffected by the original home environment b. FISH (Fluorescent in situ hybridization)
of the biological parents is problematic.
2. Achieving truly random placement is exceedingly Applications:
challenging, leading to potential biases in the 1. It is used to map genes to chromosomes. Example-
sample that could affect the study’s outcomes and
generalizability.
Blood group Genes Chromosome
3. Studies often face difficulties in ensuring adequate
representation of different social levels, which can ABO ABO 9
limit the comprehensiveness and applicability of the
findings. Rhesus RhD, RhCE 1
4. Ethnic diversity can introduce a range of socio- Duffy FY 1
cultural variables that complicate the analysis and
interpretation of the data. 2. Relation between chromosomal abnormalities and
5. Minnesota study needed information on biological diseases can be studied. Example - Autosomal and
228 parents which is tough to get. sex-linked.
3. Study evolutionary pattern of primates by karyotype BANDS:
comparison (Karo-systematics). Bands are alternating light and dark regions along the
4. Helps us understand diagnosis of disease. length of a chromosome, produced after staining with
a dye. A band is defined as the part of a chromosome
5.1 CHROMOSOMAL AND KARYO-TYPE ANALYSIS that is clearly distinguishable (appears darker or
Lab technique used for ‘visualization’ of chromosomes lighter) from its adjacent segments. It is used to
under a microscope is Karyotyping. identify normal and abnormal chromosomes.
It involves Staining with fluorescent dyes that produces
light and dark bands (Banding pattern).
Karyotype analysis can be performed on virtually any
population of rapidly dividing cells either grown in
tissue culture or extracted from tumors. Chromosomes
derived from peripheral blood lymphocytes are ideal
because they can be analyzed three days after they
are cultured.
Karyotyping is most useful for identifying large
recombinant events, deletions, duplications, fusions,
and fissions.

Uses of Chromosomal Analysis:

Genetic counselors rely on karyotypes to diagnose BANDING PATTERN:
abnormal pregnancies. The banding pattern of each chromosome is specific
Chromosome analysis is recommended as a and consistent for a certain stain.
routine diagnostic procedure the following:
Problems noted during early growth/ BANDING TECHNIQUES AND PATTERNS
development. Banding techniques fall into the following two groups:
Stillbirths and neonatal deaths. Bands distributed along the length of the whole
Fertility problems. chromosome
Pregnancy in women 35 years or older at the 1. Giemsa banding (G-banding)
time of delivery. 2. Quinacrine banding (Q-banding)
Family History (Rowley. 2001). 3. Reverse banding (R-banding)
Bands that stain specific part of chromosome.
Scientists Use Three Key Features to 1. Centromeric heterochromatin staining (C-banding)
Identify Chromosomes 2. Nucleolar-organizer-region staining (NOR staining)
3. T-banding
1. SIZE 4. FISH
After staining, bands are subsequently numbered
going from the chromosome’s centromere to the
2. BANDING chromosome’s endpoint, or telomere.
PATTERN
1.Q Banding Techniques

Chromosome

3. CENTROMERE Stained with Quinarcine Mustard

POSITION
Subjected UV light

Banding Pattern

Region Rich in AT bases Region rich in GC bases

Dark staining Light staining

AT region quenches dye & GC region quenches dye but

Figure - Banding pattern in fluorescence, situated in do not fluorescence, situated
a chromosome heterochromatin region in euchromatin region 229
 Specifically used
Banding Stain Applications
for identifying
Identification of all heterochromatin.
chromosomes and Stain important regions
bands. such as Centromere,
Quinacrine Reveals polymorphisms Denaturing short arms of D & G
Q- band chromosomes groups, secondary
mustard on chromosomes 3, 4,
13, 14, 15, 21, 22, and Y. in a saturated constrictions of
alkaline chromosome 1,9,16,
Easily de-stained for C- banding
solution and distal long arm of
sequential staining.
followed Y.
Identification of all by Giemsa Reveals polymorphisms
chromosomes and staining. including
bands. heterochromatin
Permanent stain. inversions.
Basic band before Evaluation of ring
application of any and di-centric
Giemsa sophisticated and chromosomes.
G-banding
Wrights molecular approach for
R-banding Stains small structural
further investigation.
variant changes involving
AT-rich, gene- developed telomeric region.
poor regions of T- banding by Dutrillaux Represents the
chromosomes are that only bands of R which are
stained more darkly by deeply stains resistant to treatment
the Giemsa stain. telomeres. with denaturing agent.
Identification of all
Identification of active
chromosomes and
Nucleolar organizing
bands.
region (NOR). NOR
Darkly stained R bands regions are located
are the complement to in the satellite stalks
Denaturing G-bands.
in hot acidic of acrocentric
saline Useful for analyzing NOR chromosomes and
R-banding genetic deletions AgNO3 house genes for
followed banding
by Giemsa or chromosomal ribosomal RNA.
staining. translocations that It reveals
involve the telomeres polymorphisms and
of chromosomes. rearrangements
Visualization of ends of acrocentric
of chromosomes and chromosomes
small positive R-bands.

ADVANCES IN CYTOGENETIC METHODS

Apart from Karyotyping, another commonly
CLIFF NOTE
used technique in cytogenetic diagnostics is
fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) that binds
fluorescent probes to specific DNA sequences on
chromosomes. FISH requires some prior knowledge
of chromosome content for probe design.
More recent technological advances have
made next-generation sequencing (NGS) and
gene mapping. Sequencing enables large-scale
chromosomal characterization. NGS has led to
the publication of thousands of human genomes
that help to unveil the breadth of human genetic
variation.
230
6. BIOCHEMICAL METHODS
These methods combine genetics and biochemistry
Test sample in a appropriate solvent
to elucidate nature of metabolic pathways.
Basis:- Proteins and Enzymes lead to phenotypic
expression of genes through metabolic pathway
(Demonstrated by Beadle and Tatum 1941). Error in Elution
metabolic pathway leads to disease.
Column

Gel bead

Small particle Large particle

Sample:- Biochemical genetic studies may be done

from a blood or urine sample, spinal fluid, or other
tissue sample.
PROCEDURE: GEL FILTRATION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Gel Filteration Chromatography:
Gel filtration is also known as size-exclusion Agarose Gel electrophoresis:
chromatography or molecular-sieve chromatography.
Agarose gel electrophoresis is used to resolve DNA
Principle: fragments on the basis of their molecular weight.
In this process, separation is based on the differing
ability (due to differing molecular size) of molecules Principle:
in the sample to enter the pores of the gel-filtration Smaller fragments migrate faster than larger ones;
medium. the distance migrated on the gel varies inversely with
the logarithm of the molecular weight.
Method:
The technique consists of 2 phases:- Stationary and Method:
mobile. DNA is forced to migrate through a highly cross-linked
Stationary phase consists of beads of a hydrated, agarose matrix in response to an electric current. In
sponge-like material that has pores of molecular solution, the phosphates of the DNA are negatively
dimensions and with a narrow range of sizes. charged, and the molecule will therefore migrate
to the positive pole. There are three factors that
When a sample (aqueous solution, containing affect migration rate through a gel: size of the DNA,
molecules of various sizes) is passed through a column conformation of the DNA, and ionic strength of the
packed with a matrix of porous beads, low molecular running buffer.
weight proteins flow through and around the beads in
the direction of solvent flow, and high molecular weight Thus, different forms of DNA move through the gel
proteins flow around the beads without interacting at different rates. Supercoiled plasmid DNA, because
with the matrix material. Consequently, progression of its compact conformation, moves through the gel
through the column is slower for smaller proteins fastest, followed by a linear DNA fragment of the same
than for larger ones. As a result, proteins are separated size, with the open circular form traveling the slowest.
according to their size.
The molecules are eluted in the order of decreasing
molecular size.
The molecular mass of the smallest molecule unable
to penetrate the pores of a given gel is said to be the
‘exclusion limit’ of the gel.

231
 Ion-Exchange chromatography: Applications:
Ion-exchange chromatography allows the separation 1. Routine analysis of amino acid mixtures in clinical
of ionizable molecules according to differences in diagnosis.
charge properties. 2. For water purification.
3. Products of hydrolysis of nucleic acids such as DNA.
Principle:
4. Chelating resins are used to collect trace metals from
Proteins have a net charge. Ion-exchange
seawater.
chromatography (IEX) depends on the interaction of
charge on the surface of a protein with an opposite 5. To analyze lunar rocks and rare trace elements on
charge on an insoluble matrix. Since the charge on the Earth.
protein, and usually the matrix as well, is dependent on
protonatable groups (amino acid side chains on the Limitations:
protein), the interaction between the two will depend Only charged molecules can be separated.
on pH. Since most proteins do not tolerate extremes of
pH, ion exchange is usually conducted at pH between DNA SEQUENCING:
4 and 9. DNA sequencing is a laboratory method used to
Basic proteins with a positive charge bind to a negatively determine the order of the bases within the DNA.
charged matrix (cation exchanger), and acidic proteins Differences in the sequence of these 3 billion base
with a negative charge bind to a positively charged pairs in the human genome leads to each person’s
matrix (anion exchanger). unique genetic makeup.
Applications:
Method:
Targeted sequencing of areas within a gene’s exons
The stationary phase in ion-exchange resin is
or full exons (the segments of DNA that code for
oppositely charged to that of the analyte or the
proteins). For example, testing a tissue biopsy sample
desired component in order to facilitate its interaction
from a melanoma to determine whether or not the
to the charged stationary phase resin.
cells have a mutation (disease-causing variant) in the
Depending on the type of resin used it is divided into BRAF gene.
anion- or cation-exchange chromatography.
Single gene sequencing—sequencing all exons of a
gene, often including parts of the non-coding areas.
Multi-gene panel sequencing—sequencing parts or all
Positively charged of several genes to detect mutations. For example, a
protein binds to panel to test for mutations in the MLH1, MSH2, MSH6,
negatively charged PMS2 and EPCAM genes. Mutations in these genes
bead can cause Lynch syndrome which increases risk of
many types of cancer.
Whole genome sequencing of humans and microbes.

Maxam Gilbert Method of genetic sequencing:

Negatively charged The sequencing by chemical degradation (chemical
protein flows through sequencing) was published by Allan Maxam and Walter
Gilbert in 1977, requiring chemical modifications of the
DNA and further cleavage and electrophoresis.
It allows the direct sequencing of purified DNA,
without requiring previous in vivo cloning and ssDNA
preparation steps.
CLIFF NOTE Procedure:
Radioactive labeling of the 5`-P ends of double-stranded
DNA (dsDNA) with 32P-dATP using polynucleotide kinase.

DNA is denatured with Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) at 90°C

and the resulting single strand DNA (ssDNA) molecules
are segregated via electrophoresis.

232
Nitrogenous base-specific reactions are carried out to BLOTTING:
modify the Adenosine (A), Cytidine (C), Guanosine (G) and The term ‘blotting’ represents the transfer of a material
Thymidine (T) residues, allowing the chemical cleavage of (DNA, RNA, Protein) after separation to nitrocellulose
the ssDNA at the 5`-P side of such positions. paper by means of diffusion.

The subsequent polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and

autoradiography allows the ssDNA fragment separation
by size and the detection of the radiolabeled DNA band
pattern on an x-ray film that encodes the DNA sequence,
from which the sequence may be inferred.

DNA sequencing Vs DNA fingerprinting

DNA sequencing determines the sequence of a
stretch of DNA. DNA fingerprinting of individuals takes
place by sampling their DNA and comparing it with a
sample found at a crime scene.
See the chapter ‘Applications in Anthropology’ for
details on DNA Fingerprinting.

SOUTHERN BLOTTING WESTERN BLOTTING NORTHERN BLOTTING

Discovered in 1975 by E.M. Used to detect proteins. Used to detect mRNA of

Purpose Southern. Used to detect DNA. interest.

Digest the DNA with an appropriate Proteins can be extracted from After separation by
restriction enzyme Run the digest different samples (tissues). First, electrophoresis, cDNA is
on an agarose gel Denature the tissues are broken down by the used as a probe that binds
DNA Transfer the denatured DNA mechanical invention, such as to the RNA strand.
to the nitrocellulose membrane homogenizer or sonication Gel
Probe the membrane with labeled electrophoresis to separate
ssDNA (called Hybridization) the target protein Antibody
Steps
Visualize your radioactively labeled incubation Protein detection
target sequence. Using radiolabelled and visualization (colorimetric
probe, visualization can be done by detection, chemiluminescent
autoradiograph. Biotin/streptavidin detection, radioactive detection,
detection is done by colorimetric and fluorescent detection)
methods, and bioluminescent
visualization uses luminesence.

To detect a gene of interest in the For qualitative detection To find alternate transcript
DNA sample. of proteins and post- size.
translational modifications (e.g.
Applications phosphorylation). To identify HIV
antigens or Hepatitis B surface
antigen in blood.

Radioactive gene X DNA Labelled Antibody against Protein Radioactive gene X DNA
Probe
X.

233
 7. IMMUNOLOGICAL METHODS Antigen- Antibody reaction:
Immunological techniques are useful to confirm the Antigen-Antibody (Ag-Ab) Interaction is a biochemical
identity of a target microorganism in a purified form reaction between antibodies and specific antigens
or in a mixed cultured population. when they come closer to a distance of several
Following are the important immunological methods nanometers.
that are based mainly upon antigen antibody reactions. Homogeneous, highly sensitive and specific antibiotics
1. Agglutination Tests have been developed and propagated in the laboratory.
2. Coomb’s Test (Antiglobulin Test) These are known as monoclonal antibodies.
3. Precipitation tests
4. Immunoelectrophoresis
The most common immunological methods relate to
the production and use of antibodies to detect specific
proteins in biological samples.

Terms related to Immunology:

1. The immunogens and hapten are collectively called
antigens. They can be proteins, peptides, lipids, or,
polysaccharides.
2. An antibody is simply the component produced by
the immune system in response to antigens. So
basically antigens are the generator of antibodies.
3. Antibody binding site is called an epitope. Applications:
1. Antibodies recognize proteins based on their structure
as well as content, and can be very specific, binding to
Different classes of Antibodies:
only a small part of an antigen (known as the epitope),
Class of Serum and discriminating between highly similar epitopes.
Structure Bilogical Functions
Antibody levels 2. Immunoassay based on antigen-antibody reaction are
Membrane-bound widely been exploited for food authentication.
immunoglobulin on the surface
of immature and mature B The most common application of antigen–antibody
cells reactions is in diagnostics using an enzyme-linked
First antibody produced in a immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
primary response to an antigen
Monomer ELISA:
lgM 5% First antibody produced by the
Pentamer
fetus ELISA detect and amplify antigen–antibody reactions
Efficient in binding antigens by using covalently bound enzyme–antibody molecules.
with many repeating epitopes, The presence of the enzyme (indicating presence of the
such as viruses antigen) is detected by the addition of the appropriate
Classical complement substrate.
activation
Membrane-bound ELISAs can be used in two modes:
immunoglobulin on the surface 1. Qualitatively to determine the presence or absence, or
IgD 0.3% Monomer of mature B cells
2. Quantitatively to determine the amount of antigen
No biological effector function
present.
known
Predominant antibody class in Types of ELISA:
secretions (saliva, ears, breast 1. Direct ELISA:- In this, an antigen is immobilized in the
Monomer
IgA 7-15% milk) and mucosa well of an ELISA plate. The antigen is then detected by
Dimer
First line of defence against an antibody directly conjugated to an enzyme.
infection by microorganisms
2. Indirect ELISA:- In this, an antigen is adsorbed to a well
Most abundant class with four
in an ELISA plate. Detection is a two-step process. First,
isotypes-IgGI, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4
IgG 85% Monomer an unlabeled primary antibody binds to the specific
Crosses the placenta
Opsonization
antigen. Second, an enzyme conjugated secondary
antibody that is directed against the host species of
Defence against parasice
infections the primary antibody is applied. Thus, the steps of the
IgE 0.02% Monomer Associated with hypersensitivity indirect ELISA are identical to the direct ELISA, except
reactions (allergies) for an additional wash step and the types of antibodies
234 Found mainly in tissues added after the buffer is removed.
3. Competitive ELISA:- The competitive ELISA tests for Applications:
the presence of an antibody (Ab) specific for antigens 1. Detect and Measure the Presence of Antibodies in
(Ag) in the test serum. This type of ELISA utilizes two the Blood. Example- Autoantibodies (anti-dsDNA, anti-
specific antibodies, an enzyme-conjugated antibody dsg1, ANA, etc.), antibodies against infectious disease
and another antibody present in the test serum (if (antibacterial, antiviral such as HIV, antifungal).
the serum is positive). Combining the two antibodies
2. Detect and Estimate the Levels of Tumor Markers.
into the wells will allow for competition for binding to
Example- Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)
antigens. Test measures the concentration (Ag or Ab) in
a sample detecting interference in an expected signal 3. Detect and Estimate Hormone Levels. Example-
output. The presence of a color change means that Testosterone
the test is negative because the enzyme-conjugated 4. Tracking Disease Outbreaks. Example- Cholera, HIV
antibody bound the antigens (not the antibodies of the 5. Detecting Past Exposures. Example- HIV.
test serum). The absence of color indicates a positive 6. Screening Donated Blood for Possible Viral
test and the presence of antibodies in the test serum. Contaminants.
Thus, the signal output inversely correlates with the
amount of antigen in the sample. 7. Detecting Drug Abuse. Example- Cocaine
8. ELISA is the most widely applied immunoassay method
Coating
for the detection of food adulteration.
Control antigen is absorbed onto well
in ELISA plate in coating buffer
Dna Technology and Recombinent Technologies
Remove liquid and wash plate Recombinant DNA technology encompasses the
Blocking manipulation of genetic information outside an
A buffer containing unrelated protein
is used to block free sites in the wells
organism to obtain superior and desired traits in living
organisms or subsequent derivatives.
Remove liquid and wash plate In 1970, Stanford University’s Paul Berg invented the
Prepare sample (unknown antigen) first “recombinant DNA” by combining fragments
and detection anitibody mix from different organisms. In 1973, Herbert Boyer
and Stanley N. Cohen introduced recombinant DNA
Sample technology. Discovery of restriction enzymes 1968 by
Add test sample mix to wells
Werner Arber had paved way for RDT.
Remove liquid and wash plate This technology involves the insertion of DNA
fragments from a variety of sources, having a desirable
Detection Antibody
Add enzyme conjugated secondary gene sequence via appropriate vector.
detection antibody
Nucleic acid enzymes (DNA polymerases and RNA
polymerases, reverse transcriptase, DNA ligases,
Remove liquid and wash plate In this example the antigen
concentration in the sample restriction endonucleases, and so on) and plasmids
was low. The antibodies
Readout
Substrate is catalyzed by enzyme to
bound the control antigen and bacteriophages are by far the core elements of
that had been absorbed to
generate colored readout the plate in the coating step recombinant DNA technology.
Method:
4. Sandwich ELISA:- Sandwich ELISAs require the use It involves the insertion of DNA fragments from a range
of matched antibody pairs (capture and detection of sources, containing desirable gene sequences via
antibodies). It is termed a “sandwich” because the appropriate vectors.
antigens are sandwiched between two layers of Alteration of an organism’s genome can be achieved
antibodies (capture and detection antibodies). Each by introducing one or more new genes and regulatory
antibody is therefore specific for a different and elements, or by recombining genes and regulatory
non-overlapping region or epitope of the antigen. elements to suppress or inhibit the expression of
The capture antibody, as its name implies, binds the endogenous genes.
antigen that can then be detected in a direct ELISA or
in an indirect ELISA configuration.
Recombinant DNA Technology aims to segregate and
evaluate a gene, implement desired modifications to one
or more segregated genes, then revert modified genes to
living cells.

Enzymatic cleavage is applied to obtain different DNA

fragments using restriction endo-nucleases for specific 235
 target sequence DNA sites followed by DNA ligase activity to degrade pollutants or remove toxic substances
to join the fragments to fix the desired gene in vector. from the environment.

CRISPER CAS9 TECHNOLOGY:

The vector is then introduced into a host organism, which It is a new method of Recombinant DNA Technology.
is grown to produce multiple copies of the incorporated
It is used to introduce a change in DNA.
DNA fragment in culture, and finally clones containing a
relevant DNA fragment are selected and harvested. Invented by Charpentier and Doudna (Nobel Prize in
2022)
Site of cleavage The name CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced
GC

Short Palindromic Repeat) refers to the unique

TC

TA
GC

organization of short, partially repeated DNA

sequences found in the genomes of prokaryotes.
CRISPR and its associated protein (Cas-9) is a
Host Plasmid method of adaptive immunity in prokaryotes to defend
Cleavage by Restriction
themselves against viruses or bacteriophages.
Endonucleases CRISPR/Cas9 edits genes by precisely cutting DNA
and then letting natural DNA repair processes to take
over. The system consists of 2 parts:
Annealing Point of
attatchment 1. An enzyme called Cas9. This acts as a pair of
GC

Annealing
TA

and annealing ‘molecular scissors’ that can cut the two strands
GC

of DNA at a specific location in the genome so that

TC

bits of DNA can then be added or removed.

Sticky ends Recombinant 2. A piece of RNA called guide RNA (gRNA). This
Plasmid DNA consists of a small piece of pre-designed RNA
Specified Genes
sequence (about 20 bases long) located within
Applications: a longer RNA scaffold. The scaffold part binds to
1. Diagnosis of diseases and investigation of their DNA and the pre-designed sequence ‘guides’ Cas9
pathogenesis. Example- Polymerase chain reaction to the right part of the genome. This makes sure
(PCR) allows amplification of specific DNA sequences, that the Cas9 enzyme cuts at the right point in the
making it possible to detect and identify genetic genome.
markers. Pathogens are isolated and identified, and
then diagnostic kits are produced for infectious
diseases like TB and measles.
2. Detection of carriers of genetic diseases.
3. Gene cloning to study the structure and function of
individual genes and their role in various biological
processes.
4. Recombinant protein production, such as human
insulin, growth hormone and interferon.
5. Gene therapy corrects genetic defects or introduce
therapeutic genes to alleviate disease symptoms.
6. Used in developing new vaccines and pharmaceuticals.
Applications:
7. By manipulating microbes, animals, and plants
1. Gene Therapy: CRISPR-Cas9 can be used to correct
Recombinant DNA technology is used to yield medically
disease-causing genetic mutations by precisely editing
valuable compounds.
the DNA sequence. It offers potential treatments for
8. To develop DNA Probes (short segments of DNA that genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell
distinguish corresponding sequences in DNA and anemia, and muscular dystrophy, cancer etc.
hence permit recognition of specific DNA sequences).
2. Cancer Research and Treatment: CRISPR-Cas9
Example- DNA probes for Leishmania, Plasmodium
enables researchers to study the genes involved
human parasites.
in cancer development and progression. It can
9. Genetically modified crops with improved yield, be used to disrupt or modify oncogenes or tumor
disease resistance, or nutritional content. Example- suppressor genes to understand their role in cancer
Golden Rice. biology. Additionally, CRISPR-Cas9 has the potential
10. Genes from microorganisms can be cloned and for targeted cancer therapies by specifically targeting
236 transferred to bacteria or plants to enhance their ability and eliminating cancer cells.
3. Infectious Disease Research: CRISPR-Cas9 can be CONCEPT OF ‘GENE EXPRESSION’
used to modify the genomes of viruses and bacteria,
aiding in the development of new treatments and Introduction:
vaccines against infectious diseases, such as HIV, Genes encode proteins and proteins dictate cell
malaria, and tuberculosis. function. Therefore, the thousands of genes expressed
4. Drug Discovery: By editing specific genes in cells or in a particular cell determine what that cell can do.
model organisms, researchers can study their function Gene expression is the phenotypic manifestation of a
and assess their potential as therapeutic targets. This gene or genes by the processes of genetic transcription
approach helps accelerate the development of novel and genetic translation.
drugs for various diseases.
How Do Different Cells Express the Genes They Need?
5. Precision Medicine: CRISPR-Cas9 has the potential to
revolutionize personalized medicine by enabling the Only a fraction of the genes in a cell are expressed
modification of patient-specific cells. It can be used to at any one time. The variety of gene expression
engineer immune cells for cancer immunotherapies or profiles characteristic of different cell types arise
modify stem cells for regenerative medicine, tailoring because these cells have distinct sets of transcription
treatments to individual patients’ needs. regulators. Some of these regulators work to increase
transcription, whereas others prevent or suppress it.
6. Disease Modeling: CRISPR-Cas9 allows researchers to
create precise genetic modifications in animal models, Other DNA sequences, known as enhancer sequences,
mimicking human diseases. This technology enables also play an important part in transcription by
the study of disease mechanisms, identification of providing binding sites for regulatory proteins that
potential drug targets, and testing of therapeutic affect RNA polymerase activity. Binding of regulatory
interventions. proteins to an enhancer sequence causes a shift in
chromatin structure that either promotes or inhibits
Limitations: RNA polymerase and transcription factor binding. A
1. CRISPR-Cas9 has sparked discussions around ethical more open chromatin structure is associated with
considerations, including the implications of germline active gene transcription. In contrast, a more compact
editing, potential unintended consequences, and chromatin structure is associated with transcriptional
the need for responsible use and regulation of the inactivity.
technology. Normally, transcription begins when an RNA polymerase
2. “Designer babies” can have ecological impact in regard binds to a so-called promoter sequence on the DNA
to gene distribution in population. molecule.

Upstream Activator protein

CASE STUDY DNA
Enhancer Promoter Transcription
sequence sequence

No CRISPR: oddball ‘jumping gene’ enzyme

edits genomes without breaking DNA Upstream
This technique utilizes the natural ability of
mobile genetic sequences, called jumping
Mediator
genes, to insert themselves into genomes.
RNA
Guided by an RNA molecule called a ‘bridge’ polymerase
RNA or ‘seekRNA’, the system has been shown iption
to edit genes in a bacterium and in test-tube Transcr
reactions, but it is still unclear whether it can
Figure- Modulation of transcription. An activator protein bound to DNA
be adapted to work in human cells. at an enhancer sequence can attract proteins to the promoter region
If can be revolutionary, owing to its small that activate RNA polymerase and thus transcription.
size and its ability to make genetic changes
that are thousands of bases long — much When genes are expressed, the genetic information
larger than is practical with the CRISPR–Cas9 (base sequence) on DNA is first copied to a molecule
genome-editing system — without breaking of mRNA (transcription). The mRNA molecules then
DNA. leave the cell nucleus and enter the cytoplasm, where
IS110 is a jumping gene that acts as a bridge they participate in protein synthesis (translation).
between bits of unconnected DNA, and exists
naturally in humans. The RNA bridge can also
be programmed.
237
 Check-points:
Each step in the flow of information from DNA to RNA MENDELIAN GENETICS IN MAN-FAMILY
to protein provides the cell with a potential control STUDY
point for self-regulating its functions by adjusting the
amount and type of proteins it manufactures. Gregor John Mendel published his observations
Eukaryotic gene expression is usually regulated by in “Experiments in Plant Hybridization (1866).” His
a combination of several regulatory proteins acting specimen was garden Pea plant (Pisum Sativum), in
together, which allows for greater flexibility in the which he studied 7 characteristics each with 2 forms.
control of gene expression. For example- For characteristic ‘height of plant’, forms
were ‘tall’ and ‘dwarf’.
Transcription
Based on his observations, he laid 3 principles/laws of
DNA inheritance’.
Operator
1. Law of Dominance:
In a heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence
Inactive of another trait for the same characteristic. Rather
repressor than both alleles contributing to a phenotype,
Transcription Active only one allele (called the dominant allele) will
RNA repressor
polymerase be expressed exclusively. The recessive allele will
remain “latent,” but will be transmitted to offspring
TRANSCRIPTION ON TRANSCRIPTION OFF by the same manner in which the dominant allele
is transmitted. The recessive trait will only be
Figure- Repression of transcription. Certain molecules expressed by offspring that have two copies of this
can interfere with RNA polymerase binding. An inactive recessive allele.
repressor protein (blue) can become activated by another
molecule (red circle). This active repressor can bind to a
region near the promoter called an operator (yellow) and
thus interfere with RNA polymerase binding to promotor.

Measurement of gene expression

Real-Time qRT-PCR (Real-Time Quantitative Reverse
Transcription PCR) helps in relative and absolute
quantification of gene expression.
In situ hybridization can be used to detect abnormal
gene expression.
Microarrays are used to determine sequence or to
detect variations in a gene sequence or expression or
for gene mapping (MeSH).
Massively Parallel Signature Sequencing (MPSS) is
a an open-ended platform that analyses the level of
gene expression in a sample by counting the number 2. Principle of Segregation:
of individual mRNA molecules produced by each gene. Only one of the two gene copies present in an
organism is distributed to each gamete (egg or
sperm cell) that it makes, and the allocation of the
CLIFF NOTE gene copies is random.
3. Law of Independent Assortment:
Mendel’s law of independent assortment states
that the alleles of two (or more) different genes get
sorted into gametes independently of one another.
I.e. the allele a gamete receives for one gene does
not influence the allele received for another gene.

238
 Mendel’s Laws of Segregation, Independent Examples of single gene diseases:
Assortment and Dominance 2. POLYFGENIC OR MULTIFACTOR INHERITANCE
AABB
X
aabb
parental
generation (p)
Genes may not always be transmitted as independent
Heterozygous Tall (Tt)
Uneffected Uneffected
self-pollinated units. DNA is transmitted in segments containing
“Carrier”
Father
“Carrier”
Mother T t AaBb
f1 generation

pollen
tens to hundreds of genes. Moreover, genes might
TT Tt
r r

undergo mutations during transmission from one

R R
AB Ab aB ab

Hetrozygous Tall (Tt) Homozygous Heterozygous AB

R R R r R r r r
tall tall

Ab
AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
generation to the next (i.e., de novo mutations)
f2 generation

ovules
AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
instead of being transmitted unaltered. Such mode
Tt tt aB
AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
Heterozygous
tall
Homozygous
dwarf
ab
of transmission of genetic material from parent to
AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
Uneffected
1 in 4 Chance
Uneffected “Carrier”
2 in 4 Chance
Affected
4 in 1 Chance offspring is the basis of Polygenic or Multifactor
Laws of Segregation Laws of Independent Laws of Dominance
inheritance.
Criticism of Mendel’s theory of inheritance: A polygenic trait is a characteristic that is influenced
by two or more genes. Because multiple genes are
1. Extra-nuclear mitochondrial DNA:- It comes only
involved, polygenic traits do not follow the patterns
from mother and doesn’t follow Mendelian form of
of Mendelian inheritance. For example- The color of
inheritance.
the human eye is controlled by 16 different genes.
2. Sex limited character:- Expression of such character Skin color is also determined by multiple genes.
is only in a particular sex. Example- Milk production in
Many polygenic traits are also influenced by the
females.
environment and are called multifactorial. Example-
3. Sex-influenced characters:- Their expression depends Height or Skin color. Thus, multifactorial disorders
on hormones and occurs only in a particular sex. are caused by the cumulative effects of changes in
Example- Baldness in male. multiple genes and/or the combined effects of both
genetic and environmental factors.
TYPES OF INHERITENCE:
1. SINGLE FACTOR INHERITANCE
It is caused by mutations in single gene. Single Polygene and Major gene:
factor inheritance usually follow the patterns of Mather and Jinks (1971) draw a functional distinction
Mendelian inheritance. between major genes and polygenes. While
There are approximately 25,000 genes contained major genes have a specific role in development,
on the 46 chromosomes in each cell of the human polygenes, being nonspecific and interchangeable
body. A person can have normal chromosomes within a polygenic system, play a less precise role in
in number and structure, but still have a disease development.
caused by a mutation in one or more of the genes Duplication or deficiency for a small number
on the chromosomes. of polygenes is not likely to be unconditionally
Single gene disorders tend to occur when changes deleterious as the small effects of the change could
in a gene have a profound effect on ‘quantity’ of be balanced by other members of the polygenic
gene product produced, or the ‘function’ of the system.
gene product (loss or gain of function).
Single factor inheritance accounts for limited In humans, polygenic inheritance accounts for
phenotype variations in human. majority of phenotypic variation.
The risk of a particular single gene disorder vary Such traits show ‘continuous variation’ and cluster
among populations due to founder effect. For in families.
example- Tay Sachs disease in Ashkenazi Jews and Dominant alleles of multiple genes have a cumulative
French Canadians. effect with each dominant allele expressing a
part of the trait. This explains why offsprings of
Type of phenotypically different parents mostly expresses
Example Responsible Single gene
Inheritance an intermediate phenotype.
Phenylalanine hydroxylase Few diseases attributed to polygenic inheritance:
Phenylketonuria
(PAH)
Cystic fibrosis conductance
Autosomal Cystic fibrosis
regulator (CFTR)
recessive
Sickle-cell anemia Beta hemoglobin (HBB)
Oculocutaneous
OCA2
albinism
Autosomal Huntington’s
Huntingtin (HTT)
dominant disease Height (in.) 239
 Spina bifida, 3. Incomplete dominant lethal
Isolated cleft lip or palate, Incomplete dominance results from a cross in
Pediatric asthma. which each parental contribution is genetically
3. LETHAL INHERITANCE & SUB-LETHAL INHERITANCE unique and gives rise to progeny whose
phenotype is intermediate.
Alleles that cause an organism to die are called
Lethal alleles. Example- Sickle cell anaemia.
Discovery: 4. Conditional lethal
In 1905 by French geneticist Lucien Cuénot, while Lethal effect dependent on particular
studying the coat color of mice. environment.
Types:
Example- Favism, Phenyl-ketonuria,
a. Based on onset: Erythroblastosis foetalis. Favism is a sex linked
Pre-natal (Lethal in-utero) inherited disease that results in deficiency
Pre-reproductive (Lethal before puberty) of enzyme G6PD (Glucose 6 Phosphate
Post-reproductive (Lethal after puberty) Dehydrogenase). However, defective G6PD allele
b. Based on nature of expression: causes death only in certain conditions. When
they eat fava beans or are administered drugs
1. Dominant lethal
like antimalarial drugs, they develop hemolytic
It kills person even in heterozygous condition. anaemia.
Example- Huntington’s disease (causes gradual
neural degeneration and mental retardation and 5. Semilethal or sublethal
decreases life expectancy). It causes the death of only some of the individuals
or organisms with the affected genotype.
Example- Hemophilia leads to deficiency of
clotting factors and thus impaired coagulation
which may be fatal. Because the allele responsible
for hemophilia is carried on X chromosomes,
affected individuals are predominantly males
and inherit the allele from their mothers.
6. Synthetic lethal genes
Some mutations are only lethal when paired
2. Recessive lethal with a second mutation. In synthetic lethality,
It kills person only in homozygous condition. the simultaneous dysfunction of a pair of genes
Example- Thalassemia. results in a lethal effect on cells, while the loss of
Most lethal genes are recessive. Recessive lethal an individual gene does not cause this effect.
genes can code for either dominant or recessive Synthetic lethality indicates that 2 affected
traits. Example- Achondroplasia is an autosomal genes have the same role as lethality only
dominant bone disorder that causes dwarfism. occurs when both copies are nonfunctional and
While the inheritance of one achondroplasia one gene can’t substitute for the other.
allele causes disease, the inheritance of 2 Example- Synthetic lethal gene pairs, TP53-
recessive lethal alleles is fatal. CHEK1 is responsible for few Gastric cancers.

240
 Lethal genes occur due to Pleiotropy. CONCEPT OF GENETIC POLYMORPHISM
Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy occurs when a given genetic locus (SNP) Genetic Polymorphism is the occurrence of two or
influences 2 or more different phenotypes or traits. more alleles on a specific locus in the given population.
Genes that affect multiple, apparently unrelated, It determines the diversity of human beings.
phenotypes are thus called pleiotropic genes. The prevalence rate of gene polymorphism is estimated
Pleiotropy should not be confused with polygenic to be ≥1% in the population.
traits, in which multiple genes converge to result in Polymorphism cannot normally be maintained
a single phenotype. environmentally.
Example- Most of the polymorphisms encountered in
PLEIOTROPY human populations so fall into two main categories:
Blood-cell antigens (blood groups such as ABO)
Feature 1 Blood proteins (serum proteins).

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Gene Feature 2 Individual 1

Maternal . . . C G A T A T T C C T A T C G A A T G T C . . .
Paternal . . . C G A T A T T C C C A T C G A A T G T C . . .
Feature 3
Individual 2
Maternal . . . C G A T A T T C C C A T C G A A T G T C . . .

One gene affects multiple characteristics Paternal ...CGATATTCCCATCGAATGTC...

Short Tanderm repeat polymorphism (STRP)

Example- Marfan syndrome is a disorder in humans
Individual 3
in which one gene is responsible for a constellation Maternal ...CGATATTCCCAGCAGCAGATCGAATGTC...

of symptoms, including thinness, joint hypermobility, Paternal ...CGATATTCCCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGATCGAATGTC...

limb elongation, lens dislocation, and increased Individual 4

Maternal . . . C G A T A T T C C C A G C A G C A G C A G G A A T G T C . . .
susceptibility to heart disease. Paternal ...CGATATTCCCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGATCGAATGTC...

Lethal genes and natural selection: Impact of Genetic polymorphism

Many lethal genes continue to circulate in the human Most of the genetic polymorphisms are unable to
population at high frequency and defy rejection by natural alter the gene expression and hence do not alter the
selection. Probable reasons are: structure and function of protein molecule. These
genetic polymorphisms are considered silent.
1. Recessive lethal genes in heterozygous condition
provide heterosis (heterozygous being superior Few polymorphic gene can alter the amino acid in the
to homozygous). Example- In Sickle cell anaemia , protein without any change in the functional capability
heterozygous state is resistant to malarial infection. of protein.
(Dobzhansky) Other variant of gene can change the gene expression
2. Artificial reduction of natural selection by medical leading to the formation of variant protein with
science and socio-cultural practices. Example- impaired function. Such genetic polymorphism is
Phenylketonuria patients are reared on Phenylalanine- considered as pathogenic.
free-diet. Prenatal gene editing is done to prevent a
lethal metabolic disorder. Types of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
Anthropological significance of Lethal genes: REGULATORY CODING REGION
REGIONS
1. The discoveries of many lethal alleles have provided
information on the functions of genes during
development. Silent Coding SNPs
Occur in the coding region but
Non-Coding SNPs do not the protein’s amino acid
2. Conditional and synthetic lethal alleles are used by Occur in regulatory region of
sequence or function
the gene this may affect the
scientists to study the physiological functions and amount of protein produced
relationship of genes under specific conditions. or how it respond to an
environmental factor Coding SNPs
Occur in the coding region
and alter the protein’s
Linked SNPs function by changing its
Occur outside of the gene amino acid sequence
and do not affect the function
of the encoded protein

241
 Types: Weinberg independently showed in 1908 that
Genetic polymorphisms may be ‘transient’ or ‘balanced’. population gene frequencies remain constant from
generation to generation under a system of random
1. Balanced Genetic polymorphism:- If selection
union of gametes in fertilization (random mating is
favors the heterozygotes, it is balanced. Thus, a
e selection of a partner regardless of that partner’s
stable equilibrium may be achieved and substantial
genotype) when the frequencies of the heterozygotes
frequencies of both alleles may be maintained in one
are equal to twice the product of the square roots of
environment (Here natural selection operating as a
the two homozygotes
stabilizing agent).
Example- Polymorphism for the group of haemoglobins,
including haemoglobin S, in the presence of malaria.
2. Transient polymorphism:- It is the progressive
replacement of one allele of a gene by another allele
(while balanced polymorphism is the maintenance of
both two different alleles of a gene over time).
Example- Darkening of moth. This happens due to
strong environmental pressure to eliminate one allele
from the gene pool. This as an unbalanced, unstable Where, p and q are frequencies of genes A and a (p + q =
polymorphism and is not predictive. l) in the population.
(The Hardy-Weinberg Law deals with the simplest genetic
Application of concept
case, that of a single locus carrying only two alleles, p and
Understanding evolutionary process: Polymorphisms q.)
provide insight into evolutionary processes and natural
p and q = frequencies of genes A and a in the population.
selection. Through study of allele frequencies in
populations, researchers can infer how certain genetic
traits confer survival advantages or disadvantages in
specific environments.
Understanding diseases:- The analysis of gene
polymorphism helps us to investigate the molecular
basis of pathogenesis of diseases. Interventional gene
therapy can be used to decrease the disease burden of
such diseases.
Trace ancestry and migration pattern:- Genetic
polymorphisms are used to trace human ancestry and
migration patterns through analysis of specific genetic
markers.
Thus, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a principle
Forensics:- STRs (Short Tandem Repeats) are the
stating that the genetic variation in a population will
most popular multiallelic markers used in forensics
remain constant from one generation to the next
worldwide.
in the absence of disturbing factors. When mating
MENDELIAN POPULATION is random in a large population with no disruptive
circumstances, the law predicts that both genotype
Mendelian population is a population isolate (group of and allele frequencies will remain constant because
persons) within which individuals choose their mating they are in equilibrium. Thus, such a population in
partners. Dobzhonsky has defined it as “a reproductive equilibrium wouldn’t change genetically, i.e., it cannot
community of sexual and cross fertilizing individuals evolve.
which share in a common gene pool”. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can be disturbed by a
If the isolate (Mendelian population) is not changed by number of forces that disrupt allele frequencies:
natural selection, nor by mutation, nor by migration, Mutations:- Introduces new alleles into a population.
and if the population size is large and if individuals are Natural selection,
not mating assortatively (that is, random choice of Nonrandom mating,
partners), then the isolate is said to be in equilibrium.
Genetic drift
Gene flow.
HARDY-WEINBERG LAW
Because all of these disruptive forces commonly
Hardy-Weinberg law theory mathematically describes occur in nature, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
the behaviour of genetic traits through time within a rarely applies in reality. Therefore, the Hardy-Weinberg
specific unit — the population. equilibrium describes an idealized state, and genetic
242 Mathematician Godfrey Hardy and physician Wilhelm variations in nature can be measured as changes from
this equilibrium state.
 Egg Sperm Zygote Probability 2. Hardy-Weinberg formula may be applied to large
populations to provide an estimate of gene frequencies
A1 & A1 A1 A1 pxp = p2 at a single point in time.
3. For some human characteristics, such as neutral genes
for blood groups or enzyme variants, these criteria can
A1 & A2 A1 A2 pxq = pq be fulfilled.

=2pq Factors affecting gene frequency

Following factors cause deviations from Hardy Weinberg
A2 & A1 A2A1 qxp = qp law:
1. Non-random mating.
A2 & A2 2. Mutation.
A2A2 qxq = q2
3. Selection.
4. Small population size.
5. Gene flow (migration).

CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION IN HARDY 1. MUTATION

WEINBERG LAW Mutation is the change in the DNA sequence or
1. Large. structure of a gene.
2. Non overlapping generations. Mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation
because mutation replenishes the supply of variability,
3. Sexes equally distributed. which is constantly being reduced by the selective
4. All parents are equally fertile. elimination of less fit variants.
5. No changes in gene frequency due to mutation, gene Mutation also produces variety in organisms that
flow, selection or genetic drift. Where mutation and reproduce asexually.
selection rates are balanced so that there is no net Majority of mutations occur due to mismatch of the
change in gene frequencies. chemical bases in DNA.
Some mutations have more drastic consequences
Neutral and Stable equilibrium than others. The effect depends on what that portion
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a neutral of DNA that is altered controls. Mutations can be
equilibrium, which means that a population beneficial, harmful or neutral depending on their
perturbed from its Hardy-Weinberg genotype context or location. Some mutations can be lethal too.
frequencies will indeed reach equilibrium after a Mutations can occur
single generation of random mating (if it conforms Spontaneously. Example- Sickle cell anaemia in
to the other assumptions of the theorem), but it germ cell, Retinoblastoma in somatic cell) or
will be a new equilibrium if allele frequencies have
Can be induced. Example- Ethylmethane sulfonate
changed.
is a mutagen that alkylates guanine in DNA.
This property distinguishes a neutral equilibrium
Mutation alters genotype frequencies by introducing
from a stable equilibrium, in which a perturbed
new alleles.
system returns to the same equilibrium state.
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not stable, since Initial genotype frequencies
a change from the equilibrium genotype frequencies AA Aa aa
will generally be associated with a change in allele 0.81 0.18 0.01

frequencies (p and q), which will in turn lead to new

values of p2, 2pq and q2. Thereafter, a population
that meets Hardy-Weinberg assumptions will
Initial allele frequencies
remain at the new equilibrium until perturbed again.
A a
0.9 0.1

Utility of the law Final genotype Frequencies Mutation converts

AA Aa aa copies of A into new
1. The formula provides a standard against which genetic copies of a at the
0.80984 0.18014 0.01002
Final allele Frequencies rate of 1 per 10,000
change in a population may be measured and predicted.
A a
The formula serves as a basic theorem which can 0.89991 0.10009
be expanded and elaborated by other mathematical
models that deal with changes in populations (Jurmain
et al 1998).
243
 TYPES OF MUTATION: 2. ISOLATION
Isolation prevents mixing of genes through
interbreeding.
Mechanism:
Geographical isolation Environmental conditions
different Develop different gene pool Natural
selection Genetic divergence.
This is our original Group 1 Group 2
population

Isolating
Event

1. SOMATIC MUTATION— If mutation occurs in non-

germline cells, it is called Somatic mutation. They are (the
population
not important for evolution. is split
randomly) The allele frequencies The allele frequencies
Example- Cancer is a somatic mutation that affects a The Circle above are 0.31 for orange and are 0.57 for orange
represent 2 alleles of 0.69 for blue. alleles and 0.43 for
single organism’s survival. a certain gene in the blue.
Now Group 1 will have
population.
2. POINT MUTATION— Mutation involving change in a The allele frequencies
a much higher ratio of
blue alleles than the
Group 2 will have a
higher ratio of orange
single base pair. are 0.44 for range and
0.56 for blue.
original population. alleles than original
population.
Example- In sickle cell disease, a single-point mutation
in the beta-hemoglobin gene converts a GAG codon Isolation can be due to:
(encodes glutamic acid) and turns it into a GUG codon 1. a geographical barrier, like a natural disaster
(encodes valine). This replacement of glutamic acid for
2. a behavioral barrier, like a difference in mating calls
valine changes the shape of the hemoglobin protein to
sickle shape. 3. a temporal barrier, like a difference in when some
organisms look for mates.
3. FRAMESHIFT MUTATION— Frameshift mutations
are deletions or additions of 1, 2, or 4 nucleotides Thus, isolation can occur due to physical reason as well
that change the ribosome reading frame and cause social reason
premature termination of translation at a new nonsense
or chain termination codon (TAA, TAG, and TGA). The 3. MIGRATION
addition or deletion is such that the number of deleted Migration will change gene frequencies by bringing in
base pairs is not divisible by three. “Divisible by three” more copies of an allele already in the population or by
is important because the cell reads a gene in groups of bringing in a new allele that has arisen by mutation.
three bases.
Example- Cystic fibrosis.

ACG AGG ACU GCA UAC CA... Normal Translation

Thr Arg Thr Ala Tyr

A CGA GGA CUG CAU ACC A... +1 Frameshied

Translation
Arg Gly Leu His Thr

AC GAG GAC UGC AUA CCA...

4. SELECTION
-1 Frameshied
Translation Selection is ‘choosing the parents for the next
Glu Asp Cys Ile Pro generation’.
In nature, individuals differ in their fertility, mating
4. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS— Mutations involving ability, and viability etc. collectively termed as ‘fitness’.
large scale changes in chromosome structure or Natural selection is a creative force. Natural selection
number and thus affecting numerous genes. occurs when individuals with certain genotypes are
Example- Trisomy of chromosome no. 21 causes Down more likely than individuals with other genotypes to
syndrome. survive and reproduce, and thus to pass on their alleles
Role of mutation in evolution to the next generation. As Charles Darwin (1859)
Mutation is the engine of evolution in that it generates argued in On the Origin of Species, if the following
the genetic variation on which the evolutionary process conditions are met, natural selection must occur:
depends. The advantageous mutations are favoured by 1. There is variation among individuals within a
244 nature and are transferred to the next generation. population in some trait.
 2. This variation is heritable (i.e., there is a genetic
basis to the variation, such that offspring tend to
resemble their parents in this trait).
3. Variation in this trait is associated with variation in
fitness (the average net reproduction of individuals
with a given genotype relative to that of individuals
with other genotypes).
Mechanism:
Genetic variation produces New Phenotype
Advantageous phenotypes are selected Adaptive
value Differential reproduction Greater contribution CASE STUDY
to gene pool Becomes the dominant phenotype
Change in gene frequency of population.
WHY THE HBS ALLELE PERSISTS IF
Genetic
PEOPLE WITH SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
dri Recombination Mutation DON’T USUALLY LIVE TO REPRODUCE (as
normalizing selection would have reduced its
frequency to zero) SICKLE CELL ALLELE &
ADVANTAGE IN MALARIA
In malarial environment, heterozygotes are
Selection Increasing
adaption more likely to survive and reproduce and so,
the recessive HbS allele persist at a higher
than expected frequency in the population.
(Abnormal hemoglobin cells are more delicate
and live less and thus mayn’t readily support
malarial parasites.)This is balancing selection.
(Madigral 1989)
Mutation creates variation

ROLE OF CULTURAL FACTORS IN NATURAL SELECTION

Unfavourable mutations selected against Some cultural factors can modify the effect of natural
selection and help in perpetuation of a harmful mutant
gene.
Reproduction and mutation occur
For example- Galactosemia, caused by a recessive
mutant gene, results in mental retardation and
Favourable mutations more likely to
survive blindness. Dietary restrictions started at an earlier
age prevents it. Thus, such people with Galactosemia
operate normally and reproduce and pass on the
...and reproduce disadvantageous gene. Without cultural interference,
natural selection would prevent such reproduction.

Modes of Natural selection: Biological and Cultural Evolution in Humans

1. Directional selection— A particular trait is positively may not be Separate Process:
favored and so average value shifts over time towards Some of the most important biological features of
adaptive trait. humans such as larger brain may have been favored
Example- Natural Selection in Moths. by natural selection because of cultural traits such
2. Normalising selection— The average value doesn’t as tool making by ancestors.
change but natural selection removes the extremes. Conversely, cultural trait of education may have
Example- Birth weight of babies. Very low birth rates been favored by Natural Selection because humans
and very high birth rates are selected against. have a long period of immaturity and dependency,
3. Balancing selection— When a hererozygous state a biological trait.
is positively favoured, even though a homozygous
combination is disfavoured. 5. INBREEDING
Example- Sickle cell Anaemia. Individuals who inherit It is mating among related individuals. It causes
2 HbS from both parents (homozygous) have full ‘inbreeding depression’.
blown disease while those receiving single HbS Inbreeding depression is the reduced survival and
(Heterozygotes HbSHbA) have milder form of disease. fertility of offspring of related individuals. 245
 Causes
Inbreeding depression is caused either by CASE STUDY
the presence of (largely recessive) deleterious
mutations that are present at low frequencies
in populations (so that inbreeding increases the INBREEDING DEPRESSION
frequency of individuals expressing their effects) Adams and Neel (1967, Schull and Neel
(the ‘dominance hypothesis’). Inbreeding permits (1965), Seemanova (1971), and Carter
deleterious recessives to pair frequently since (1967), studying the products of incest
kin mates, by virtue of their genetic relationship to among humans, indicate a high mortality
one another, have a greater likelihood of possess and abnormality for children of father-
still another identical deleterious recessive at that daughter and sibling incest.
locus. Homozygous recessives, albinism,
By alleles with heterozygote advantage that are alkaptonuria, etc., and the lethals are
maintained by balancing selection at intermediate encountered with greater frequency
frequencies (here, homozygotes would have lower in consanguineous marriages than in
fitness; (the ‘overdominance hypothesis’). marriages of unrelated persons. Studies
Is inbreeding always bad? in Japan, where inbreeding is greater have
shown increased rates of infant mortality
1. The increasing homozygosity doesn’t mean inbreeding
and congenital abnormalities.
is always bad. Its impact depends on the nature of the
homozygotes. However, David Clark et al in “Associations
of autozygosity with a broad range
Among lower animals inbreeding is common. The
of human phenotypes” (Nature 2019)
advantage is presumably ecological, since a single
concluded that Inbreeding depression is
female can colonize an empty resource. It is assumed
predominantly caused by rare, recessive
that deleterious recessives in habitually inbreeding
variants made homozygous in ROH (Runs
species have mostly been purged by selection.
of homozygosity), and not by the chance
2. Mild inbreeding such as mating between first cousins, homozygosity of variants.
or uncle-niece is not found to be dangerous.
Genetic variants causing inbreeding
The Inbreeding coefficient (F) or Fixation depression are almost entirely rare,
index: consistent with the dominance hypothesis.
It is used to guage the strength of inbreeding.
Inbreeding cofficieint (F) is the probability that an
individual has received both alleles of a pair from an
identical ancestral source (identical by descent). CASE STUDY
If inbreeding is the only source of disequilibrium, F
in a population for a given locus can be estimated
from the deviation between the expected and EVOLUTIONARY BASIS OF INCEST TABOO
observed numbers of heterozygotes. (Groen 1995) According to Parker 1976 (Parker, S. 1976
F=He-Ho/He The Pre-cultural Basis of the Incest Taboo:
Example- 1st cousins share a set of grandparents. Toward a Biosocial Theory. American
For any particular gene in male, the chance that his Anthropologist) and Demarest 1977, the
female 1st cousin inherited the same gene from the chance of homozygosity for dysfunctional
same source is 1/8. For any gene the man passes recessive genes provides a biological basis
to his child, the chance that women has the same of the behavior to avoid individuals within
gene is 1/8 and the chance that she transmits that the consanguineous group and, therefore,
gene to child is ½. So 1/8 X ½=1/16= coefficient of selection pressures have promoted social
inbreeding for 1st cousin marriage. mechanisms to assure non-incestuous
For offspring of 1st cousins. F=1/16 mating.
For offspring of 1st cousins once removed. F= 1/32
For offspring of 2nd cousins. F=1/64
For offspring of Beyond 2nd cousins. F <1/64.
Other:
For full siblings. F=1/4
For half siblings. F=1/8
Uncle niece. F=1/8
246 Double 1st cousins. F=1/8
Application of concept 2. In certain areas (South India, Japan, etc.) marriages
Inbreeding depression implies that genetic variation are commonly observed between the children of
exists in species for alleles that affect fitness. This the siblings of opposite sexes (cross cousins). First
variation is important for the evolutionary maintenance cousin marriages make up almost 10 %.
of outcrossing mating systems. 3. In southern part of India, especially in Andhra Pradesh,
Genetic counselors can provide informed advice to among certain castes, uncle-niece unions also make
couples about the potential risks of inbreeding. Also, up about 10 % of marriages.
carrier screening programs can help identify and 4. Less frequent marriage types such as the marriages
manage genetic disorders prevalent due to inbreeding. between first cousins once removed, second cousins,
double first cousins and aunt-nephew also occur in
Southern India.
5. Rare instances of siblings marriage also there.
Example- sib-sib marriage among the Pharaohs of
Ancient Egypt.

Genetic or geographic distance between parent

5.1 CONSANGUINEOUS AND NON-CONSANGUINEOUS

MATING
The word consanguinity comes from 2 Latin words:
‘Con’ meaning common, ‘sanguinous’ meaning blood.
Consanguinity is the term used to describe marriages
between blood relatives who have at least one
common ancestor no more remote than a great-great
grandparent.
By an estimate, 20% of world population prefer
consanguineous marriages. In many societies, it is a
tradition.

CASE STUDY

CONSANGUINEOUS MARIAGE AS TRADITION

In certain communities such as Arab, Bedouin,
and Berber populations of Middle East and
North Africa, such marriage is often rooted
in cultural, social, and religious traditions and
is perceived as a way to maintain family ties, Figure -Cousin marriages
preserve wealth, and strengthen social bonds.
Reasons for preference of consanguineous marriages in
certain communities:
Categories of consanguineous marriages
1. Maintaining the lineage solidarity of the family.
1. The most common form of consanguinity in the human
population is cousin marriage. Marriage between 2. Ease of finding a suitable spouse and lower marriage
children of siblings of the same sex (parallel cousins) cost (lower bridewealth)
is prohibited except in some Islamic societies of the 3. Wife’s inheritance stays in natal family.
Middle East where marriage between a man and his 4. Enhances female autonomy.
father’s brother’s daughter is common. 5. Better stability of marital relationship. 247
 It is the only alleles present in a population at a
Heterosis or Hybrid Vigour particular locus.
Intercrossing interbred strains improves Thus, genetic drift decreases the genetic diversity of
performance of F1 generation. This is called a population.
Heterosis. Employed in crops and animals.
Genetic drift is common after Population bottlenecks
If two independent pure lines are crossed,
(events that drastically decrease the size of population).
the hybrids between them (at least in the first
In such cases, drift leads to loss of rare alleles and
generation) mostly show a considerable increase in
decrease in gene pool.
size, fertility and many other desirable traits. This
is referred as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Genetic drift can cause a new population to be
genetically distinct from its original population. This
It is employed for crop improvement and animal
is the reason behind the hypothesis that genetic drift
husbandry.
plays a role in evolution of new species.
Inbreeding results from drift because alleles become
Genetic Effect of Consanguineous and Cousin Marriages
identical by descent.
Consanguinity and endogamy increase the proportion
In a population bottleneck, Genetic drift reduces the
of homozygotes (reduction in heterozygosity) in a
number of segregating sites (i.e., the number of loci
population and decreases the proportion of heterozygotes.
with genetic polymorphisms). Without selection,
The heterozygote deficit corresponds to the level of
drift does not change the mean allele frequency of
inbreeding (in the absence of selection, assortative
deleterious variants, but it does increase homozygosity.
mating, migration etc).
Note- Heterozygosity in bi-parental reproduction offers a
greater assortment of genes to a changing environment.

CASE STUDY

The presence of consanguinity in marriages

in many subpopulations has led to the
accumulation of genetic traits within
communities. (Vadivelu 2016)
Parental consanguinity is associated with
an increased risk of Autosomal Recessive
disorders and congenital anomalies in CASE STUDY
offsprings. Example- Autosomal recessive
intellectual disability, Primary ciliary dyskinesia
(rare genetic disorder) (McKusick, V.A. (2000). “Genetic Disorders
Among the Amish”)
Loss of genetic variation due to drift is of
particular concern in small, threatened
6. GENETIC DRIFT populations, in which fixation of deleterious
Genetic drift (also called Sewall Wright Effect) alleles can reduce population viability
describes random (non-deterministic) processes that and raise the risk of extinction. Even if
affect the gene frequencies in small, relatively isolated conservation efforts boost population
populations. growth, low heterozygosity is likely to
Genetic drift occurs when a subset of a population has persist, since bottlenecks (periods of
different allele frequencies than the larger population. reduced population size) have a more
In small populations, infrequently occurring alleles pronounced influence on effective
face a greater chance of being lost. For the same population size than periods of larger
reason, drift is slower in larger populations. population size.
Drift always occurs as real populations are finite. In an The Amish community in North America
infinite population, we expect directional selection to is characterized by a closed, insular society
eventually fix an advantageous allele, but this will not with a high degree of genetic homogeneity
necessarily happen in a finite population, because the due to endogamous marriages. They have
effects of drift can overcome the effects of selection increased prevalence of Ellis-van Creveld
if selection is weak and/or the population is small. Syndrome (dwarfism with polydactyly) due
Once drift begins, it continues until: to genetic drift.
248 The involved allele is lost by the population
FOUNDER EFFECT:
GENE FLOW
One variety of genetic drift is called Founder effect. The
founder effect occurs when a few individuals leave a If new alleles are introduced into a population as
community to start a new settlement. The resulting a consequence of migration with subsequent
population may, by chance, either lack some alleles intermarriage, this will lead to a change in the
from the original population or have high frequencies relevant allele frequencies. This slow diffusion of
of others. alleles across a racial or geographical boundary is
known as gene flow.
In this small group of individuals, if a particular gene
is absent by chance in that group of individuals, the The most widely quoted example is the gradient
descendants are also likely to lack that gene. Same shown by the incidence of the B blood group allele
happens if they happen to carry any particular gene. throughout the world. This allele is thought to have
originated in Asia and spread slowly westward as a
Isolation can occur for physical reasons as well as social result of admixture through invasion.
reasons.

7. GENETIC LOAD
The concept of genetic load was given by Haldane
(1949) and Muller (1950). It hovers around an idea
that the genotypes in a population have a mixture
where one is better than the other. Genetic load is
the difference between the fitness of an expected
optimal genotype with the fitness of observed average
genotype in a population.
Thus, the genetic load refers to the proportion by
which fitness is reduced in the population due to the
operations of a factor such as mutation.
Genetic load of a species is a measure of the number
of deleterious traits maintained in a population.
Definition
CASE STUDY Genetic load has been defined variously. Although
all definitions of a genetic load center around the
(viability) fitnesses of genotypes in a population, none
(PHYSICAL ISOLATION) of it is unambiguous.
When Bering land bridge connected North Crow (1970)— the expressed genetic load is the
America and Asia, the population that could fraction by which the average population fitness is
move over land couldn’t return back once sea decreased in comparison with the genotype showing
level rose. This explains why Native Americans the highest fitness.
have a higher proportion of Type O blood than Note- The genetic load of a species may be partially
other populations. (1st migrants may have by hidden and partially manifested or expressed.
chance a predominance of individuals with Genetic load is given by the following expression:
Type O group)
Wmax - w
Load =
w
where
CASE STUDY Wmax is the fitness of the most fit genotype in a
population and
W is the mean fitness in that population.
(SOCIAL ISOLATION)
If w= 1 is taken to imply a population of constant
A religious sect of Anabaptists called ‘Dunkers’ size from one generation to the next, then the
emigrated from Germany to USA in 1700s. 50 genetic load becomes defined as Wmax– 1. If all
original families kept to themselves. So, some of the individuals in the population have the optimal
their gene frequencies differ from what is found genotype, then W = Wmax and the load is zero.
in both German and US population. (Relethford
Thus, genetic load is measured as decreased average
1994)
fitness, or somewhat more specifically, as mortality,
sterility, or morbidity due to specified causes, usually
deleterious alleles.
249
 Mechanism: Inbreeding:- Inbreeding increases the rate of
Most deleterious mutations are initially rare and, homozygosity.
hence, it can take many generations of drift for them Sexual reproduction:- Genetic load increases by pairing
to increase in frequency, in a process referred to as together of two different deleterious gene. However,
‘drift debt’. Only once these mutations are common sexual reproduction can also prevent the spread and
enough do they become homozygous and reduce the maintenance of deleterious gene in a population due
mean population fitness. to elimination of less fit individuals.
The fitness effects of recessive deleterious mutations
that were initially masked as heterozygotes then
become expressed as homozygotes. The masked load CASE STUDY
is thus converted into a realised load, changing the
constitution of the genetic load. The genetic load is
Two forms of thalassemia are there.
the sum of the realised and masked loads.
Thalassemia major (homozygote for the
Inbreeding can accelerate this process, resulting in defect) causes severe anaemia which is fatal
inbreeding depression. in childhood. The second form is thalassemia
The genetic load does not change, unless purging minor (heterozygote for the trait) confers
removes some of the deleterious mutations. immunity and a selection advantage over
normal.
(A) (B)
Genetic load For example- The Mediterranean region has
Lethal equivalents

Lethal equivalents

Realised load Purging a high prevalence of beta-thalassemia due to

the historical selective pressure exerted by
Masked load
malaria. The carrier state (thalassemia minor)
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
provides some protection against malaria,
Inbreeding coefficient (F) Inbreeding coefficient (F)
leading to a higher frequency of thalassemia
(C) (D)
Surv
alleles in these populations. In countries like
Purging ival r Inbreeding
at Italy and Greece, the carrier frequency of
Fitness or survival

Genetic load e
(Population genetic depression
Genetic load

definition) Fitness with

purging
Less fitness beta-thalassemia can be as high as 10-15%.
loss aer
Inbreeding Fitness without purging purging
Genetic load
(Fitness definition)
depression In such populations, accumulation of
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 deleterious alleles has increased the genetic
Inbreeding coefficient (F) Inbreeding coefficient (F)
load.

Understanding the impact of timescale is also relevant

in studies of genetic load. For instance, while the
realised load affects individual fitness in the current
generation, both the realised and masked loads could CLIFF NOTE
affect the fitness and viability of the whole population
in future generations. This is particularly relevant
because inbreeding remains high after a bottleneck in
a slowly recovering population (e.g., Pink pigeon).

Causes
Mutational load:- It is the extent to which a population
is impaired by recurrent mutation. Mutational load is
CLIFF NOTE
larger in big populations with positive selection because
there are more individuals that can be potential carrier
of deleterious gene and can pass on the mutation over
generations.
Segregational load:- The segregational or the balancing
load comes into play when heterozygote superiority
arises in a population.
Migrational load:- Migrational load results when an
organism non-adaptive to a particular environment
comes in contact with individual adapted to that
environment. The offspring produced as a result
of such mating are not as fit as they would have
been if both of their parent where adapted to same
250 environment.
 Exposure to substances that cause birth defects
CHROMOSOMES AND CHROMOSOMAL (teratogens). Example- If the mother consumes
ABERRATIONS IN MAN Tetracycline (an antibiotic) during pregnancy, it
suppress skeletal bone growth and cause hypoplasia
The term chromosome is derived from the Greek of tooth enamel of foetus.
words kr¯oma and s¯oma meaning color and body,
respectively.
Chromosomes are condensed, packaged DNA-
containing genes and noncoding regions located in the
nucleus of cells and some organelles (mitochondria).
Genetically unique gametes are produced each
generation via recombination of chromosomes which
occurs predominately during meiosis.
Chromosomes are capped by a structure called
telomere (non-coding DNA) that buffers chromosome 1. Numerical Abnormalities:
end from degradation. Instead of the typical 46 chromosomes in each cell of the
Another non-coding part called centromere divides body, there may be 45 or 47 chromosomes.
each chromosome into two regions known as the p
Types of numerical abnormalities:
and q arms.

Chromosome
Telomere

Chromatids
p arm

Centromere

q arm Aneuploidy: This means there are more or fewer

chromosomes than the normal number. Examples
DNA molecule include:
Down syndrome (trisomy 21). Cells contain 3
copies of the 21st chromosome.
The characterization of chromosomes largely falls
under the field of cytogenetics. Chromosomes are Turner syndrome. One of the 2 sex chromosomes is
only visible under optical microscopes during early not transferred. This leaves a single X chromosome
stages of cell division when the chromosomes are for 45 total chromosomes instead of 46.
highly condensed. The predominant method for Trisomies: The term “trisomy” is used to describe the
characterizing chromosomes is known as karyotyping presence of 3 chromosomes, rather than the usual
and involves fixing chro- mosomes in vitro during pair of chromosomes. For example, a baby is born with
metaphase, staining, and photographing the 3 no. 21 chromosomes, rather than the usual pair, has
chromosomes, and arranging them into a karyogram
based on the length of each set. The process of
staining itself is known as banding. (Discussed in detail Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
under ‘Cytogenetic method’ in this chapter) MEIOSIS ~ Produce Sex Cells
Changes in chromosome number and structure within
species are often linked to disease phenotypes.
Numerical and Structural Chromosomal
Aberrations
Abnormal chromosomes most often happen as a result of
an error during cell division. Chromosome abnormalities
often happen due to one or more of these:
Errors during dividing of sex cells (meiosis)
Errors during dividing of other cells (mitosis) 251
 “trisomy 21.” in the development of a baby, since some of the
Monosomies: The term “monosomy” is used to describe “instructions” are missing.
the absence of one member of a pair of chromosomes. For example- In “Cri du Chat,” part of the #5
Therefore, there is a total of 45 chromosomes in each chromosome is missing or deleted.
cell. For example, if a baby is born with only one X
chromosome, rather than the usual pair, baby would
P arm Normal P arm Chromosome 5 with part
be said to have “monosomy X.” Monosomy or partial Chromosome 5 of the p arm deleted
monosomy is the cause of certain diseases such as q arm q arm
Turner syndrome and Cri-du-Chat syndrome.
Mosaicism: Each cell has 46 chromosomes grouped in
23 pairs. A person with mosaicism may have some cells
in his or her body with 46 chromosomes. But other Micro-deletions
cells have 47 chromosomes. These deletions span a few contiguous genes and lead
Mosaicism may be caused by an error in mitosis. to contiguous gene syndromes.
(Mitosis causes the number of chromosomes to Example- When the microdeletion happens on maternal
double to 92, and then split in half back to 46. This chromosome, it leads to Angelman syndrome.
process repeats constantly as the baby grows.) Microdeletion on paternal chromosome causes Prader
Mosaicism can cause many different kinds of disorders, Willi syndrome.
such as:
Klinefelter syndrome. This syndrome can cause low
Duplications:- A part of a chromosome is duplicated,
amounts of testosterone. This can lead to problems
or present in 2 copies. This results in having extra
with sexual development, and other issues.
genetic material, even though the total number
Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. This disorder causes of chromosomes is usually normal. These “extra
a red birthmark called a port-wine stain. It also instructions” can lead to errors in the development of a
causes excess growth of soft tissues and bones, baby.
and abnormal veins.
For example- In Pallister Killian syndrome, part of the
Mosaic Down syndrome. Down syndrome is a
#12 chromosome is duplicated.
condition that causes intellectual disabilities and
delays, weak muscles, and flat facial features. It
can also cause a heart defect, digestive problems, Normal Chromosome 12 Duplicated Chromosome 12
thyroid problems, and other health issues.
P arm P arm
2. Structural Abnormalities:
q arm q arm
Structural chromosome abnormalities occur when
there is a change in the structure or parts of a
chromosome. Translocations:- The term translocation is used when
Example- When part of a chromosome is missing, a the location of specific chromosome material changes.
part of a chromosome is extra, or a part has switched There are two main types of translocations:
places with another part.
Reciprocal:- In a reciprocal translocation, two
Ultimately, this leads to having too much or too little different chromosomes have exchanged segments
genetic material. This is a cause of some birth defects. with each other.
a a a
b
b b

2 Chromosomes

a b
a
b
These chromosomes
break and switch places and reattach

Robertsonian:- An entire chromosome attaches to

another at the centromere.
Chromosomes #14 and #21 The ends break off the chromodomes
join together at the cemtromeres
centromere
21

Deletions:- A part of a chromosome is missing or 14 21 14 21 14

252 “deleted.” This leads to loss of genes, leading to errors
 For example- Translocation Down syndrome CLINICAL SYNDROMES FROM CHROMOSOMAL
(Translocation between no. 14 and 21) ABERRATIONS
Inversion: This is when a chromosome breaks and the 1. Related to sex chromosomes
piece of it turns around and reattaches itself. Inversions A. KLINEFELTER (XXY)
can be passed down in families, but they may or may
Occurs only in males.
not cause birth defects.
The cells have 47 chromosomes with a sex
chromosomal complement of XXY type, and a sex
chromatin body (Barr body) is found in 80% cases.
Occasionally patients with Klinefelter syndrome have
48 chromosomes: 44 autosomes + 4 sex chromosomes
(48, XXXY)
Normal Chromosomes It breaks, and turns upside
down then reattaches Barr body is formed by condensation of an inactivated
X chromosome. A barr body is also present in normal
females because one of the X chromosome is normally
Ring:- A ring chromosome is one where the ends are inactivated.
attached to itself to form a ring. Rings can be passed
down in families. They may or may not cause health Most Common causative event:- Nondisjunction of
problems. the XX homologues.
Incidence:- 1:500 males.
dsDNA breaks at ends
Features:-
Males with Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY) often
have a mild physical phenotype with tall stature,
gynecomastia, and wide hips.
They have decreased testosterone production and
infertility or reduced fertility (Testicular atrophy
and sterility).
Mood and affect disorders are common. Although
intellectual disability is not generally part of the
Telomere dysfunction syndrome, the more X chromosomes there are, the
more likely there will be some cognitive impairment.
B. SUPER FEMALE (XXX)
Sex chromosome anomaly characterized by a
chromosomal number of 47 and a chromosomal set
of XXX.
Cause:- Trisomy X occurs randomly as a result from
errors during the division of reproductive cells in one
of the parents. It most commonly occurs as a result of
nondisjunction during meiosis. The risk of trisomy X
increases with advanced maternal age.
CLIFF NOTE
Incidence:- 1 in 900 to 1,000 live births.
Features:- Language-based learning disabilities,
developmental dyspraxia, tall stature, low muscle tone
(hypotonia), and abnormal bending or curving of the
pinkies toward the ring fingers (clinodactyly).
C. TURNER (XO)
45,XO karyotype is the only monosomy compatible
with life.
Even then, 98% of such fetuses are spontaneously
aborted. The surviving ones are female in appearance.
Cause:- Approx. 55% of affected females are
monosomic for X (largely caused by nondisjunction in
male gamete). In rest, structural abnormalities of the
X chromosome or mitotic nondisjunction resulting in
mosaicism is the cause. 253
 Incidence= 1 in 3000 live births. Complications
Features:- Increased risk of developing leukemia, infections,
The features of TS depend on which part of the X thyroid dysfunction, premature ageing, early onset of
chromosome is missing. Alzheimer disease.
Affected females usually have short stature, a B. PATAU SYNDROME
webbed neck, a broad chest with widely spaced
nipples, and infertility due to ovarian dysfunction. It is caused by Trisomy 13 (means the child has 3
Cardiovascular defects, often aortic coarctation or copies of chromosome number 13).
aortic valve abnormalities are frequently present. Incidence= 1:5K newborns.
Gonadal dysgenesis (Absent ovaries).
Features:-
D. INTERSEX Congenital heart defects
Intersex refers to the state of being born with biological Low set ears
sex characteristics that vary from what is typically Flexion of fingers and hands
thought of as exclusively male or female (binary). Micrognathia
Now called “Disorders of sexual development” (DSD). Small mouth
It can have various chromosomal or hormonal Intellectual disability
abnormalities. Syndactyly
2. Related to Autosomes Malformations of skeletal system
A. DOWN SYNDROME Renal abnormalities
Dr. Jérôme Lejeune discovered that Down syndrome 85% are lost between 10 weeks of gestation and term.
was caused by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair 1% survive beyond 1 year.
(Trisomy 21). C. EDWARD SYNDROME
Causes: It is caused by Trisomy 18.
In 95% cases, cause is meiotic nondisjunction. EDWARDS SYNDROME (Trisomy 18)
MEIOSIS ~ PRODUCES SEX CELLS

a. Non-disjunction at meiosis I b. Non-disjunction at meiosis II

In 4%, there is unbalanced translocation between chr

21 and Chr 13, 14, 15, 21. Features
1% is caused by mosaicism resulting from a trisomic Most babies with trisomy 18 have problems that affect
conception followed by loss of the extra chromosome all parts of the body.
in some cells during mitosis. Small size, even when delivered full term. Looking thin
Incidence—1:2K conceptuses for women under 25 years. and frail.
1:300 at age 35. Weak cry.
Features Small head.
Growth retardation. Low-set ears.
Varying degrees of intellectual disability. Small mouth and jaw
Craniofacial abnormalities:- Upward slanting eyes, Shortened breastbone (sternum)
Epicanthal folds (extra skin folds at medial corners of Problems with hearing
eyes), flat and broad face, small ears.
Arms and legs in a bent position (contracture)
Protruding tongue.
Feet with a curved shape, known as rocker bottom.
Cardiac defects.
Curvature of the spine (scoliosis), Spinal cord not fully
Hypotonia. closed (spina bifida).
A broad hand with a single transverse crease (simian Cleft lip and palate.
254 crease).
 Most babies born with trisomy 18 die by age 1. Heart Genetic screening is the process of testing a population
problems, feeding problems, and infections are what for a genetic disease in order to identify a subgroup of
most often lead to death. people that either have the disease or the potential to
pass it on to their offspring.
D. CRI-DU-CHAT SYNDROME
While Genetic testing is focused on an individual,
Cri du chat syndrome is a rare genetic disorder in which
genetic screening is really focused on a whole
a variable portion of the short arm of chromosome 5
population.
is missing/deleted (monosomic).
Most cases are thought arise from spontaneous Basis:-
(de novo) genetic errors very early in embryonic Most diseases result from a combination of genetic
development. and environmental factors. There is, however, an
1st described in the medical literature in 1963 by Dr. etiologic spectrum on which diseases at one end are
Lejeune who named the disorder after the distinctive mostly due to genetic factors and diseases at the other
cat-like cry. In French, Cri du chat translates into “cry end are mostly due to environmental factors.
of the cat”. At the “genetic” end of the spectrum, there are
thousands of single-gene diseases (eg, Huntington
Features:
disease, cystic fibrosis, and hemochromatosis).
Symptoms vary greatly from case to case depending Similarly, at the “environmental” end of the spectrum,
upon the exact size and location of the deleted genetic multifactorial or complex genetic diseases (eg, heart
material. disease, psychiatric conditions, and cancers) are
Distinctive cry that resembles the mewing of a cat. caused by the interplay of multiple low penetrance
Characteristic facial features, Microcephaly. genes with various behavioural and environmental
factors.
Slow growth, delays in the acquisition of skills requiring
the coordination of muscular and mental activities Genetic screening involves identification of changes
(psychomotor disability) and moderate to severe in DNA sequence or chromosomal structure. It is also
intellectual disability. useful to find out Rare diseases (diseases having a low
prevalence of less than 1 in 2000.)
GENETIC IMPRINTS IN HUMAN DISEASE Methodology:
Even though both parents contribute equally to the Genetic screening involves more than just tests, but
genetic content of their offspring, a developmental rather encompasses a systematic program of services
process called genomic imprinting sometimes leads to offered to a defined population who are informed
the exclusive expression of specific genes from only of the potential risks and benefits through extensive
one parent. education and counseling.
Genomic imprinting is a process of silencing genes It involves a cascade screening.
through DNA methylation. The repressed allele is
methylated, while the active allele is unmethylated.
Diseases related to Genomic imprinting:
1. Prader-Willi Syndrome and Angelman Syndrome.
a. Both conditions are caused by indistinguishable
deletions in chromosome 15.
b. What distinguishes these disorders is the parental
origin of the affected chromosome. While, Prader-
Willi syndrome is caused by the loss of a group
of paternally inherited genes on chromosome 15, Genetic Testing
Angelman syndrome is caused by the loss of a Genetic tests can be classified into:
maternally inherited gene in the same region of 1. Presymptomatic tests:- They test before appearance
chromosome 15. of symptoms. They usually test for rare conditions
c. Features:- Intellectual disability, hypotonia, caused by single genes. Example- For Huntington
hypogonadism, obesity, poor motor development disease
so can’t speak, prone to unprovoked and prolonged 2. Predisposition test:- Test for rare forms of otherwise
period of laughter common conditions.
2. Imprinting has been linked to certain cancers Example- Genetic forms of breast and ovarian cancer.
Example- Wilms’ tumor (an embryonic kidney cancer 3. Susceptibility test:- Test for common conditions
that is associated with chromosome 11) caused by complex gene-gene and gene-environment
interactions, in which each individual gene has a low
GENETIC SCREENING penetrance.
255
 Example Heart diseases.
Few Types of DNA Fingerprinting technique and
Timing of genetic screening programs applications
Preconception screening (i.e, before having children),
Technique General Application
Prenatal screening (i.e, during pregnancy),
Newborn screening (i.e, after birth). Terminal Restriction Used in criminal forensics
Fragment Length to link different soil samples
GENETIC COUNSELING Polymorphism (TRFLP) (from crime scene and sole of
See chapter on ‘Applications in Anthropology’. a shoe or clothing).
Amplified Fragment Used for “basic” diversity and
HUMAN DNA PROFILING
Length Polymorphism genetic variation studies.
DNA fingerprinting or profiling or typing comprises (AFLP) Applications in paternity
any DNA-based techniques that identifies the DNA analysis
from a certain individual or group of individuals within
a community of organisms. The DNA fingerprints Restriction Fragment Able to identify the origins of
may be used as a tool for determining the identity of Length Polymorphisms a particular species, with the
a specific DNA sample, or to assess the relatedness (RFLP) (non-PCR aim of mapping its evolution.
between samples. technique)
DNA fingerprinting determines the probable identity of
a person based on the nucleotide sequences of certain Ribotyping (with or Able to be used in subtyping
regions of human DNA that are unique to individuals. without PCR) of foodborne pathogens and
of microorganisms important
PRINCIPLE: for fermentation and food
Over 99% of all nucleotides are identical among all spoilage. Excellent tool for
individuals. However, for every 1000 nucleotides indicating pollutants.
inherited there is one site of variation, called
polymorphism, in the population. These DNA
General Procedure:
polymorphisms induce the change in the length of the
DNA fragments produced by digestion with restriction DNA samples can be extracted from blood, semen, hair
enzymes in the course of a fingerprinting technique. roots, bone or saliva
Gel electrophoresis is used to separate and determine
the size of the resulted fragments.
DNA is then treated with restriction enzymes, which cuts
the DNA into smaller fragments at specific sites

DNA is amplified by the technique of Polymerase chain

reaction (PCR).

Alkaline chemicals are used to split this double stranded

DNA splits into single stranded DNA

Agarose gel electrophoresis.

The DNA bands so formed are transferred to nylon

membrane and treated with a radioactively-labelled
DNA probe which binds to complemental DNA
sequences on the membrane

Radioactive DNA pattern is transferred to X-ray film by

direct exposure. When developed, the resultant pattern is
the DNA finger print.
256
 Types
Process Of DNA Fingerprinting
1. Linkage maps:- It shows the arrangement of genes
4 Transfer to
membrane and genetic markers along the chromosomes as
1 Extraction 5 Incubation with
calculated by the frequency with which they are
labelled probes inherited together.
3 Electrophoresis 2. Physical maps:- It represents chromosomes and
long DNA
fragments
provide physical distances between chromosomal
Short DNA landmarks ideally measured in nucleotide bases.
fragments
6 X-ray
Physical maps are of following types:
2 Restriction
enzymes Chromosomal or cytogenetic maps
Radiation hybrid (RH) maps
DNA sample
Sequence maps. The ultimate physical map is the
DNA fingerprint
complete sequence of genome itself.

Physical and genetic maps are not identical

CASE STUDY PHYSICAL MAP GENETIC MAP
Distribution of genes Distribution of genes
based on sequence A A based on recombination
“NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING” (NGS) data B B frequencies
FOR PATERNITY TESTING
C Appear closer together
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a C when there is low
D recombination frequency
type of DNA sequencing technology that
D between genes
uses parallel sequencing of multiple small
fragments of DNA to determine sequence, E Appear farther apart
at high speed and low cost. It has the E when there is high
ability to detect clinically relevant germline F recombination frequency
F between genes
mosaicism.
Y-chromosome mini-STR can be used for
NGS-based NIPPT (Non-invasive prenatal
paternity testing) with high accuracy in Applications:
real cases, and is a promising tool for 1. Genome mapping has wider applications such
familial searching, paternity exclusion as genetic improvement of organisms, genome
and sex selection in forensic and medical sequencing.
applications (Wenqian Song et al 2022).
2. Genetic maps are a necessary tool for mapping
of disease genes or trait loci (linkage mapping).
Integrating genetic mapping and disease gene
Applications: mapping with next-generation sequencing has proven
1. To determine the ancestry of plants, animals, and to be a powerful strategy in genetic research.
other microorganisms. It is used in paternity diagnosis 3. Provides clinically important information about linkage.
in humans.
2. To track genomic mutations.
3. Molecular diagnosis of complex inherited disorders, CLIFF NOTE
population screening of genetic diseases, studies
of the genetic basis of variable drug response
(pharmacogenetics), as well as discovery and
investigation of new drug targets (pharmacogenomics)
involving screening for mutations in multiple DNA
samples.
GENE MAPPING
Gene mapping refers to the process of determining the
location of genes on chromosomes and determining
the location of and relative distances between genes
on the chromosome.

257
 2. HLA
AGE, SEX AND POPULATION VARIATION AS
Human leukocyte Antigen (HLA) is a form of MHC
GENETIC MARKER (major Histocompatibility Complex) antigens in
humans.
1. ABO, RH BLOOD GROUPS The HLA system includes a complex array of genes
A. AB Blood Group System located on chromosome 6. Their molecular products
The ABO blood group antigens are encoded by one are involved in immune regulation and cellular
genetic locus, the ABO locus, which has 3 alternative differentiation.
(allelic) forms—A, B, and O. The ABO locus is located HLA molecules are expressed on almost all nucleated
on chromosome 9. cells. Immune system uses these markers to recognize
A child receives one of the three alleles from each which cells belong in your body and which do not.
parent, giving rise to six possible genotypes and four Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing is used to match
possible blood types (phenotypes). patients and donors for bone marrow or cord blood
The immune system forms antibodies against transplants. HLA class I and II matching is important
whichever ABO blood group antigens are not found on in organ transplantation especially in kidney and bone
the individual’s RBCs. Thus, a group A individual will marrow transplantation
have anti-B antibodies and a group B individual will Transplantation of foreign tissue induces both humoral
have anti-A antibodies. and cellular immune responses in the recipient, which
leads to graft rejection.
Antigen(s) Antibodies
Blood group present on the present in the Blood group
red blood cells serum

ABO alleles inherited from the

ABO genotype in the mother
offspring
A B O

A A AB A
ABO alleles
inherited
B AB B B
from the
father

O A B O
Functions of HLA system
The role of HLA molecules is to present peptides to
B. RH BLOOD SYSTEM T cells, enabling them to recognize and eliminate
“foreign” particles and also to prevent the recognition
The association of the Rh protein family and the Rh
of “self” as foreign. HLA mismatches may occur at
accessory proteins is called the “Rh complex.”
antigenic or allelic level.
The Rh proteins carry Rh antigens but are only
expressed on the erythrocyte surface if Rh Antigen is HLA Tissue Typing methods:
also present. Previously, HLA typing was done by 2 methods:
1. Serologic method using antiserum
Rh and hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) 2. Mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC).
HDN is caused by maternal IgG antibody crossing After that a more precise DNA-based HLA typing
the placenta, binding to the fetal antigen-positive methods using molecular techniques have been
RBCs, and initiating their destruction, thereby developed, such as
causing anemia. Sequence-specific oligonucleotide probe
It used to cause fetal brain damage due to hybridization (SSOP).
increased levels of bilirubin (kernicterus) and even Sequence-specific primer amplification (SSP).
death (erythroblastosis fetalis). DNA based method had more sensitivity, accuracy
and resolving power than serologic typing methods.
258
 liver is the major source of haptoglobin, research has
CASE STUDY demonstrated that it is also secreted into plasma by
adipose tissue.
2. Transferrin:
HLA-G GENE
Transferrin is a blood plasma glycoprotein that plays a
HLA-G is a molecule that contributes to immune central role in iron metabolism and is responsible for
tolerance and resisting rejection. It belongs ferric-ion delivery. Transferrin functions as the most
to the non-classical major histocompatibility critical ferric pool in the body. It transports iron through
complex class (MHC) I family. the blood to various tissues, such as the liver, spleen,
and bone marrow.

BIO-CULTURAL ADAPTATIONS—GENETIC AND

GM NONGENETIC FACTORS.
Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor Human populations vary widely in frequencies of
(GM-CSF) is a colony-stimulating factor that regulates physical traits and variations are product of adaptation,
growth and differentiation of hematopoietic cells. acclimatization and the influence of social or cultural
The lung is a major source of GM-CSF and most environment.
pulmonary cells are able to synthesize this cytokine in ADAPTATION:
response to various stimuli. Adaptations involve permanent genetic changes that
• Inhibits differentiations • Induces proliferation and migration give their carriers a better chance to survive and
reproduce than individuals without the genetic change
T Cell
who live in the same environment.
Mast cell Endothelial cell
What is adaptive in one environment may not be
adaptive in another. Natural selection favours different
• Induces diffrentiations • Induces proliferation
into DCs and
GM-CSF
• Tissue repair genes and traits in different environments.
macrophages Monocyte Epithelial cell
Natural selection doesn’t account for variation in
• Development
frequencies of neutral traits i.e. traits that don’t confer
DC
Alveolar macrophage
• Increases phagocytosis any advantage or disadvantage on their carriers.
• Surfactant clearance
Neutrophil
Neither genetic drift nor gene flow is an adaptive
• Enhances survival
• Induces maturation • Enhances survival process.
• Induces cytokine and • Induces pro-inflammatory cytokine expression
chemokine production • Increase ROS production Impact on Cultural environment on adaptation
Culture allows humans to modify their environments,
and such modifications may lessen the requirement of
BLOOD ENZYMES genetic adaptations and physiological acclimatization.
Serum enzymes and markers are used to assist in the Example
diagnosis of disease such as cancer or medical events Effect of cold environment may be modified
like myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, by cultural traits of living in houses, using heat
or liver dysfunction. Serum enzymes can also show and clothes for insulation of body. Such cultural
muscle tissue breakdown in the event of trauma or practices alter our micro-environment.
rhabdomyolysis.
Cooking in Iron pots can help tackle Iron deficiency.
1. Glucose 6 Phosphate Dehydrogenase:
Culture can also influence the direction of natural
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is an enzyme selection.
found in the cytoplasm of all cells. It is a housekeeping
Example
enzyme that plays a vital role in the prevention of
cellular damage from reactive oxygen species (ROS). It With advent of dairying, individuals with genetic
does this by providing substrates to prevent oxidative ability to produce Lactase in adulthood would
damage. have greater reproductive success. Hence, dairying
populations came to have high proportions of
Inherited deficiencies of glucose-6- phosphate
individuals with the ability to break down lactose
Dehydrogenase can result in acute hemolytic anemia
in milk (FJ Simoons and Robert McCraken 1960).
during times of increased reactive oxygen species
Without dairying, natural selection mayn’t have
production.
favoured the genetic propensity to produce
SERUM PROTEINS Lactase. People in some dairying societies don’t
These are the proteins present in the blood. They have produce Lactase in adulthood and they developed
various immunological purposes. a cultural solution to it. They transformed their milk
1. Haptoglobin: into cheese, yoghurt etc that are low in Lactose.
Haptoglobin is an acute phase reactant which plasma Individual cultural practices can lead to physical
levels are increased during inflammation. Although the variations too. 259
 Example- MAN’S PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO
Elites of Andean highland societies such as the ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES: HOT DESERT,
Inca practiced head binding with cloth. Such tight COLD, HIGH ALTITUDE CLIMATE.
binding forced the skull to grow in conical shape.
Thus, such cultural practices altered physical
characteristics that were intended to identify elite
members. (Stewart 1950) Human Adjustments

Biological Cultural
CASE STUDY
Acclimatisation Adaptation (Permanent · Shelter: e.g Igloo
(Temporary changes) changes) · Clothing: warm clothing e.g.
· Bergmann's rule: clothing of Inuits
Why did natural selection favour a biological individual in warmer
areas have larger body
· Use of fire: e.g. Australian
aborigines sleep naked between
solution in some dairying society and not others? size fire
· Allen rule: individual
in colder areas have
Lactose behaves chemically like Vit D and smaller body
appendages
facilitates absorption of calcium. People in
more temperate latitudes are not exposed
to much sunlight especially in winter and
ACCLIMATIZATION:
make less Vit D in skin. Natural selection may
have favoured the lactase in adulthood for Physical environment can sometimes produce
absorbing calcium alongwith lighter skin (to variations even in the absence of genetic changes.
maximize UV rays penetration) in low sunlight Example- Climate influences the way of growth of
environment (Durham 1991). human body.
Lighter skin is also less likely to be damaged Acclimatization is temporary non-genetic physiological
by frostbite. (Post, Daniels, Binford 1975) changes that help individuals survive in a particular
environment.
Acclimatization may have underlying genetic factors
but they are themselves not genetic. Individuals are not
born with them but develop them during their lifetime.
CASE STUDY
They may appear or disappear as the environment
changes.
Religion and adaptation Example- Shivering in a chilled environment is ‘short
(Ember and Ember 15th Ed) term acclimatization’. Longer exposure to cold weather
causes our body to increase metabolic rate so as
Though, Religions are adaptive, some
to generate more internal heat. This is long term
customary aspects of religious beliefs on the
acclimatization.
surface doesn’t appear to be adaptive.
Example- Hindu belief in sacred cow.
Some long term acclimatization are difficult to
Marvin Harris in ‘The Cultural Ecology of distinguish from adaptation. Also some acclimatization
India’s Sacred Cattle (1966)’ suggested are closely related to genetic adaptations. Example-
economic reason for not slaughtering cow Tanning, an acclimatization in light skinned people is
in India. Cows provide valuable resources likely in people where light skin is adapted to low solar
and their wandering around to forage is no radiation.
strain on largely agricultural population.
Eg- Milk, Cow dung as cooking fuel and
1. Acclimatization to Hot:
fertilizer, male used to plough field or draw
water or drive bullock cart, hides and horns 4 methods of heat loss
of dead cows used in leather industry. 1. Conduction: It occurs when heat move from a warmer
object to a cooler object by direct contact.
2. Convection: Heat is transferred from warmer to
surrounding cooler fluid, either liquid or air.
3. Radiation: Heat is given off by an object as
CLIFF NOTE electromagnetic waves of a characteristic wavelength.
Other forms of electromagnetic waves include visible
light, ultraviolet radiation, and radio waves.
4. Evaporation: The heat is lost from the skin by
evaporation of sweat as when water converts into
vapor; a certain amount of energy is required in the
260 form of heat.
Radiation Conduction Convection Evaporation
Other Sources
of Radiation
CASE STUDY
Sunlight

Occupational heat strain in outdoor workers:

Vasomotion A comprehensive review and meta-analysis
Respiratory heat loss Sweat
(Ioannou LG et al, Temperature (Austin). 2022)
Airflow Reflective
Body Heat Sunlight The study made following important
conclusions regarding working in heat:
Conduction
Metabolic Heat The maximum acceptable average heart
Ground Heat
rate in the work periods across the day is
~ 130 beats/min.
20 different factors have been reported
to modulate the physiological heat strain
experienced by workers:
Human body gets rid of excess heat in warm climates
by all four methods, but at air temperatures above
35°C (95°F) evaporation is much efficient.
In human body, Peripheral vasodilation of Skin enables
heat loss.

Although humans can physiologically

acclimatize to performing physical tasks
in the heat, these adaptations take at
least four days to occur. Accordingly, a
period of reduced work intensity and/or
duration should be given to workers when
first exposed to heat stress.
Irrespective of age, whole-body heat loss
(is ~5% lower in females relative to males.
CASE STUDY Further, the body’s capacity to dissipate
heat declines with increasing age in both
males (~3% per decade) and females
Death of migrant construction workers in
(~4% per decade). Consequently, relative
Qatar (The Guardian, 2019)
to young adults, older adults experience
Qatar’s construction boom ahead of the Fifa higher increases in body temperature and
World Cup 2022, led to huge employment a greater cardiovascular burden during a
of migrant construction workers in manual heat stress, which is potentially worse in
work. Working outdoors expose them females.
to potentially fatal levels of heat stress.
Working in high temperatures puts a huge
strain on the human cardiovascular system,
with extreme heat stress leading to fatal
heart attacks. CLIFF NOTE

261
 Advantages of Acclimatization to Hot:
1. Less strain on vital organs upon exposure to heat.
2. More Sweating (earlier and more) to cool the body
quickly. (Thus, acclimatized persons need more water
due to increased sweating)
2. Acclimatization to Cold
Two levels can be distinguished regarding acclimatization
to cold:
1. Severe cold exposure, leading to a drop in mean
skin, tissue and body core temperature. It is generally
evoked using repeated cold water immersions.
2. Moderate cold exposure, leading to decrease in skin
and tissue temperatures with no or minor drop in body
core temperature. It is generally evoked using repeated
cold air exposure.
Mechanism:
Constriction of the capillaries below the skin prevents
warm blood from reaching to the surface of the skin,
where much of the body’s heat would be lost to the air.
Additional body heat is produced voluntarily by
exercise and involuntarily by shivering.
Low body temperature causes the hypothalamus
to stimulate increased muscle tone, which results
in shivering. At the peak of shivering, the increased
muscle metabolism can increase the rate of heat
production five times than that of the normal.

The Hypothalamus: The Body's Thermostat

Cellular changes due to repeated cold exposure:

Cold stress changes the lipid composition of cellular
membranes, and suppresses the rate of protein
sweat synthesis and cell proliferation.
gland

i
262
Types of Cold Adaptation:
4 types of cold adaptation are distinguished: increase in body heat production of only 12
W/m2 after 85 minutes in the cold room.
Metabolic:- If people indigenous to cold areas
Thus, both Caucasian and Eskimo subjects
increase heat production in response to cold
showed a significant increase in metabolism.
exposure to a larger extent than people from the
tropics, they can be considered metabolically cold Study by Leonard et al. show that indigenous
adapted. Metabolic adaptation, can go hand in hand circumpolar populations have 3–19 % higher
with higher mean skin temperature without an BMR for males and females.
increase in body core temperature. It is present in Steegmann AT et al, Neanderthal cold
people from temperate and arctic regions. adaptation: physiological and energetic
factors. Am J Hum Biol 2002. It is assumed
Insulative:- Insulative adaptations are characterized
that European Neanderthals were well
by a lower skin temperature when exposed to
equipped with cold defense mechanisms.
cold with unchanged metabolic rates and core
Apart from metabolic adaptations, including
temperatures. This type of adaptation is shown in
brown adipose tissue for NST, they are
Aboriginals that sleep in cold deserts.
supposed to have had insulative adaptation,
Hypothermic:- It is increased tolerance to cold such as strong vasoconstriction in the skin,
without corresponding physiological changes. hairy skin to reduce heat loss, localized cold-
Insulative-hypothermic. induced vasodilation and cold shock proteins.
It is predicted that some Neanderthals would
have covered up to 80% of their body. There
is some evidence that the Neanderthals, who
lived in Europe 180,000 y ago until extinction
30,000 y ago, exchanged DNA with the
modern Cro-Magnon human. This may have
led to the presence of the aforementioned
cold defense mechanisms (but not a hairy
skin) currently found in Inuit and Caucasians
that are present to a lesser extent in black
CASE STUDY African people nowadays.

Case studies on adaptation and 3. Acclimatization to high altitude:

acclimatization to cold:
High-altitude environments exert multiple-stress
Population studies show that indigenous on human population. These stresses include low
black Africans have reduced shivering oxygen pressure (High altitude hypoxia), intense
thermogenesis in the cold and poor cold solar radiation, cold and dry wind, rough terrain, and
induced vasodilation in fingers and toes relatively limited plant and animal life.
compared to Caucasians and Inuit. High altitude affects reproduction; birth weights are
In a cold environment, heat production lower and infant mortality is higher. Also, the growth
increases by 10–30 W during the initial first and development of children are slower. Towards this,
minutes without any increase of muscle developmental adjustment among the children of high
activity. Later, extra heat is generated by altitudes occurs i.e. during growth the native develops
involuntary contractions of skeletal muscles greater chest circumferences than do those growing
(shivering). Shivering occurs when core and up at lower elevations.
skin temperature surpass a certain threshold
and may produce heat equivalent to about 4 Main symptoms of High altitude or mountain sickness
times resting metabolism.
Shortness of Respiratory Physical and mental
Adams and Covino (1958) subjected nude
breath distress fatigue
Negro, Caucasian and Eskimo males to an
air temperature of 17°C. After 55 minutes of Rapid pulse Interrupted Headaches intensified
exposure, both the Caucasian and Eskimo rate sleep by activity
subjects demonstrated an average rise in
metabolism of 26 W/m2 body surface area Physiological acclimatising response
above control levels of 46 and 64 W/m2, 1. Increased hemoglobin to increase oxygen carrying
respectively. Negro subjects showed an capacity of blood.
2. Increase in the number of blood capillaries improves 263
 the diffusion of oxygen by shortening the distance natural environment. It explores topics such as
between the cell and capillary. subsistence strategies, resource use, land management
practices, and the cultural beliefs and values that shape
human-environment relationships.
2. Environmental Perception and Knowledge: Explores
how different cultures perceive and understand their
environment. It examines the ways in which cultural
beliefs, knowledge systems, and traditional ecological
knowledge influence human behavior and decision-
making regarding the environment.
3. Ethnobiology and Traditional Ecological Knowledge:
It explores how traditional ecological knowledge
systems contribute to the sustainable use of natural
resources, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem
management. Ethnobiologists often work closely with
communities to document and preserve traditional
knowledge.
CASE STUDY 4. Human Adaptation and Resilience: Ecological
anthropology investigates the strategies employed
by different cultures to cope with environmental
Case studies related to acclimatization to high variations, such as climate change, natural disasters,
altitude: and resource scarcity. Understanding human adaptive
Sherpa inhabit the Khumbu Valley of Nepal strategies can provide insights into resilience and
and Tibetan plateau. The long exposure to sustainable practices.
the evolutionary pressure presented by high 5. Conservation and Sustainability: Ecological
altitude has driven physiological adaptation anthropology examines the impacts of human
in them through genetic selection and activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and
production of distinct adaptive phenotypes industrialization, on ecosystems and biodiversity.
including advantageous levels of hemoglobin, Ecological anthropologists work to identify sustainable
oxygen saturation and birth weight, and the solutions and promote conservation practices that
elevated reproductive success of Sherpa consider both ecological and cultural factors.
women. 6. Political Ecology: This aspect of ecological
Genomic studies have identified robust signals anthropology explores the power dynamics and
of positive selection across genes including political-economic processes that shape human-
EPAS1, EGLN1 and PPARA. All three of these environment relationships. Political ecology highlights
signals of genetic selection have been shown the need to address social and environmental justice
to correlate with advantageous levels of issues.
hemoglobin, which likely protect the Sherpa 7. Applied Ecological Anthropology: It involves
from altitude sickness. collaborating with communities, policymakers,
and other stakeholders to address environmental
challenges, develop sustainable practices, and promote
cultural and ecological conservation.
CONCEPTS AND METHODS OF Environmental adaptation:
ECOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY : 1. Culture is a major decisive factor influencing how
members of a certain group view their environmental
Ecological anthropology focuses upon the complex resources.
relations between people and their environment. 2. Adaptation to climate involves influence of other
Ecological Anthropology addresses ways in which the “non-environmental” forces (Set, of economic,
world cultures have adapted to and organized their social, and institutional situations which ascertain a
environment across time and space. It investigates location-specific perspective for human-environment
the ways that a population shapes its environment interactions.)
and the subsequent manners in which these relations
form the population’s social, economic, and political life Scholars:
(Salzman and Attwood 1996) 1. Julian Steward coined the term “cultural ecology”.
He looked for the adaptive responses to similar
Scope of ecological anthropology: environments that gave rise to cross-cultural
1. Human-Environment Interaction: Ecological similarities. Steward’s theory centered around a culture
264 anthropology examines have interacted with their core, which he defined as “the constellation of features
 which are most closely related to subsistence activities anthropology studies have included political ecology,
and economic arrangements” (Steward 1955) uniting more traditional concerns for the environment–
2. In Roy Rappaport studies conducted in New Guinea, technology-social-organization nexus with the
the carrying capacity and energy expenditure are emphasis of political economy on power and inequality
central themes. He completed the first systematic seen historically, the evaluation and critique of Third
study of ritual, religion, and ecology, and this study World development programs, and the analysis of
is characterized as synchronic and functionalist. environmental degradation.
Rappaport was the first anthropologist to reconcile
ecological sciences and cybernetics with functionalism
in anthropology.
CASE STUDY
3. Present Ecological anthropologists believe that
populations are not engaged with the total environment Adapting to Climate Change in a Dryland
around them, but rather with a habitat consisting of Mountain Environment in Kenya. By Bernard
certain selected aspects and local ecosystems (Kottak Owuor et al. 2005
1999). Furthermore, each population has its own
adaptations institutionalized in the culture of the In areas where there drought is as a result
group, especially in their technologies. of anthropogenic activities, Ecological
Anthropologists set out to promote
Now various subfields within the discipline have emerged. environmental and biodiversity conservation
Eg- Paleoecology examines human interaction with the among the people living there. The Akamba
environment from an archaeological perspective. people have for a long time faced perennial
drought and a shortage of water in their region,
as Ecological Anthropologists can advice and
CASE STUDY
encourage them to plant a lot of trees in their
area and cease from deforestation. To avoid
Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of any more deaths due to drought, they should
a New Guinea People By Roy A. Rappaport be encouraged to plant drought resistant crops
both for commercial and domestic use.
Rappaport for example conducted research
among the Tsembaga people and he found out
that they had a culture of keeping pigs. The
more pigs one had, the wealthier they were
considered in the community. However, pigs and EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
human beings shared the same food resource.
Hence to maintain a balance between the human Epidemiology is often defined as the study, distribution
and pig population, they had annual ceremonial and determinants of disease/injuries in human population.
feasts where they would slaughter the pigs. This Epidemiological anthropology elucidates etiological
ritual hence provided balance. factors involved in a disease incidence; and emphasis on
population variation in incidence and occurrence.
Thus, epidemiology is about disease in populations, rather
than in individuals.
Applications:
Human growth as well as diseases exhibit the whole
1. Anthropological knowledge has the potential to
spectrum of causation, ranging from hereditary factors
inform and instruct humans about how to construct
which play predominant role, to the environment.
sustainable ways of life. Anthropology, especially when
it has an environmental focus, also demonstrates the Human’s physical environment as well as social, cultural
importance of preserving cultural diversity. While and psychological circumstances need to be considered
Biological diversity is necessary for the adaptation and for the study of diseases. Eg- Environmental components
survival of all species; culture diversity may serve a of causation lie in lung cancer and tuberculosis.
similar role for the human species because it is clearly
Scope of Epidemiological anthropology:
one of our most important mechanisms of adaptation.
2. Ecological Anthropology are increasingly contributing 1. Epidemiological anthropology examines the distribution
to research of broader relevance to the communities of diseases within populations, both at the individual
at large in coping with natural resources, hazards, and and group levels. It investigates how biological,
other environmental issues. cultural, and social factors contribute to variations
in disease occurrence, prevalence, and distribution
3. In the 1990s, ecological anthropologists rejected
across different populations and contexts. Eg- How
extreme cultural relativism and attacked modernist
cultural beliefs, practices, norms, social structures, and
dichotomies (body and mind, action and thought,
economic factors shape health behaviors, access to
nature and culture) (Milton 1997). Recent ecological 265
healthcare, and the social determinants of health.
 2. By examination of unequal distribution of diseases with class, gender, ethnic group and even factors such
and healthcare access among different social groups, as proximity to support from family members.
Epidemiological anthropology investigates how factors What counts as a disease also changes over historical
such as race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, time, due to reasons such as increasing expectations of
and migration status contribute to health disparities health, changes in diagnostic ability, for a mixture of social
and inequities. and economic reasons. Eg- Osteoporosis was earlier
3. Epidemiological anthropology enables cross-cultural understood as an unavoidable part of normal ageing but
comparisons of health and disease patterns across in 1994 WHO recognized it as a disease.
different populations and regions.
4. Epidemiological anthropology examines the interface
between healthcare systems, health interventions, CASE STUDY
and cultural contexts. It investigates the cultural
appropriateness and effectiveness of health programs,
policies, and interventions in diverse populations, IDEA THAT WHAT CONSTITUTES A DIESEASE
aiming to develop contextually relevant and culturally IS CONTEXT SPECIFIC. (Bayer & Spitzer, 1982)
sensitive healthcare approaches. Homosexuality has been understood differently
5. Epidemiological anthropology contributes to applied across time:
research and policy development by providing insights During 19th century, Homosexuality was
into the social, cultural, and contextual factors that considered as a state rather than an act.
influence health outcomes. During 1st half of 20th century, homosexuality
was viewed as an endocrine disturbance
Distribution of diseases at population level: requiring hormone treatment.
In 2nd half of 20th century, it was recaegorised
CASE STUDY as an organic mental disorder to be treated
by electroshock and/or neurosurgery.
In 1974, it was de-pathologized and removed
Why Japan has less prevalence of heart from list of mental disorders.
diseases than Finland? (Hiroyasu Iso, Lifestyle
and cardiovascular disease in Japan, 2011)
Japan is unique among developed countries in ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF
that coronary heart disease and stroke mortality HEALTH AND DISEASE
has been low and has continued to decline. 1. Anthropology emphasizes the cultural context in
Since the 1970s, mortality from coronary which health and disease occur. It examines how
heart disease as well as stroke has declined cultural beliefs, values, practices, and social structures
substantially in Japan. Higher sodium, lower shape individuals’ experiences of health and illness.
calcium and lower animal protein content in 2. Anthropology examines how social, economic, and
the diet and for men higher alcohol consumption political factors such as poverty, inequality, education,
may account for the higher prevalence of and access to healthcare influence health outcomes
hypertension and higher risk of stroke for within different populations.
Japanese than for western populations. On 3. Anthropology investigates health behaviors and
the other hand, lower saturated fat (meat) practices within different populations. It examines
and higher n3 polyunsaturated fat (fish) in factors such as dietary practices, lifestyle choices,
the Japanese diet may contribute to the lower traditional healing practices, and treatment-seeking
prevalence of hypercholesterolemia and lower behaviors.
risk of coronary heart disease among Japanese.
4. Many populations have multiple healthcare systems
and healing traditions coexisting. Anthropology
examines medical pluralism, which refers to the
HEALTH AND DISEASE coexistence and interactions of diverse healthcare
systems, including biomedicine, traditional medicine,
MEANING OF ‘HEALTH’
and alternative therapies. This helps understand how
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social individuals navigate and integrate different healing
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or practices and how these systems interact with each
infirmity. (WHO) other.
MEANING OF ‘DISEASE’ 5. Anthropology employs ethnographic methods such as
Since people live in varied cultural contexts, notions participant observation, interviews, and focus groups to
of ‘health’ and ‘disease’ are highly context-dependent. gather in-depth qualitative data. These methods allow
266 Eg- Whether people believe themselves to be ill varies researchers to gain insight into the lived experiences,
 beliefs, and practices of individuals within specific reach of culture. A modern conception of culture is
populations. significantly more complex and all-encompassing.
6. By providing culturally sensitive insights, anthropology In contemporary medical anthropology, it is believed
highlights the importance of context-specific that all research, even the most subjective and
approaches that consider the cultural beliefs, social scientific, is rooted in the culture and experience of
norms, and local practices of different populations. This those who interpret and publish the results.
helps in developing interventions that are acceptable,
accessible, and effective in addressing health issues Conclusion:
within specific cultural and social contexts. It is important to utilize a holistic approach to illness
in order to identify all pertinent factors that contribute
MULTIFACTORIAL MODEL OF DISEASE (Curnow and to a given pandemic. The discipline of anthropology
Smith) concentrates on what is actually happening and
According to this model, there are a number of distinct looks to ‘the root’ of where things come from” (John
factors that contribute to disease in a population. Eg- Porter). Whether this ‘root’ at the level of social
Genetics, environment, culture etc. interactions between individuals, a cultural nuance
Human remain in competitive interaction with or the macrocosmic structures that impact a given
environment. It is to ensure adaptation of individual population, anthropological methods of investigation
and mal-adaptation of disease causing agent to the have proven reliable in identifying it.
environment. Anthropology’s distinct character as integrated,
The geographical background is the prime single factor critical, holistic and qualitative makes it a very potent
governing the abundance of specific type of parasites force in encouraging public health policy in a similarly
and pathogens in a region. Ecological relationships critical direction.
are strongly influenced by physical features such as
MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY:
wind, rainwater, drainage, temperature and humidity.
Eg- Tsetse fly (vector of African sleeping sickness) Medical anthropology studies how societies construct
requires a relatively dense vegetation cover. understandings of health and illness, including medical
treatments for all types of maladies.
The ecological aspects of disease can be revealed in 2
ways: Issues in medical anthropology:
1. Physical environment:- There is a clear geographical Ethnographic research in medical anthropology involves
distribution of pathology manifested as a consequence observing and conducting interviews with a small group
of extreme climatic effect e.g. heat stroke (desert), of people. Data generated by anthropological research
mountain sickness (high altitude) and rodent ulcer is less valuable because it does not lend itself to broad
(ultra-violet light). Air pollution related health hazards ‘scientific’ extrapolation, as does epidemiological
in India. data. Thus, despite great anthropology’s potential for
2. Biotic environment:- Biotic component of the informing health policy, its actual contribution is quite
environment harbours pathogenic organisms (viruses, small.
bacteria, protozoa, fungi) dangerous animals as well
as poisonous plants and insects. In addition nutritional
disorders arise due to improper utilization of food
CASE STUDY
sources – animal and vegetable (and also mineral).
Criticism and way forward: Conception of Illness and disease among
tribals.
1. The factorial model sees culture in isolation from all
other factors. Culture shouldn’t be considered isolated Most tribal societies believe that diseases are
from political, social and economic factors. caused by supernatural forces. They view the
‘traditional healer’ as a medium between man,
ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGY: nature and the supernatural entity who guards
Anthropology is involved in seeing the entire situation their community and provide spiritual security.
in a given community. This involves participant Dr. Abhay Bang committee on Tribal health
observation in order to capture the smallest details in recommended—Role of traditional healers in
the events of individuals’ lives. This also involves study the tribal community should be recognized.
of the macro-level forces and structures that are They should be offered training and encouraged
acting on people that cause them to behave the way to adopt a referral role. Training of traditional
they do. birth attendants with appropriate skill transfer
By involving anthropologists on a clinical level it is and certification.
possible to reduce the impact of the culture ‘factor’ on
disease prevalence. Eg- Factors of disease causation
such as biology and environment are beyond the 267
 INFECTIOUS AND NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES INFECTIOUS DISEASES:
NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES: Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic
Noninfectious diseases are those diseases that are microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites
not caused by pathogens. They are generally caused or fungi.
by genetic or environmental factors other than Infectious diseases can be spread, directly or indirectly,
pathogens, such as toxic environmental exposures from one person to another.
or unhealthy lifestyle choices. Many diseases have The epidemiological triad model of infectious disease
genetic basis. Eg- Thalassemia and sickle-cell anemia causation.
are haemoglobin variants caused by mutation in The triad consists of an agent (pathogen), a susceptible
hemoglobin gene. host, and an environment (physical, social, behavioral,
Most noninfectious diseases have a complex, cultural, political, and economic factors) that brings
multifactorial set of causes, often including a mix of the agent and host together, causing infection and
genetic and environmental variables. Examples= Cystic disease to occur in the host.
fibrosis, most cancers, cardiovascular diseases such as
coronary artery disease, and diabetes mellitus.
Most non-infectious diseases are still largely of
unknown causes.
Most diseases are in a state of flux. Eg- Duodenal
ulcer was uncommon at the end of 19th century but
incidence rate rose steadily in the 1st half of 20th
century. Now disease has disappeared again.
In non-infectious disease, the whole complex of
environmental factors and biological responses
(inborn and acquired) must be considered to account
for regional variation.
Many diseases have been accorded a ‘racial
pathology’ but the distribution was entirely related to
environmental peculiarities. Eg- Primary cancer of the
liver is common among Africans. The fact that Negroes
are more susceptible to frostbite than Eskimos or
North American Indians may be attributed to both lack
of acclimatization and genetic susceptibility.

CASE STUDY

1. Haemolytic disease of the new-born due to

rhesus factor (RH factor) incompatibility is
characteristic of European but not of most
Mongoloid or Amerindian populations, since
they are devoid of Rh-negative individuals. No Infection Colonization Infection
2. There is an increased risk of duodenal
ulcers in individuals of blood group O and
individuals with blood group A are more
prone to stomach cancer than others. No Disease Disease

Severe disease
CLIFF NOTE
Recovery
Death

268
Determinants of infectious diseases: 4. Agriculture 5. Trade 6. Tourism
1. Agent factors:- When a potential host is exposed to
an infectious agent, the outcome of that exposure is 7. Transport Industrial development and housing=
dependent upon the dynamic relationship between Human settlement may require
agent determinants of infectivity, pathogenicity, deforestation (provide conditions
and virulence, and intrinsic host determinants of favourable for the propagation of
susceptibility to infection and to disease. infectious diseases.)
Infectivity:- Infectivity is the likelihood that an agent
will infect a host, given that the host is exposed to the CHAIN OF INFECTION:
agent. The chain starts with the infectious agent residing
Pathogenicity:- Pathogenicity refers to the ability of an and multiplying in some natural reservoir; a human,
agent to cause disease, given infection. animal, or part of the environment such as soil or water
that supports the existence of the infectious agent in
Virulence:- Virulence is the likelihood of causing nature.
severe disease among those with disease. Virulence
reflects structural and/or biochemical properties of an The infectious agent leaves the reservoir via a portal of
infectious agent. exit and, using some mode of transmission, moves to
reach a portal of entry into a susceptible host.
Notably, the virulence of some infectious agents is
due to the production of toxins (endotoxins and/
or exotoxins) such as the cholera toxin that induces
a profuse watery diarrhea. Some exotoxins cause
disease independent of infection, as for example, the
staphylococcal enterotoxins that can cause foodborne
diseases.
2. Host factor:- Susceptibility refers to the ability of an
exposed individual/population to resist infection or limit
disease as a result of their biological makeup.
Factors influencing susceptibility include both innate,
genetic factors and acquired factors such as the specific
immunity that develops following exposure or vaccination.
1. Genetics can influence susceptibility to infectious
disease. Eg- Malaria resistance to sickle cell anaemia
carriers. (Aidoo et al., 2002).
2. Microbiome-resident bacteria (a.k.a. commensal
bacteria, normal flora) can also confer host
protection by using available nutrients and space
to prevent pathogenic bacteria from taking up
residence.
3. Cellular and humoral responses. Eg- Vaccines.
3. Environmental factors:- Both physical and social
behavioral, are extrinsic determinants of host
vulnerability to exposure. Environmental factors can HERD IMMUNITY:
be Physical, social, behavioral, cultural, political, and
Herd immunity occurs when one is protected from
economic.
infection by immunization occurring in the community.
Environmental factors promoting vulnerability can also
A consequence of herd immunity is that immunization
lead to an increase in susceptibility to infection by inducing
coverage does not need to be 100% for immunization
physiological changes in an individual. Eg- a child living in
programs to be successful.
a resource-poor setting and vulnerable to malnutrition
may be at increased risk of infection due to malnutrition- The equation R = R0(1−X) (where x equals the immune
induced immunosuppression. portion of the population) indicates the level of
immunization required to prevent the spread of an
Factors:
infectious disease through a population.
Issues related to:
The proportion that needs to be immunized depends
on the pathogen. When the proportion immunized (x)
1. Sanitation 2. Environmental 3. Education reaches a level such that R < 1, a chain of infection
and water and climate cannot be sustained. Thus, Ro and R can be used to
supply change calculate the target immunization coverage needed for
269
the success of vaccination programs.
 NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY RELATED DISEASES Few important somatoscopic characters
Refer to ‘Nutritional anthropology’ in chapter ‘Applications 1. Skin colour:- Broadly three shades of skin colour are
in anthropology’. found in human beings.
1. White skin (Most in Europe)
2. Yellow skin (Example- Mongoloids)
RACE AND RACISM 3. Black skin (Example- People in African countries)
2. Hair colour:- Fisher-Saller have prepared a colour chart
The word ‘race’ has probably been drawn from the with hair samples of 30 different shades. All the thirty
Arabic root ya’ys (meaning head or beginning) and was shades fall in to three broad categories:
first used by the French scholar, F. Bernier (1684). 1. Blond,
2. Dark Brown
Definitions 3. Red.
In his book ‘Races and culture of India 1944’, H.H. 3. Hair form:- It is broadly be divided into three types:
Risley defined race as ‘a group of people who by their
1. Straight hair (Leiotrichy),
possession of a number of common physical traits can
be distinguished from others; even if the members of 2. Wavy hair (Cymotrichy)
this biological groups are widely scattered, they form a 3. Woolly hair (Ulotrichy).
race. 4. Hair texture: It can be fine, medium and coarse.
Templeton (1998) defined race (subspecies) a “distinct 5. Eye fold:- Eye fold can be present or absent. A common
evolutionary lineage within a species, genetically variety of eye fold is ‘epicanthic fold’ or Mongolian fold.
differentiated due to barriers from genetic exchange In Mongolian fold, the fold covers the free edge of the
that have persisted for long periods of time.” inner angle of the eye and may extend on to the cheek.
The definition of race given by a group of physical
anthropologists and geneticists, called together under
auspices of the UNESCO in Paris (1951) appears the
most appropriate one: “In its anthropological sense, the
word ‘race’ should be reserved for groups of mankind
possessing well-developed and primarily inheritable
physical differences from other groups. Complete Mongoloid

Characteristics of Race: fold

It is a biological concept. free edge of lid
It is united by heredity and thus consists of several
genetic strains.
It has certain differentiating characteristics thus, one No Fold
group can be differentiated from others.
Its usefulness lies in finding out the biological and
physical differences (not socio-cultural) in mankind.

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL fold

VARIATION OF CHARACTERS free edge of lid
Internal Epicanthus
1. Non-metric characters
Non-metric characters refer to qualitative traits like
the presence or absence of joined earlobes, while
metric characters involve quantitative measurements
such as bone length or cranial capacity.

Somatoscopy External Epicanthus

It is the study of morphological characters.
Somatoscopy is the systematic visual observation
of physical features of different parts of human
body for accurate description.
Most somatoscopic characters show geographical
variation. Median Fold
Human eye folds. (In each case the right eye is represented)
270
6. Nasal bridge:- The nasal bridge may be Mesorrhine:- (Medium nose) 70.0-84.9
Straight. Platyrrhine:- (broad nose) 85.0-99.9
Concave (slight, medium, markedly). Hyperplatyrrhine:- (Very broad nose) 100.0 and
Convex- (slight, medium, markedly). over
Wavy (slight, medium, markedly).
The size of the nasal bridge may be narrow, medium The physical characteristics of the major races (Caucasoid,
or broad. Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid) vary in respect of skin
colour, hair form, head form, face, eye, nose, lips, stature,
2. Metric characters blood group and dermatoglyphic features.
Anthropometry is a method to take measurements of
human body. It is the means of quantifying variation
RACE IN INDIA:
in body size and shape. Anthropometry can be divided Genetic studies have shown that there are 4 distinct
into: ancestral groups in mainland India, and a separate
ancestry in Andaman and Nicobar islands. (Basu et al,
1. Somatometry:- The somatometric measurements
2016)
includes height, sitting height, body weight, head
circumference, chest circumference, abdominal On the basis of ethno-racial grounds, the 4 major
circumference, head length, head breadth, skinfold groups in India can be classified as:
thickness measurements such as triceps, biceps, 1. The Caucasoids
subscapular, etc. 2. The Australoids
2. Osteometry:- Osteometric measurements includes 3. The Mongoloids
maximum length of radius, maximum length of
4. The Negritos
ulna etc. Craniometric measurements includes,
maximum cranial length, maximum cranial breadth,
nasal height, nasal breadth etc. Regarding Racial situation in India, D.N. Majumdar
observed:
1. Stature (height) can broadly be classified in to three 1. “H.H. Risley had recognized 3 principal races in
categories India viz. the Dravidian, the Indo-Aryan and the
Mongolian. The first two were mixed, in varying
1. Tall (168-172cm)
proportions in the different states, with each other
2. Medium (158-168cm)
and with the Mongolian elements while the third
3. Short (148-158cm) was confined to the north-east frontier and Assam.
2. Head size:- Cephalic Index (CI) measures head size. Risley’s ‘Dravidian’ like the ‘Aryan’ is a linguistic
group and not racial and at least 3 races have been
Maximum head breadth found to constitute it.”
X 100
Maximum head length 2. It is very difficult to trace racial elements in Indian
population. It is said that the basic sub-stratum in
Based on cephalic index people can be classified into: India is of the Negrito people (J.H. Hutton). They
have been replaced or supplanted by the Proto-
Term CI
Australoids. However, in India today, there is certainly
Hyperdolicocephalic:- (very long and up to 69.9 no weighty evidence in support of a Negrito racial
narrow) stock in India. India has broadly Dravidian, Indo-
Dolicocephalic:- (long and narrow) 70.0-75.9 Aryan and Mongolian strains among its people.
Mesocephalic:- (medium) 76.0-80.9
Brachycephalic:- (short and broad) 81.0-85.5
Biological basis of Race
Hyperbrachycephalic:- (very short and 85.6 and
The genetic diversity is well reflected in the
broad) over
mitochondrial DNA, Y chromosomes, and
3. Nasal Index: candidate genes. This has provided a fair
understanding of relatedness and divergence of
Nasal Breadth
Nasal Index: X 100 specific communities/tribes in India. (Kivisild et al,
Nasal Length 2003).
By using this index, population can be categorised into the Studies suggest that the ancestors of different
following five types: subpopulations in India may have arisen from
different waves of migration with relatively limited
Term NI founding members. Regionally and culturally
distinct groups continue to be genetically unique
Hyperleptorrhine:- (very narrow nose) up to 54.3
due to the practices of inbreeding.
Leptorrhine:- (Narrow nose) 55.0-69.9 271
 NEGRITO ELEMENTS IN INDIAN POPULATION: Lapicque after examining the Kadar in 1905 said that
Intensive study of racial elements in India shows the Negrito element was present in them. However, he
three most important racial types in India i.e., Negrito, revised his view and said that Negrito traits, as seen
Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids. In 1877, De Quatrefages among the Andamanese, were lacking among the
expressed the view that Negrito made a remarkable Kadar.
contribution towards the basic ethnic substratum of Basu and Guha collected cranial material from Naga
the dravidian and some tribes of India, which led to Hill and found the resemblance to negrito skull viz. low
debate regarding the presence of Negrito element in forehead and deep nasal root.
India.
Argument against:
There are two prominent schools of thought, one who
Eickstedt in his classification of Indian people made
supports De Quatrefages, while others who are against
in 1993 did not include the negrito traits. According
De Quatrefages.
to him, confusion was created because of failure to
Argument in favour: distinguish between woolly and frizzly or spiral hair.
In 1896, Keane supported De Quatrefages, by stating Sarasin brothers studied the Vedda in 1893 and did not
that Negrito traits are present in some south Indian find any trace of woolly hair among the Vedda. In 1905,
tribes like Kadar, Irula etc. However, in 1909 he Turner also arrived at the same conclusion based on
expressed doubt about it. analysis of craniometric data that the negrito element
was not present among the Vedda.
Sarkar did an extensive study of Kadar using
anthropometry, somatotype, dermatoglyphics etc.
and concluded that no negrito element was found
among them. The Kadar are remarkably similar to the
Australoid tribes of south India.
Hence it can be concluded that the Proto-Australoid were
the earliest inhabitant which experiences a mixture of
African/Negrito blood. This may not be the final conclusion
but until other evidence proves it otherwise it continues to
NEGROID MONGLOID be the most acceptable conclusion.

RACIAL CRITERIA
Anthropologists have considered humans a polytypic
species on the basis of morphology.

A polytypic species has two or more subspecies.

These are separate populations that are more
genetically different from one another and
reproductively isolated; gene flow between these
populations is much reduced leading to genetic
differentiation.
CAUCASOID AUSTRALOID

FEATURES MONGOLOID CAUCASOID AUSTRALOID NEGROID

Distribution East Asia and the indigenous Europe, North Africa, and Aboriginal peoples People of Africa south of
people of America. the Middle East to North of Australia, Peoples the Sahara, the Pygmy
Split into three groups: India. of Southeast Asia, groups of Indonesia, and
1. The Eastern Siberians, Three major subdivisions: especially Melanesia the inhabitants of New
Eskimos and the Northern and the Malay Guinea and Melanesia.
1. The Nordic, Archipelago.
American Indians;
2. The Mediterranean
2. The Japanese, Koreans,
Chinese; 3. The Alpine.
3. The Indonesians and
Malays.
Skin color Saffron to yellow or reddish Pale reddish white to Dark skin (olive Brown to brown-black
272 brown skin colour. olive brown in skin colour. shades. skin.
Stature Medium stature. Medium to tall stature. Tall to very short.
Head Broad head form. A long or broad head Low forehead. Long head form.
form. vertical or sloping Forehead is straight and
forehead. high.
Hair Head hair is dark, straight, Hair is light blond to dark Dark wavy or curly Hair is dark and coarse,
and coarse; body hair is brown in colour. Fine hair, sometimes usually kinky.
sparse. texture, and straight or quite abundant
Wavy. growth of beard and
body hair.
Eyes Eyes black to dark brown. Eyes light blue to dark Dark eyes.
brown.
Nose Nose bridge is usually low or Nose bridge is Relatively broad Nose bridge low and
medium. usually high. nose. nostrils broad.

Special Epicanthic fold, imparting an Dark wavy or curly Face has the features
features almond shape to the eye. hair. Thick lips. of prognathism. Thick,
everted lips. Chin is not
well developed.
ABO Blood Frequency of B allele is A2 allele has the highest A2 allele has lowest
group highest in Mongoloids (16- frequency (1-37%) among frequency (0%)
25%). Caucasians. among Australoids.

GENETIC CRITERIA OF RACE

Rosenberg et al. (2002) have shown that individuals can be assigned to specific clusters with high degree of accuracy
on the basis of human genetic diversity despite the fact that the majority of variation is found within populations.

The classification of people into different races is typically based on ‘observable physical features’, with skin color being
the most prominently used characteristic. Racial classification also draws on non-biological characteristics such as
culture, language, history, religion, socio-economic status.

Let’s look at important genetic criteria of Race. B. Rh System

1. Blood groups Most African populations are around 75% Rh+.
Europeans have the lowest frequency of this blood
A. ABO system type for any continent (Rh+ around 60%). The lowest
The ABO locus is located on chromosome 9. known frequency is found among the Basques of the
The genes for O (63%) and A (21%) are widespread Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain where
among all groups of people on the globe, while B is the it is only 47% Rh+.
rarest allele (16% of humanity has B allele).
2. PTC Tasters and Non-tasters
The highest frequencies of A are found in small,
Lowest frequency of PTC (Phenylthiocarbamide) non-
unrelated populations, especially the Blackfoot Indians
tasters is seen among Australian aborigines (50 –
of Montana (30-35%), the Australian Aborigines
70%) and the highest among Mongoloids (83 -100%)
(many groups are 40-53%), and the Lapps, or Saami
and Negroids (90- 97%).
people, of Northern Scandinavia (50- 90%). The A
allele apparently was absent among Central and 3. Amino acid excretion in urine
South American Indians. Type O is particularly high Harris (1953) classified individuals as “excretors” or
in frequency among the indigenous populations of non-excretors” and concluded that such trait is under
Central and South America, where it approaches genetic control.
100%.
Beta-amino-isobutyric acid (BIAB) is rarely excreted in
A: 43% Caucasians, 27% Blacks, 28% large amounts by Europeans, while excess excretion is
Frequency common in Mongoloids.
Asians
of ABO
blood B: 9% Caucasians, 20% Blacks, 27% Asians 4. Dermatoglyphic pattern
group Dermatoglyphics is the study of dermal ridges and the
Al: 34% Caucasians, 19% Blacks, 27%
antigens patterns formed by them.
Asians 273
 RACIAL DIFFERENTIATION AND RACE
CROSSING IN MAN
RACISM:
In scientific paraphrase, race is a valid biological
concept. It is a group united by heredity. It is not a valid
socio-cultural concept.
It is a tragedy that a biological concept is used in ethnic
and social connotations. Racism is the belief that some
races are innately inferior to others. Racism is based
on the false belief that factors such as intellect and
Studies have shown statistically significant differences various cultural attributes like values and morality are
in fingerprint patterns among various populations. inherited along with one’s physical characteristics like
skin colour, nose form, and hair colour and so on.
Europeans and Bushmen have more frequent
Loops (Over 63% frequency). Australian aborigines However, though racial characteristics such as hair
have less frequent loops (<45%) texture, eye colour, skin colour etc are acquired by
Whorls frequency is highest among Australian birth, socio-cultural characteristics, occupational
aborigines (Over 52%) and Mongoloids. achievements, poverty or affluence are attained by
adaptation.
Bushmen have comparatively high frequency of
arches (over 13%) while Australian aborigines have The arguments which constitute the doctrine of
lowest (<1%). Arches are very small in mongoloid racism are:
and most frequent in Negroid, intermediate in Racism is the distorted form of racial characteristics.
Caucasoid. Racism argues that some races are superior to
Dermatoglyphics fulfil many of the conditions laid down others.
by Boyd for a good racial criteria: It is the politicization and emotionalization of the
Traits are not modified by the environment. members of a particular race.
The doctrine of racism is explained by historical
These traits are non-adaptive.
method.
These traits are not subjected to a high rate of The instances and data provided by the advocates
mutation. of racism are false.
They can be identified without subjective bias. The origin of the doctrine of racism goes back to
European feudalism and colonialism. The apartheid
Racial classification of Dr. B.S. Guha policy practiced by the whites in South Africa is an
The racial classification of Dr. B.S. Guha is based illustration of racial discrimination. The Britishers in
on anthropometric measurements which were India echoed the same argument.
collected during his investigations from 1930 to
1933. Busting doctrine of racism:
Guha traced 6 major racial strains and 9 sub-types In scientific terms, neither the word ‘Aryan’ nor the term
among the modern Indian population. ‘Jew’ has any scientific validity as a racial designation.
Aryan is the name of the language from which most
1. The Negrito European tongues have been derived.
2. The Proto-australoid In empirical terms, no race is superior to other. Physical
3. The Mongoloid characteristics of one race doesn’t endow it with
4. The Mediterranean superior cultural traits. Thus, racism is distortion of
Palaeo-Mediterranean scientific truth for ulterior ends.
The Mediterranean
The Oriental
5. The Western Brachycephals CLIFF NOTE
The Alpenoid
The Dinaric
The Armenoid
6. The Nordics

274
 RACE AND ETHNICITY:
CASE STUDY Race divides the people into groups on the basis of
various sets of physical characteristics and the racism
is the process of ascribing social meaning to those
Sometimes genetics has been used to groups.
further racist and ethnocentric arguments.
They cherrypick facts that align with their Ethnicity is a characterization of people based on
preconceived notions of racial hierarchies. having a shared culture (e.g., language, food, music,
dress, values, and beliefs) related to common ancestry
For example- The alt-right movement in
and shared history.
USA (proponents of ancestry testing as
a way to prove their ‘pure’ white lineage) Thus, Ethnicity describes the culture of people in a
states that many people of European and given geographic region, including their language,
Asian descent have inherited 1-4% of heritage, religion and customs.
their DNA from Neanderthal ancestors
RACE AND CASTE
and those of African descent don’t have
Neanderthal heritage. They argue that
Neanderthals had larger skulls than Similarities:
humans. Based on these facts, they claim In both caste and race, the status is decided by
that Europeans and Asians have superior birth. So, one who is born a Brahmin belongs to
intelligence. However, they ignore the Brahmin caste, similarly, one who is born a Negroid
fact that while there is evidence for the belongs to Negro race.
effect of Neanderthal DNA on certain In both cases, inequality is inter-generationally
traits, there has been no evidence for its transmitted. Also, such prejudice and discrimination
impact on intelligence. Also, larger skull are not merely personal but institutional.
doesn’t necessarily translate into more In both caste and race, the so-called higher or
intelligence. superior groups take the attitude that their culture
is superior to all other cultures and that all the other
groups should be judged according to their culture.
Differences:
CASE STUDY
Race Caste
Many diseases have been accorded a ‘racial
pathology’ but the distribution was entirely Race has some Any particular caste (such
related to environmental peculiarities. particular genetic as Brahmin) doesn’t have
Example- Primary cancer of the liver is traits such as body any distinct hereditary
common among Africans. Liver cancer height, cephalic index, traits in contrast with other
is more due to cirrhosis of liver which is hair texture etc. castes. Most of castes in
in turn related to consumption of diet India trace their origin to the
chronically low in animal protein and rich primary stock of Caucasoid
in carbohydrate since infancy. or its sub-species. The
differences among castes
However, in clinical setting, various
are not racial ones. They are
diseases are common among various
ethnic and socio-cultural.
descent groups. For example-diseases
such as Sickle cell anaemia and Cystic Race is a biological Caste is a social construct.
fibrosis are common in those of ‘sub construct. Though
Saharan African’ or ‘Northern European’ an overwhelming
descent respectively. scientific evidence
(Human genome
project) exists to
prove that race is not
CRITICAL RACE THEORY biological.
It argues that historical patterns of racism are Races are few in Caste ranks are infinite, and
ingrained in law and other modern institutions numbers. many Indian villages have
and the legacies of slavery, segregation and Jim 30 or more hierarchically
Crow still create an uneven playing field for people ranked castes (jatis), all
of color. The idea is that racism is not a matter of keenly aware of who is above
individual bigotry but is systemic in USA. them and who is below.
275
 The physical differences though appear to be very
The polluting status of ‘Purity and pollution’ is dramatic, they are determined by very minute portion
an inferior race (such driving cause of caste of genome. As a species, we share 99.9% of our DNA
as black Americans) is ideology in India. with each other. The few differences that do exist
an effect of racialized reflect differences in environments and external
ranking and not a factors, not core biology.
cause. Studies have revealed that the evolution of skin color
In racism, exclusion While the top of the Indian occurred independently and didn’t influence other
is binary binary caste system (Brahmins) traits such as mental abilities and behavior.
(black versus white) is permanent, closed and Evidences through example:
and lacks any unquestionable, the bottom,
1. All humans have same genes that code for hair, the
cosmological basis for which is certainly defined
difference in color and texture of hair is due to different
one black person to by Dalits (Untouchables) is
alleles. If separate racial or ethnic groups actually
feel racially superior porous. No group in India,
existed, we would expect to find ‘trademark’ alleles
to another black. however low, lacks a group
and other genetic features that are characteristic of a
beneath them that lets them
single group and not present in any others.
feel purer.
2. However, a 2002 study from Stanford University
Race mobility is not Caste mobility is possible. examined the distribution of 4000 alleles across 7
possible. major geographical regions. The study found that 92%
of all alleles were present in >2 regions and around
Thus, while Dalit rights activists argue that “caste 50% of alleles were present in all 7 regions. Only 7.4%
is race plus” since caste was “inflicted by birth, of alleles were specific to one geographical region. Even
sanctified by religion, and glorified by tradition”, when region-specific alleles appeared, they occurred
and thus equates caste with race, many sociologists in around 1% of that population, not enough to be of
invalid this argument. any kind of ‘trademark’. This points to the fundamental
similarity of all people around the world. There is ample
In this respect, Andre Beteille argues—“Many
variation within races. Race is a social construct and
forms of invidious discrimination do prevail in the
not a biological attribute.
contemporary world. But to assimilate or even
relate them all to ‘racial discrimination’ will be an 3. Although all members of a species can interbreed,
act of political and moral irresponsibility… I agree most matings practically takes place within smaller
there is an enormous amount of class- and caste- groups. Through the processes of natural selection
bred discrimination in India but it is wrong to say and genetic drift, populations inhabiting different
that there is racial discrimination.” geographical regions will come to exhibit some
differences in biological traits. Such noticeable slight
On the other hand, sociologists such as Wilkerson,
population variants within a species have been referred
in her book Caste: The Origins of Our Discontent,
as race.
argued that “race is built on the origins of caste.”
R Srivatsan recapitulates her arguments stating Why term ‘race’ shouldn’t be applied to human biological
“race is a skin phenomenon, but caste is an differences:
infrastructure.”
Humans have undergone so much interbreeding
that different populations are not clearly classifiable
IS RACE A VALID AND BIOLOGICALLY MEANINGFUL into discrete groups that can be defined in terms
CONCEPT? of presence or absence of particular biological trait.
(Tattersall and DeSalle 2011)
Race is a social construction and race making is
process of ‘othering’. Most adaptive biological traits show clines or gradual
differences from one region to another. Eg- Skin
According to old concept of ‘5 Races’ i.e. African,
gradually becomes darker close to equator and lighter
Asian, European, native American, Oceanian, variation
close to Mediterranean. So, no line on world map can
between the races is large and individual races have
be drawn to separate ‘black’ from ‘white’. Only traits
relatively uniform genetic identity.
that are neutral in terms of natural selection will tend
After the human genome project, it has been known to cluster in regions (due to genetic drift) (Dupre
that though human populations do roughly cluster into 2008)
geographical regions, variations between different
Sometimes more physical, psychological and genetic
populations is small. Furthermore, variation within a
diversity occurs within a single geographical group
single region is large and there is no uniform identity.
than between groups. Only 3-5% of genetic variation
Modern genetics show that approx. 94% of human
is due to differences between major human population
genetic variation is found ‘within’ the populations and
276 groups.
only 6% is found ‘between’ populations.
 Physical changes can be external as well as internal.
Franz Boas, Huxley and Haddon—“Race crossing is
Racial characteristics are entirely based on visible
harmless”.
physical features. Internal changes such as variation in
susceptibility to certain diseases, differences in ability UNESCO’s statement of race (1951)—“Pure races
to produce certain enzymes etc are not taken into don’t exist. There are no harmful effects of inter-
account. racial studies.”
It promotes racism which is against humanism.
Race can’t be discussed or noticed without a reference Concept of Vernashankar
(explicit or implicit) to social structure. Thus, term If a Brahmin marries a Sudra woman, the offspring of
‘genetic ancestry’ is preferred over race to reflect the the two falls in the category of varnashakar i.e. mixture
fact that human variations do have a connection to the of two castes.
geographical origins of our ancestors. It delegitimizes
the attempt to fit people into one category and not other.
Thus, Race when applied to humans is a social category,
not a scientific one. (Motulsky 2002)

CASE STUDY

RACE AND INTELLIGENCE

Though correlation of IQ scores with
intelligence itself is disputed, it is
established that Cultural factors influence
IQ scores.
Klinberg 1944 analysis of IQ studies found
that Black children adopted by well-off
whites families had IQ scores above the
average for whites. Also, an experiment
illustrated that simply reminding ‘blacks’
of their race before an IQ test decreased
their performance. Differences in IQ tests
reflect differences in opportunities and
training. IQ scores are influenced by both
genes and environment. (Brace 2005)

RACE CROSSING:
Race crossing is interbreeding between different
races.
Racial literature had propagated the idea that race
crossing would lead to mixing up and extinction of pure
races. Example- Mullato is a racial classification to refer
to people of mixed African and European ancestry.
Race crossing has made classification of races difficult.
We can’t define one single race because of:
Genetic mutation
Natural selection
Genetic drift
Population mixture (migration and inter-breeding)
There is so much inter-mixing that we don’t find any
pure race. Also, there are some races which don’t
fall clearly within a specific race category. These are
termed ‘doubtful’ races. For example, Australoid,
Veddoid, Polynesian, Ainu.
277
 Chapter: 11
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/questions
Concept of human growth and Development :
Stages of growth—pre-natal, natal, infant, childhood,
What is mixed longitudinal method of studying
adolescence, maturity, senescence.
human growth? Discuss its merits and demerits.
Factors affecting growth and development genetic, (15 marks, 2023)
environmental, biochemical, nutritional, cultural and
Stages of human pre-natal development. (2022)
socio-economic.
Why Heath and Carter used anthropometric
Ageing and senescence. Theories and observations—
measurements instead of photographs of an
biological and chronological longevity. Human physique
individual to assess the somatotype? Elaborate
and somatotypes. Methodologies for growth studies.
their method. (2022)
Discuss the physiological and evolutionary theories
of ageing. (2021)
Human adolescent growth spurt. (2021)
Senescence (2020)
Secular trend in human growth can be positive,
negative, or neutral. Illustrate with examples.
(2020)
Genetico-environmental factors affecting human
growth. (2019)
Discuss the methods of studying human growth
with their merits and demerits. (2019)
Genetico-environmental factors affecting human
growth. (2019)
Issues of Elderly and Senescence in Developing
and Developed Countries. (2018)

278
 Formation of Cognitive, motor,
CONCEPT OF HUMAN GROWTH AND Developmental basic anatomical language, and social-
Milestones
DEVELOPMENT structures emotional development
Mother’s health, Nutrition, physical
Influencing
Definitions: Factors lifestyle, and activity, healthcare, and
Growth refers to increase in number or size. Hurlock prenatal care environment
has defined Growth as “change in size, in proportion,
disappearance of old features and acquisition of new PRE-NATAL
ones”.
Development refers to increase in complexity and Hollow Ball of 16 cells (Morula) Half filled (Blas-
5th Day
it carries an overtone of increasing specialization. . tula) Filled (Gastrula)
According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is Organ differentiation starts (Histogenesis and
4th Week
concerned with growth as well as those changes in Morphogenesis)
behavior which results from environmental situation.”
6th week Heart beat noticed
Similarities:
1. Both are dynamic aspects of life. 9th week Male genitals developed

2. Both are impacted by similar factors. 11th week Female genitals developed.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH & Organ differentiation complete

12th week
DEVELOPMENT (Growth stops and development begins)

Pre-natal Growth stages:

GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
1. Germinal stage: First 2 weeks of prenatal development.
Qualitative. Largely
Quantitative. Largely Physiological 2. Embryonic Stage: 3rd week to 8th week
Scope
anatomic phenomena. or behavioral 3. Fetal Stage: 9th week to birth.
phenomena
Measurable. Can be
positive or negative. NATAL & INFANT
Not always
Eg- Thalamus attains quantifiable.
Nature maximum size at NATAL INFANT
Permanent and
adolescence and
irreversible.
thereafter diminishes in
size. Duration: Duration:
Increase in Till 28 days after birth 28 days to 1 year.
Increase in size or mass
Focus complexity
(Cellular)
(organizational) Features: Features:
Environmental 1. Boys 2 cm longer 1. Development progress
Nutrition, genetics, stimulation, and 100 grams in cephalo-caudal
Influencing
hormones, environment. experiences, social
interactions
heavier than girls on direction and also from
average. the midline to the lateral
Primarily occurs
Can occur throughout 2. Average weight= 3.4 direction.
Timeframe during early life
the lifespan
stages. Kg, Average height= 2. Weight gain, increase in
51 Cm length, and their body
Features Pre-Natal Growth Post-Natal Growth 3. 4th finger longer systems continue to
Begins after birth than 2nd finger in mature.
Occurs during
Timing
gestation
and continues into boys. Opposite in 3. Brain doubles in size.
adulthood case of girls. 4. Thymus achieves 40% of
Environment
Inside the
External environment
4. Growth differential potential growth.
mother’s womb after birth: 5. Deciduous/Milk teeth= At
Formation and Brain > Upper Face 6 months.
Maturation and
Organs and development
refinement of organs
> Lower Face > Body
Systems of organs and 6. Infants gradually
and systems Brain is 25% of total acquire control over
systems
body at birth. their motor skills to
Rate of Rapid and Gradual and steady
Growth dramatic changes growth gain more coordination
and strength to lift their
Smaller at Rapid growth in the head, roll over, sit, and
Size and
birth, increases first year, doubling birth
Weight eventually crawl or walk.
gradually weight 279
 7. Sensation such as vision,
hearing, touch, taste,
and smell, become more 20 Infantile
refined and responsive growth spurt

Height gain ( am/year)

to the surrounding
environment 15
8. Cognitive development=
start to recognize
faces, follow objects 10 Pubertal
with their eyes, and growth spurt
respond to stimuli,
develop attachment 5
relationships.
Cultural development:
5 10 15 20
2 month = Social Smile
Age (years)
3 month = Mother
recognized
6 month = Anxiety shown
9 month = Monosyllable ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT:
10 month = Speech and Adolescent growth spurt is the fast and intense
respond to stimuli with increase in the rate of growth in height and weight
sounds that occurs during the adolescent stage of the
human life cycle. This growth practically occurs
in all of the long bones and most other skeletal
CHILDHOOD elements.
Early childhood is from 3-8 years old, and middle childhood No other primate species, including the
is from 9-11 years old. chimpanzee, is known to have such a global post-
pubertal increase in skeletal growth velocity.
1. Brain reaches 80% by 2 years
The pubertal growth spurt begins on average at
2. Permanent teeth= 6 years (1st to erupt of Lateral
9-10 years for girls and 11-12 for boys, however
Incisor)
there is considerable variation between individuals
3. There is juvenile growth spurt. and populations.
4. Boys have longer childhood. The peak growth rate as well as the duration of
5. The most common development in early childhood is to this spurt is greater for boys than for girls, and this
establish self-identity. A child may have independent accounts for the average difference of 11-13 cm in
existence by 3 years of age. Questioning skills develop. height between adult males and females.

ADOLESCENCE 24

23

1. Growth of legs stop. 22

21
2. Sign in boys: Change in voice (hoarseness) 20

19
3. Sign in girls: Appearance of breast bud (menarch)
18
Height gain (cm/yr)

4. Pubic hair, testes, penis, scrotum growth is accelerated 17

16
in boys. Growth of breast, uterus and vagina is 15

accelerated in girls. 14

13
5. Boys shoulder width increases. Girls hip width 12

increases. 11

6. After 2 years of development of genitalia,

10
Boys
9
Girls
spermatogenesis and oogenesis occurs. 8

7
7. Blood Alkali level higher in boys. 6

8. Both weight and height spurt (Pubertal growth spurt) 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

280 Age (years)

 Growth during puberty appears to be strictly
genetically regulated. From 50% to 80% of the
variation in the timing of puberty has been found
to be because of genetic differences between
individuals. Twin studies showed that pubertal
growth is under strong genetic control.

Growth per Unit of Time

CASE STUDY
Peak
Height Velocity

A Swedish cohort of 99 monozygotic and 76 Pre-Pubertal

dizygotic twin pairs showed that the heritability Minimum
estimate was 0.91 for age at onset of pubertal
growth spurt, 0.93 for age at PHV, and 0.97 for
adult height. Age at onset of pubertal growth
spurt was negatively associated with BMI Infant Adolescent Adult
Phase Juvenile Phase Phase
from 1 to 10 years of age and stature in early Phase

adulthood.
Age

Figure - HUMAN GROWTH VELOCITY CHART FOR

The onset of puberty is almost certainly polygenic. SOMATIC TISSUE
Recently, the neuropeptides kisspeptin (encoded
by KISS1 gene) and neurokinin B (NKB) have been
placed as essential gatekeepers of puberty. Determinants of childhood growth

24
Infantile (15% of adult height)
CASE STUDY Nutrition
Good health and happiness
20 Thyroid hormones
Height velocity (cm/year)

Effect of nutrition on pubertal growth spurt 16 Childhood (40% of adult

Pubertal (15% of adult height)
height)
Testosterone and oestrogen
In rural Hyderabad, longitudinal data on Growth hormone
Growth hormone
Thyroid hormones
height measurements were studied in pre- 12 Genes
Good health and happiness
school children available during an 18 year
Males
period. Boys with severe height deficit at 8
Females
age 5+ (severe under-nutrition) entered late
into puberty significantly later compared to 4
Fetal ( 30% of adult height
British and normal Indian boys. They grew uterine environment)

with significantly depressed intensity, but 0

gained a similar amount of height, as a 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
result of prolonged adolescent growth spurt Age (years)
period which continued till 19.2 years. Thus,
a childhood background of undernutrition Figure - Phases of Normal Human growth (Growth
did not lead to any additional deficit in height velocity of male and female compared)
during puberty. However, pre-pubertal height
deficits were carried into adult height.
Few Red Flags in Growth and Development (Lipkin et
(Satyanarayana K et al, 1989) al, 2020)
Red flag signs in motor development are persistent
fisting for more than three months, the persistence
MATURITY of primitive reflexes and rolling before two months,
and hand dominance before 18 months.
1. Growth continues upto 30-35 years even though total
increment only 2 cm. Others: No babbling by twelve months, no single
words by sixteen months, no two-word sentences
2. Cognitive decision making capacity reaches peak at 30
by two years.
years.
3. By 55 years, 1-2 cm decrease in height as intervertebral
disc oil lost (Inter-vertebral disc compaction)
4. Occurs early due to malnutrition. 281
 SENESCENCE
Endogamy practices, geographical isolation
Aging is characterized by a progressive deterioration
etc might be the factors for low frequencies
of physiological integrity, leading to impaired functional
of CCR5-Δ32, CCR2-64I and SDF1-
ability and ultimately increased susceptibility to death.
3’A in Gond and Baiga population. Due
Only universal observation is “loss in elasticity of skin” to absence of social interaction with
(wrinkling). Now, as per UN, old age starts at 70 years. modern populations, primitive tribes have
Factors affecting growth and development not acquired the alleles that reduce the
progression of HIV-1 infection making
5 factors: them highly susceptible to the same.
GENETIC
Variations in specific genes can influence various aspects
of growth, including height, body proportions, and overall
physical development. Examples: CASE STUDY
1. Growth Hormone (GH) and Insulin-like Growth Factors
(IGFs) axis is important for growth and development. Genetic counselling in tribals in India By
Mutations in axis leads to growth disorders, such as Dipika Mohanty and Kishalaya Das, Indian
growth hormone deficiency or gigantism. Journal of Medical research 2011
2. Homeobox (HOX) Genes: Control the body’s regional Sickle cell haemoglobin abnormality
development and patterning. Mutations lead to limb has been predominantly seen in the
malformations or skeletal abnormalities. Gond group of tribes in central and east
3. Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMPs)= Regulate bone central part of India and Dravidian tribes
and cartilage formation. Mutations in BMP genes from southern India, whereas another
can lead to skeletal dysplasias or other bone-related severe variant, the HbE is found in higher
disorders. frequencies among northeast Indian tribes
4. Fibroblast growth factors= Regulate limb development, like the Toto, Khasi, etc. Besides, beta-
bone growth, and organogenesis. thalassaemia gene has also been reported
in higher frequencies in many of these
5. Sex chromosome genes affect growth and
tribes except tribes from western India and
development. Eg- variations in the androgen receptor
southern India.
gene (AR) on the X chromosome can influence height
and skeletal maturation.

ENVIRONMENTAL
CASE STUDY Genetic factors interact with environmental factors, such
as nutrition, lifestyle, and exposure to toxins, to shape
“Low prevalence of CCR5-Δ32, CCR2- growth and development.
64I and SDF1-3’A alleles in the Baiga and 1. Nutrition: Malnutrition, both undernutrition and
“Gond tribes of Central India” by Deepak overnutrition (minerals, vitamins, macro-nutrients)
Bharti et al, SpringerPlus 2015. can lead to stunted growth, impaired cognitive
After infection, progress of HIV-1 has been development, and increased susceptibility to diseases.
shown to be influenced by C–C family 2. Socioeconomic Conditions such as income, education,
chemokine receptors (CCR) like CCR5, and access to healthcare, can significantly influence
CCR2 and SDF1 (a ligand of CXCR4). growth and development. Children from disadvantaged
These molecules have been shown to play backgrounds may face higher risks of developmental
an important role in the entry of HIV-1 into delays and health issues due to limited resources and
various cell types such as macrophages, exposure to stressful environments.
monocytes and T-cells (CD4+) 3. Physical Environment such as air quality, sanitation,
Genetic variants such as CCR5-Δ32 (32- access to clean water, and exposure to toxins or
bp deletion) slower the rate of HIV-1 pollutants can affect physical growth and contribute to
progression thus leading to delayed onset health problems or developmental disorders.
and reduced severity of AIDS. 4. Social Environment such as family dynamics, peer
CCR5-Δ32 mutant is well known to provide relationships, and access to quality education, can
resistance from HIV-1 by preventing cell foster cognitive, emotional, and social development.
entry through expression of truncated Conversely, adverse social conditions, such as neglect,
protein. abuse, or social isolation, can have detrimental effects
on development.
282
 1. Parenting styles, such as authoritative (warm and
responsive), authoritarian (strict and controlling), CASE STUDY
and permissive (indulgent and lenient), can
significantly influence child development outcomes.
(Diana Baumrind) IMPACT OF MIGRATION & CULTURE CHANGE
ON GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
2. Home Learning environment:- The availability of
stimulating and enriching experiences within the “Japanese Immigrants in Hawaii: An
home, such as access to books, educational toys, Anthropological Study of their Growth and
and engaging activities, can positively influence Development” by Dr. Takeyuki Tsuda
cognitive development, language skills, and Based on anthropometric measurements,
academic achievement. Tsuda concluded that the body size of
5. Cultural and Community Factors: Cultural practices, Japanese immigrants in Hawaii tended to
traditions, and community norms shape the be smaller compared to their counterparts
developmental experiences of individuals. These in Japan. He attributed such differences to
factors influence language acquisition, cognitive skills, various factors such as dietary changes,
socialization patterns, and identity formation. Cultural socioeconomic conditions, and adaptation to
contexts also determine the availability of resources the local environment.
and opportunities for growth and development. Transition from traditional Japanese diet
6. Access to Healthcare: Adequate access to healthcare to a Westernized diet such as increased
services, including prenatal care, immunizations, and consumption of high-calorie and processed
regular check-ups is vital for monitoring growth and foods in the Americanized diet, played a role
addressing potential health issues. Lack of access to in the larger body size observed among
healthcare can lead to untreated illnesses, delayed subsequent generations of Japanese
interventions, and long-term consequences on growth Americans in Hawaii. Also, Intermarriage
and development. between Japanese immigrants and other
ethnic groups could introduce genetic
influences that affected body size and shape
Bergmann’s rule:
among subsequent generations.
It provides the relationship between body size and
environmental temperature within species. Within a
species of endothermic animals (those that generate
their own body heat), populations or individuals of BIOCHEMICAL
larger size (Small surface to volume ratio) are more
commonly found in colder environments, while smaller Prenatal:
individuals are found in warmer environments. The
Hormone Source Function
larger body size in colder environments is thought
to be an adaptation to increase heat retention and Human Chorionic Placenta Supports the
reduce heat loss. Gonadotropin production of
(hCG) progesterone
during
Allen’s Rule: pregnancy
Endothermic animals (those that generate their own
body heat) from colder climates tend to have shorter Estrogen Placenta (during Promotes
appendages (limbs, ears, tails) compared to animals pregnancy), development
from warmer climates. In colder climates, having Ovaries (after of female
shorter appendages helps to minimize heat loss by birth) reproductive
reducing the surface area through which heat can organs and
escape. This compact body shape helps to conserve characteristics
heat.

CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

283
 Postnatal: development. The study suggested that
chronic stress, indicated by elevated
Hormone Source Function cortisol levels, may contribute to growth
impairments and developmental delays in
Stimulates overall certain contexts.
Growth Pituitary
body growth, bone and The study underscores the importance
Hormone gland
muscle development of considering both biological and
Insulin-like Mediate the effects environmental factors in understanding
Growth Liver, other of growth hormone, population health and well-being.
Factors tissues promote cell growth
(IGFs) and division
Regulate metabolic NUTRITIONAL
Thyroid
Thyroid gland rate, bone growth, and Adequate nutrition is important for growth and
Hormones
brain development development.
Testes Promote secondary 1. Macronutrients such as proteins (building blocks of
Sex (males), sexual characteristics tissue development), carbohydrates (energy), and fats
Hormones ovaries and regulate sexual (energy storage).
(females) development 2. Micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. Eg-
Vitamin D for bone health, iron for oxygen transport,
Stimulates breast
Ovaries iodine for thyroid function, and zinc for immune system
Estrogen development, regulates
(females) and growth regulation.
menstrual cycle
Chronic malnutrition or specific nutrient deficiencies
Promotes muscle and can hinder growth and development.
Testes bone growth, deepens
Testosterone For example, inadequate intake of protein, vitamin
(males) voice, initiates sperm
A, or iodine can lead to stunted growth, impaired
production
cognitive development, and increased vulnerability to
Contribute to the infections. Socioeconomic factors, such as access to
Adrenal Adrenal development of nutritious food, food security, and dietary diversity, can
Androgens glands secondary sexual significantly impact nutritional status.
characteristics
Regulates metabolism
Cortisol
Adrenal
and helps the body
CASE STUDY
glands
respond to stress
Regulates sleep-wake “Prevalence of malnutrition in under five
Melatonin Pineal gland cycles and influences age group of the tribals in Wayanad district
timing of puberty of Kerala, South India: a community based
cross-sectional study” by Arun Krishna et al,
International Journal of Community Medicine
CASE STUDY and Public Health, 2022.
Malnourishment in the form of stunting
(51.7%), wasting (31 %), and underweight
Effects of cortisol and testosterone levels (54.8%) is very high among under-five
on growth patterns among indigenous tribal children of Noolpuzha panchayat of
populations in Guatemala by Bogin, Varela- Wayanad district.
Silva and others.
Researchers examined the relationship
between stress hormones (cortisol) and
sex hormones (testosterone) with growth CASE STUDY
and development in indigenous Maya
children.
Higher cortisol levels were associated Correlation between Body fat percentage
with slower linear growth and delayed and Onset of Menarch.
maturation, particularly among boys. Higher “Menstruation in Rural Mali: Individual and
testosterone levels were linked to greater Familial Predictors of Age at Menarche” 1997
muscle mass and advanced pubertal By Dr. Beverly I. Strassmann
284
 Studies in many populations have CASE STUDY
concluded that higher body fatness was
associated with earlier menarche, while
leaner girls experienced menarche at “The Nutrition Transition and Its Health
a later age. (Malina et al. (2005) study Implications in Lower-Income Countries”
among Brazilian girls, Wang et al. (2002) (1993) by Dr. Barry M. Popkin et al.
among Chinese girls.) The study examined the effects of the
Dr. Beverly I. Strassmann study on nutrition transition, characterized by the
reproductive ecology compared the age increased consumption of processed and
of menarche between the Dogon people energy-dense foods, on child growth and
of Mali, Kenyan Maasai, and American girls development in lower-income countries.
and concluded that Age of menarche was The energy-dense but nutrient-poor
significantly earlier in American girls (12.6 nature of processed foods contributed to
years) compared to the Dogon (15.9 years) malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies,
and Maasai girls (14.5 years). and stunting among children.

CULTURAL
Cultural dietary practices, including food choices, meal CASE STUDY
patterns, and food preparation methods, can impact
nutritional intake and affect growth and development.
“Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and
Cultural traditions and rituals related to puberty, Childhood Height” (2009) by Dr. Yvonne Kelly
coming-of-age ceremonies, and other significant life et al.
events can shape a person’s sense of identity and
Children born to mothers who smoked
social integration, affecting psychosocial development.
during pregnancy were found to be 0.5 cm
shorter, on average, compared to children
whose mothers did not smoke.
CASE STUDY

“A Comparative Study of Physical Growth and

Development of Tribal and Non-Tribal Children SOCIO-ECONOMIC
of Mandla District (Madhya Pradesh)” (2007) Multiple socioeconomic factors can interact and
by Dr. R.D. Mishra and Dr. J.K. Trivedi. compound their impact on children’s well-being.
The tribal children, who engaged in more 1. Poverty and low income are associated with increased
physical activity as part of their daily risk of malnutrition, inadequate healthcare, and limited
lives, had better physical growth and educational opportunities, which can hinder optimal
development compared to non-tribal growth and development.
children. These tribal children exhibited 2. Children growing up in impoverished or disadvantaged
higher mean height, weight, and BMI environments may experience greater exposure to
values, indicating improved growth and stress, pollution, and inadequate living conditions,
nutritional status. which can have long-term effects on their health and
development.

CASE STUDY
CLIFF NOTE
“Impact of socioeconomic status on growth
and development of children in rural Bengal,
India” by Lahiri et al 2020.
Higher socioeconomic status, which is
often associated with higher income
levels, was positively correlated with more
child height for age and better cognitive
development.

285
 Role of Genotype in Senescence:
CASE STUDY Genetic variations in key pathways such as cell
replication, immune system function, and antioxidant
production influence the ageing process. For example:-
“Anthropometric Assessment of Growth
Mutation in the Werner syndrome gene cause
among Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups
premature ageing, while mutations in the FOXO3 gene
in Andhra Pradesh, India” (2013) by Dr. M.
have been linked to longevity.
Prakasam and Dr. P. Kugan.
Inherited genetic factors can lead individuals to either
The prevalence of stunting (low height-
a longer lifespan or increased susceptibility to age-
for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-
related diseases. . For example:- Familial clustering of
age) was higher among PVTG children,
conditions like Alzheimer’s disease can indicate genetic
indicating a greater burden of malnutrition.
influences on susceptibility.
Combined effects of multiple genes can influence
the rate of senescence. For example:- Interactions
Ageing and senescence. Theories and between genes in DNA repair and antioxidant pathways
observations can significantly modulate cellular ageing diseases.
Definition: Role of Environment in Senescence:
“Ageing is the progressive accumulation of changes Nutritional factors like calorie restriction, antioxidants,
in an organism over time, encompassing physical, and specific dietary patterns can have significant
psychological, and social dimensions.” - John Rowe and impacts on longevity and age-related decline.
Robert Kahn (Book- “Successful Aging” (1998)
Exposure to stressors like toxins, radiation, and
In his book “Time of Our Lives: The Science of Human chronic inflammation can damage cells and accelerate
Aging” 1999, Thomas Kirkwood defined Senescence senescence. Conversely, moderate stress hormesis
as, “a complex, multifactorial process that involves the can have protective effects in some cases.
accumulation of damage at the molecular, cellular,
and tissue levels, leading to functional decline and Social isolation and loneliness like social components
increased mortality with age.” can negatively impact health and potentially accelerate
ageing, while strong social connections may have
Genetic basis of ageing: protective effects.
Ageing gene identified. Eg- Gene ‘daf-2’ is known CHANGES DURING SENESCENCE:
to regulate a number of factors in addition to
aging, including stress resistance, metabolism, and 1. Cellular Senescence (Dr. Judith Campisi):- Cells
development (Gami & Wolkow, 2006). lose their ability to divide and function properly.
Senescent cells accumulate in various tissues and
Difference between Ageing and Senescence: contribute to tissue dysfunction and inflammation. Dr.
While ageing is a broader term that encompasses Campisi promoted the concept of the “senescence-
the overall process of growing older, senescence associated secretory phenotype” (SASP), which refers
specifically refers to the biological aspects of aging to the unique secretion profile of senescent cells,
and the decline in physiological function associated which includes pro-inflammatory factors and other
with age. Thus, senescence pertains to the biological molecules that can negatively impact nearby cells
ageing of a living thing. and tissues.
2. Telomere Shortening (Dr. Elizabeth Blackburn 2009):-
Telomere shortening (occurs with each cell division)
ASPECT AGEING SENESCENCE
is considered a hallmark of aging. Critically short
General process of Biological process of telomeres can lead to cellular senescence and the
DEFINITION onset of age-related diseases.
growing older decline in function
Primarily biological
3. Epigenetic Changes: Epigenetic modifications, such
Multidimensional (Cellular and
as DNA methylation and histone modifications, can
SCOPE (Genetic, influence gene expression patterns and contribute to
environmental, social) molecular aging. Dr. Steve Horvath developed a widely recognized
mechanisms)
epigenetic clock, known as the Horvath Clock, which
Lifelong process from estimates biological age based on DNA methylation
birth to old age.
More pronounced in patterns.
TIMEFRAME Example - onset of later stages of life 4. Mitochondrial Dysfunction (Dr. Douglass C. Wallace):
puberty is ageing and
not senescence. Mitochondrial dysfunction, including decreased energy
production and increased production of reactive
KEY Developmental Decline in oxygen species, is implicated in various age-related
FEATURES changes, transitions physiological function
conditions.
286
5. Age-Related Diseases: They are caused by a complex
interplay of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle 4. Longevity and Health Benefits: Despite
factors. Chronic low-grade inflammation, often the challenges associated with aging,
referred to as inflammaging, is a hallmark of aging humans also benefit from a longer lifespan
and a common feature in age-related diseases. compared to many other species. The
The accumulation of cellular damage and loss of extended senescence period may provide
physiological resilience contribute to the increased opportunities for individuals to maintain
susceptibility to these diseases with age. Example - their health, seek medical interventions,
cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders and make lifestyle changes to mitigate the
( Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease), cancer, and effects of aging and age-related diseases.
metabolic disorders. Other theories:
6. Lifestyle Factors: While genetic factors play a role in “Disposable Soma Theory,” which suggests
aging, lifestyle choices have a substantial impact on the that humans allocate resources for
rate and quality of aging. Regular exercise, a healthy reproduction and growth during the early
diet, stress management, and avoidance of harmful stages of life, resulting in a longer period of
habits (e.g., smoking, excessive alcohol consumption) senescence during which the body undergoes
have been associated with healthier aging outcomes. functional decline.

CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY

Why humans experience a prolonged period

“Evidence for limit to human lifespan” Xiao
of senescence compared to other animals?
dong” by Xiao Dong et al, Nature 2016
(Dr. Cabel Finch et al)
Improvements in survival with age tend to
The understanding of the senescence period decline after age 100, and that the age
in humans is still an active area of research. at death of the world’s oldest person has
Various therories have been proposed to not increased since the 1990s. The study
explain longer period of senescence in concluded that the maximum lifespan of
humans. humans is fixed and subject to natural
1. Evolutionary Trade-Offs: Dr. Cabel constraints.
Finch has proposed that the extended However, Elie Dolgin in Nature’s 2018
senescence period in humans may be a article concluded that “Death rates in later
result of evolutionary trade-offs between life flatten out and suggest there may be
reproduction and longevity. Humans no fixed limit on human longevity”
allocate resources towards growth,
development, and reproduction during
early life, which may lead to a prolonged
period of senescence later in life.
2. Social and Cultural Factors: Human CASE STUDY
societies have developed complex social
structures and cultural practices that rely “Older age becomes common late in human
on the wisdom, experience, and knowledge evolution” by Rachel Caspari, Sang-Hee Lee
of older individuals. This social reliance on 2004.
older adults may have contributed to the
They studied the skeletal remains of prehistoric
evolution of an extended senescence period
populations with focus on age-related changes
in humans to allow for the maintenance of
in bone morphology, joint degeneration, and
cognitive abilities and social contributions.
dental health, to conclude that:
3. Brain Complexity and Cognitive Function:
1. Age related changes in bone morphology:-
The human brain is highly complex and
Thinning of bone walls, remodeling of
requires a longer period of development
joint surfaces, and increased prevalence
and maintenance. Dr. Finch suggests that
of osteoporosis. Age-related joint
the extended senescence period in humans
degeneration, such as osteoarthritis, in the
may be necessary to maintain cognitive
skeletal remains suggest that prehistoric
function and adaptability throughout life.
individuals experienced similar age-related
joint problems as modern humans
287
 2. Age related changes in Dental health:- Aging and Death
Tooth loss, dental caries, and periodontal Casuality Thories:How? Evolutionaries Thories:Why?
disease. Entropy-based Programmed
3. Regarding variability in senescence
• Telomere shortening • Assisted Death
pattern, they concluded that factors • Detrimental Behavior
such as genetics, diet, lifestyle, and
• Spontaneous errors
environmental conditions might had • Free radical damages • Senemorphic Aging
influence the senescence patterns • Glycation end-products
• Programmed instability
observed in prehistoric populations.
• Maladaptive Aging
The trend for more people to live to older • Fatal Behavior • Apoptosis • Secondary Aging
• Fatal Reproduction
age throughout accelerated sharply in
the Upper Paleolithic, when there was a Sudden-death Non-programmed
4-fold increase in the number of adults old
enough to be grandparents. 2 significant
consequences due to this were: greater I. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGEING
overlap between generations and higher 1. PROGRAMMED THEORY:
fertility. This had a major impact on Aging is a genetically predetermined process and that
human social and cultural life in enhancing there are specific genes or regulatory mechanisms that
the transfer of information between control the rate of aging.
generations as grandparents helped to
educate and enculturate the younger
generation and contribute to extended Theory Description
families.
Hormonal/
neuro- Changes in hormonal regulation,
endocrine such as decline in growth hormone
TheorY and other metabolic and repair
Figure- Molecular changes in Ageing and senescence hormones, contribute to the aging
(Vladimir process.
Dilman et al)

Decline in immune function

Immunological (immunosenescence) affects the
Molecular
Damage Impaired Theories ability to respond to pathogens and
Cellular Impaired maintain homeostasis, contributing
function Tissue
(Roy Walford)
and organ to aging and disease.
function Impaired
efficiency
Mortality Certain genes or traits that promote
survival and reproductive success
Antagonistic early in life may have negative effects
Pleiotropy later in life, contributing to aging.
THEORIES OF AGEING (George C. Example- SIRT1 gene involved in
& SENESCENCE Williams) regulating cellular processes such as
DNA repair, metabolism, and stress
BIOLOGICAL SOCIAL response

Organisms have limited resources

PROGRAMMED DAMAGE ERROR DISENGAGEMENT
THEORY THEORY THEORY available to allocate between growth,
reproduction, and maintenance. As
DEATH GENE FREE RADICAL ACTIVITY an organism ages, the resources
THEORY THEORY THEORY
Disposable allocated to maintenance and
IMMUNOLOGICAL TELOMERE CONTINUITY Soma Theory repair decline, leading to the
THEORY THEORY THEORY (Thomas accumulation of damage and the
Kirkwood) onset of senescence. While aging
ENDOCRINE WEAR & TEAR
THEORY THEORY is influenced by genetic factors,
lifestyle choices and environmental
CROSS LINKING influences also play a crucial role
THEORY
(Kirkwood
288
2. DAMAGE ERROR THEORY:
WEAR Also called ‘Cumulative damage
Inability to better combat natural deteriorative process & TEAR theory’, it suggests that aging is a
leads to ageing and senescence. THEORY result of accumulated damage to cells
(August and tissues over time due to various
Theory Description Weismann) factors, including environmental
stressors, mechanical strain, and
FREE Cumulative oxidative damage caused metabolic processes. According to this
RADICAL by free radicals, highly reactive theory, the body’s ability to repair and
THEORY molecules produced during normal regenerate damaged tissues gradually
(Denham cellular metabolism, is a major declines with age, leading to the
Harman) contributor to the aging process. manifestation of age-related decline
and diseases.
Criticisms:
Criticism:
1. Organisms with similar levels of
oxidative stress but different 1. Fails to fully explain why some
lifespans, suggest that oxidative organisms and tissues age
stress alone may not be the sole differently, with some showing
determinant of aging. minimal signs of damage despite
their age.
2. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
and oxidative stress also play 2. Variability in damage accumulation
important roles in cellular signaling indicates that factors other than
and regulation. They can act as cumulative damage, such as
signaling molecules that regulate genetic variations and individual
physiological processes, and differences in repair mechanisms,
completely suppressing ROS may may play significant roles in the
have unintended consequences. aging process.
3. It ignores the contribution of non-
TELOMERE With each round of cell division, cellular factors, such as changes in
THEORY telomeres progressively shorten the extracellular matrix, alterations
(Elizabeth due to incomplete replication of the in the microenvironment, and
chromosome ends. Once telomeres systemic factors like hormonal
Blackburn eT
become critically short, cells may enter
AL) changes and immune function,
a state of senescence (cellular aging)
or undergo programmed cell death which play significant roles in the
(apoptosis) to prevent the propagation aging process.
of damaged or malfunctioning cells.
CROSS Certain molecules, such as sugars or
Criticism: LINKING reactive oxygen species, can interact
1. The correlation between telomere THEORY with proteins and form abnormal
length and aging is not always cross-linkages. These cross-links
consistent. Some individuals may (Johan
can impair the normal functioning
have shorter telomeres but show Bjorksten) of proteins and lead to the decline of
minimal signs of aging, while others tissue elasticity, flexibility, and overall
with longer telomeres may exhibit function.
more pronounced aging. Criticism:
2. Stem cells and certain immune 1. While there is a correlation between
cells can express telomerase, an the accumulation of cross-links and
enzyme that adds repetitive DNA age-related changes in tissues,
sequences to telomeres, effectively it is unclear whether cross-links
counteracting telomere shortening. are the primary cause of aging.
3. Cellular senescence can be induced Interventions targeting cross-link
by various stressors and signaling breakers or inhibitors to reduce
pathways that are not directly related cross-linking have had limited
to telomere length. This suggests success in extending lifespan or
that telomere shortening may be reversing age-related symptoms in
just one component of a broader animal models.
network of aging mechanisms. 2. Some cross-links may have
detrimental effects, while others
may have minimal impact on tissue
function.

289
 CASE STUDY

Book- “Lifespan: Why We Age, and Why We Don’t Have To” By David A. Sinclair
Key ideas:
1. Epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, accumulate over time and contribute
to the decline in cellular function and overall aging. Through epigenetic rejuvenation, these modifications can be
reversed or reset to restore youthful gene expression patterns.
2. Stress activates various pathways, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the release of
stress hormones like cortisol. Prolonged activation of these pathways can lead to inflammation, oxidative stress,
and cellular damage, accelerating the aging process.
3. Calorie restriction activates certain cellular pathways, such as the sirtuin pathway, which are involved in regulating
metabolism, DNA repair, and stress response. These pathways, when activated through calorie restriction, can
enhance cellular resilience and promote longevity.

II. SOCIAL THEORIES OF AGEING

DISENGAGEMENT THEORY
ACTIVITY THEORY CONTINUITY THEORY
Theory (ELAINE CUMMING AND WILLIAM E.
(BERNICE L. NEUGARTEN) (ROBERT J. ATCHLEY)
HENRY IN 1961.)

Key Aging is a natural process Successful aging involves Older adults strive to
Propositions that involves withdrawal and maintaining high levels of maintain a sense of
disengagement of older individuals activity and engagement continuity with their past
from society. in various social roles and experiences, interests,
Disengagement benefits both activities. and values
older individuals and society. (Older Active involvement promotes Consistency and stability
individuals experience a sense physical and mental well-being. in life contribute to
Aging adults should strive to successful aging.
of satisfaction and fulfillment as
maintain their activity levels,
they relinquish previous roles and
pursue new interests, and seek
responsibilities, allowing them to meaningful engagements to
focus more on personal reflection, enhance their overall quality of
self-evaluation, and preparing for life.
the end of life. Society, on the other
hand, benefits by having younger
individuals step into the vacated
roles and contribute to societal
functioning.)

Criticisms May perpetuate ageism and May not account for individual May not explain individual
overlook individual variability. preferences and limitations variations in responses to
Assumes a one-size-fits-all Does not address the impact of aging. Neglects individuals
approach to aging. structural barriers on activity. with chronic illnesses.
Does not address the
importance of social and
cultural context.

Practical May suggest that decreased social Promotes the importance - Encourages maintaining
Implications involvement is natural and expected of active engagement and a sense of continuity
in old age. participation in meaningful through activities and
May guide policies and practices activities. connections with the past.
that support and facilitate May inform programs and - May guide strategies
disengagement. interventions that promote to promote a sense of
active aging and social continuity and individual
inclusion. adaptation in later life.

Social theories of ageing offer frameworks for understanding the experiences and behaviors of older adults but should be
290 considered alongside other theories and individual variations in the aging process.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY OF SENESCENCE: Biological and chronological longevity.
George C. Williams introduced the concept of Difference between Chronological and Biological Age:
antagonistic pleiotropy in 1957, which forms a key
aspect of the evolutionary theory of senescence. Chronological
Biological Age
Richard Dawkins expanded upon these ideas in his Age
influential book “The Selfish Gene” published in 1976. Actual time
Dawkins emphasized the importance of reproductive Physiological state
Definition elapsed since
success in shaping the evolutionary trajectory of compared to peers
birth
organisms and how aging and senescence can be
Assessed through
a consequence of the trade-off between investing Determined by
Measurement biomarkers and
resources in reproduction versus maintenance and date of birth
parameters
repair.
According to this theory, Aging is a result of evolutionary Varies among
Linear and
processes and is influenced by the trade-off between individuals based
uniform for
reproduction and survival. According to the theory, Progression on various factors
everyone of
natural selection is more effective in optimizing traits such as genetics and
the same age
that enhance reproductive success during early life, lifestyle.
while the force of natural selection weakens with age. Used for legal,
Primarily reflects an
Criticism: administrative,
USE individual’s health and
1. It assumes that aging is directly controlled by specific and societal
vitality
genes. However, it is challenging to pinpoint specific purposes
genes responsible for aging, as the aging process
is complex and influenced by various genetic and Assessment of skeletal maturity through Hand-wrist
environmental factors. Radiograph:
2. Aging is associated with a decline in physiological Hand-wrist radiograph captures the growth plates
functions and an increased risk of mortality, which or epiphyseal plates of the bones, which undergo
appears contrary to the principles of natural selection. predictable changes as a person grows and matures.
3. The disposable soma theory suggests that resources Greulich and Pyle method:-
are allocated to maintenance and repair rather It involves comparing the observed skeletal features to
than reproduction, which contradicts the resource a standardized atlas of bone development.
allocation trade-off idea.
4. Extrinsic factors such as environmental conditions,
social factors, and lifestyle choices also significantly
impact the aging process and lifespan.
Conclusion:
Aging is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, and
developing effective and safe interventions to significantly
delay or halt the aging process in humans remains a
challenge

[About 20% of India’s total population will be aged by

2050 (UN Population Fund 2021).
Policy implications---Retirement age increase,
geriatric health and insurance policies, Labour issues.

CLIFF NOTE

291
 and chronic diseases associated with aging.
Dental Maturity Assessment:
It involves examining the eruption and development
of teeth as an indicator of biological maturity. It
analyses eruption sequence, root formation, and tooth
mineralization. Methods such as Demirjian method,
the Haavikko method, and the Nolla method, utilize
dental radiographs or dental examination and compare
it with established dental development standards or
reference databases.
Behavioural surveys:
Age related experiences:- Questions about educational
milestones (e.g., graduation year), work history (e.g.,
years of employment), or significant life events (e.g.,
marriage, children) can provide insights into an
individual’s age range.
Self-reported data may be influenced by memory
recall biases, social desirability biases, or intentional
misreporting.
Human physique and somatotypes.
Definition:
Somatotypes refer to the outer-most, morphological
forms of human bodies whose classification is based
on appearance characteristics and change according
to physical constitution, environment, disease, nutrition
and exercise.
The foundations of the classification of human
physique started in the 5th century BC, Hippocrates,
who divided somatotypes into habitus phthisicus
(long and thin) and habitus apoplecticus (short and
fat body)
SHELDON’S CLASSIFICATION OF
SOMATOTYPE:
In the year 1940, Sheldon along with S.S Stevens and
W.B Tucker, presented the concept of somatotype in
the book ‘The Varieties of Human Physique” as a way
to describe and understand the variations in human
physique. His based his classification on data from “Ivy
league Nude Poster Photos”. Later in 1954, Sheldon
published “Atlas of Men,” which focused on a massive
survey of 46,000 human subjects ranging in age from
18 to 64 years old and from all walks of life.
He called “Physique as destiny” while relating body
physique with intelligence, moral worth and future
achievement.
Figure - Determination of bone age using Hand and Sheldon proposed 3 primary somatotypes: endomorph,
Wrist X-rays (utilises a standard rating system) mesomorph, and ectomorph.

Glycan Age test:

1. Endomorph features:
Endomorphy refers to a person’s “relative fatness”.
It aims to assess an individual’s biological age,
specifically focusing on the glycan structures present 1. A higher level of body fat and a rounded, softer body
on proteins in the blood. shape.
Premise= The glycan composition changes with age 2. A wider waist and hips,
and that these changes can be associated with various 3. Shorter limbs,
health outcomes. Alterations in glycan structures can 4. A larger overall body size.
292 be linked to inflammation, immune system function,
Endomorphs typically have a higher predisposition to 6. Some studies have failed to find strong correlations
store fat and may have a slower metabolism. between somatotype and other health or performance
2. Mesomorph features: indicators, casting doubts on the predictive validity of
the method.
Mesomorphy refers to a person’s “relative musculoskeletal
robustness”. 7. Hooton and Sheldon hierarchical classification
systems of superior and inferior bodies developed
1. A more muscular and athletic body type.
from measurement techniques and collections of
2. A well-developed musculature, with broad shoulders, a nude photographs of college students had advanced
narrow waist, and a v-shaped torso. negative eugenic beliefs in the United States. Posture
Mesomorphs often have an easier time building muscle was applied to racial analysis, with the argument
and maintaining a relatively low body fat percentage. that those of European descent had erect spines
3. Ectomorph features: and straight bones allowing graceful deportment to
further the contrast to the stooped posture and flat
Ectomorphy refers to a person’s “relative linearity or
feet of non-white, less civilized races (Promoted ethno-
slenderness”.
centricism). A decline in good posture (associated
1. A lean and slender body type. with a perceived degeneration of correct body habits
2. A lower body fat percentage, long limbs, and a narrow in general) began to be associated with wider anxieties
frame. about character, eugenic practices, and the need for
Ectomorphs often have a fast metabolism (challenging for better bodies for improved breeding (Yosifon and
them to gain weight or build muscle mass) Stearns).
8. The Sheldon method is more suitable for population-
Sheldon’s level analyses and general observations rather
Character Shape Picture
Somatotype than providing accurate individual assessments.
It oversimplifies the complexity of human body
Relaxed, sociable, composition and may not adequately capture the
Plump, buxom,
Endomorph tolerant,
developed visceral unique characteristics of each individual.
[viscerotonic] comfort-loving,
structure
peaceful Methodology:
Sheldon (1940) summarized his photoscopic method
Mesomorph Active, assertive, (called anthroposcopic somatotype method) as follows:
Muscular
[somatotonic] vigorous, combative
Calculation of / weight ratio (HWR)
Calculation of ratios of 17 transverse measurements
Quiet, fragile,
(taken from photographic negatives) to stature. The
Ectomorph restrained, Lean, delicate,
[cerebrotonic] non-assertive, poor muscles transverse measurements, selected from factor
sensitive analysis of 32 measurements were:
1. 4 on the head and neck,
2. 3 on the thoracic trunk,
NOTE
3. 3 on the arms,
Somatotyping is a descriptive tool rather than a
definitive measure of classification. Most individuals 4. 3 on the abdominal trunk
do not fit perfectly into one specific somatotype 5. 4 on the legs.
category. There can be variations and combinations of Inspection of the somatotype photograph, referring
somatotypes. to a table of known somatotypes distributed against
the criterion of HWR comparing the photograph
Criticism: with a file of correctly somatotyped photographs and
recording the estimated somatotype.
1. Subjective method of evaluating photograph. Prior
contact with rater not recommended. Comparison of the 17 transverse measurement ratios
with a range of scores for each ratio, to give a final
2. Classification based only with white males of limited score.
age-range. He ignored other ages, females and other
ethnic groups. Ascertaining somatotype:
3. Its basis that physique is static from birth to death is A somatotype is normally represented by a 3-number
criticized as somatotypes alter. composite, with each number indicating the intensity of
the individual component pieces.
4. Instead of 3, there are 2 primary components, since
both ectomorphy and endomorphy are basically 1. 1st numeral is for Endomorphy
opposite of each other. 2. 2nd is for Mesomorphy
5. Somatotyping ignores one of the most important 3. 3rd indicates Ectomorphy.
factors i.e., size. Sheldon’s components of physique were rated on a 7- 293
 point scale, with each component ranging from 1 to 7, areas of calculation of nonuniform figures.)
where 2. Maximal and minimal weight and stature reported
1 value was assigned to the least or minimum possible by the subject.
development, 3. Table of HWRs and trunk indices.
4 indicating moderate expression, 4. A table of somatotypes plotted against maximal
7 was assigned to the maximum development. stature.
Since no human displays a complete lack of any 5. Basic tables for somatotyping which combine
physique segment, zero value was not assigned. the Trunk Index, maximal stature and the SPI
There were 3 extremes in physique/body size. (somatotyping ponderal index, i.e. the lowest
ponderal index on record).
7-1-1 indicates the first extreme, which represents
Endomorphy. The tables are corrected for age and are read differently
for men and women.
1-7-1 indicates extreme Mesomorphy
NOTE ON TRUNK INDEX—
1-1-7 indicates Ectomorphy which represents the third
extreme. 1. Nothing is said about using them for children, or for
subjects shorter than 137 cm(males) or 127 cm
711, 171 and 117, all of which had a negligible proportion in
(females).
the entire sequence, suggesting that these extreme types
are extremely rare. 2. The trunk index is the “ratio of the area of the thoracic
trunk to the area of the abdominal trunk” in a subject’s
4-4-4 represents a balanced somatotype with all the 3
somatotype photograph.
body components being equally represented.
3. This index is presumed to be constant throughout
Sheldon also found out that an individual cannot have
the life i.e. these two areas (thoracic and abdominal)
extreme somatotypes of 7-7-7 or 1-1-1.
increase/ decrease in size in respect of one another.
A person with an extreme is one component cannot have
4. A new somatotyping method was developed based on
an extreme in another component of physique. Sheldon
the trunk index and 7 –point scale was retained in the
identified 76 different somatotypes, with 3-4-4, 4-3-3,
new method. Moreover, the sum of the 3 components
and 3-5-2 being the most common.
of the somatotype may vary from 7 to 15.
The somatotype is determined by the number of the
5. The original matrix that is come out to be of 76
ratings for each variable, which must be no less than 9
somatotypes and it is expanded to 88, thus the matrix
and no more than 12.
of trunk index provides 267.
Utility:
Sheldon’s classification is used in Kinanthropometry,
Equipment design, Ergonomics.

HEATH AND CARTER METHOD

The most widely and commonly used method.
Heath and Carter developed their own somatotyping
system in 1967.
Somatotype is described by the Health-Carter method
as a quantitative description of the current shape and
composition of the human body.
Difference from Sheldon’s method:
This method assesses the body shape or physique
at a given time as opposed to Sheldon’s unchanging
somatotype.
Methodology:
There are 3 ways to obtain somatotype
The Trunk Index: 1. Anthropometric method, where the anthropometry
measurements are used to predict the somatotype
Sheldon described a new method of Trunk Index to
criteria.
meet criticisms.
2. Photoscopic method, where to obtain the ratings,
The Trunk Index somatotype is calculated from the
standard photograph are used.
following data:
3. Anthropometric + Photoscopic, where the combination
1. The trunk index obtained from planimetry of
of both develops a criterion method.
standard somatotype photographs. (A planimeter
294 is a basic geometrical instrument that is useful in Endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy are 3
components of physique that are represented by the Following anthropometric measurements are required
somatotype in a 3-number rating. for obtaining the somatotype:
1. Endomorphy refers to relative fatness,
2. Mesomorphy refers to relative musculo skeletal Supra-
T r i c e p s Subscapular
robustness, Height Weight spinale
skin fold skinfold
skinfold
3. Ectomorphy refers to relative linearity.
The somatotype components and measurements used in Calf
Humerus bi- Femur bi-
the Heath-Carter anthropometric protocol to determine epicondylar epicondylar Biceps girth Calf girth.
skinfold
diameter diameter
each component:

Ratings on each
Inference
somatotype component
Endomorphy The total of 3 skinfolds: triceps,
subscapular, and supra-iliac. ½ to 2½ years Low
It refers to a person’s physique’s
relative fatness. 3 to 5 Moderate

Mesomorphy Relative musculoskeletal growth 5½ to 7 High

that has been calibrated for stature.
It is defined as the ratio of fat-free 7½ and above Very High
mass to stature. Mesomorphy is
calculated using It is applicable to both the genders from childhood to old
1. Bi-epicondylar breadths of the age.
humerus and femur,
Advantages:
2. Flexed-arm circumference
1. An objective method of somatotyping.
corrected for triceps skinfold
thickness, 2. In the absence of a photograph, the best estimate of a
criterion somatotype.
3. Calf circumference corrected for
the thickness of the medial calf 3. Females also explored.
skinfold. Utility:
4. (For correct circumference, A wide range of applications in sports sciences,
‘Skinfold thickness’ is subtracted anthropology, human biology, child development, and
from circumference. other fields.
5. These 4 measurements are then Limitations:
adjusted for stature. 1. The relation between muscularity of limbs and
Ectomorphy It is the relative linearity of the mesomorphy is comparatively low in case of athletes
build. The reciprocal ponderal index on the basis of dual ray X-ray absorptiometry.
is used to calculate it. 2. The variation in the duplicability of the somatotype
components is directed by intra and inter- observer
By combining the ratings from these 3 components, an measurements.
individual’s somatotype can be expressed using a 3-digit 3. This method is not proved to be valid for < 6 years
number. For example, a person with high endomorphy, children.
moderate mesomorphy, and low ectomorphy may have a
somatotype rating of 7-5-2.

NOTE CLIFF NOTE

Endomorphy (1st component) signifies the fat free
mass and the mesomorphy (2nd component)
represents the fat mass. The somatotype concept of
Sheldon only refers to shape of the body, but not to
the composition of body.

295
 VIOLA’S METHOD Factors affecting Somatotypes:
Developed by Dr. Sheldon Viola, building upon the work of 1. Age,
American psychologist William H. Sheldon. 2. Nutrition,
The 10 measurements used in method are: 3. Smoking habits,
4. Physical performance,
Upper Lower
Sternum Leg 5. High altitude,
abdominal abdominal Arm length
length length
height height 6. Occupation and genetic factors
Antero- Antero-
Transverse Transvere Application of Somatotypes:
posterior posterior Bi-iliac
thoracic hypochondric
thoracic hypochondric diameter Somatotypical studies have contributed to our
diameter diameter
diameter diameter understanding of diversity of human builds and been
applied to specific diseases, osteoporosis, relations
A measure of trunk volume and 4 morphological indices between musculoskeletal system and ageing, exercise
are calculated i.e. the thoracic index, upper abdominal programs for individual athletes, and potentials of
index, lower abdominal index, and total abdominal index, athletes.
using all of these measures.
SECULAR TRENDS IN HUMAN GROWTH
Grouped physique as 4 types:
Secular trends refer to long-term, generational changes
Longitype Having relatively long limbs compared in physical growth and development patterns observed
to the trunk, massive thorax compared within a population over time. These trends are influenced
to the abdomen, and greater transverse by various factors, including improvements in nutrition,
diameters relative to the antero-posterior healthcare, socioeconomic conditions, and environmental
ones factors.
Positive secular trend:
Brachitype Broad type, having the characteristics
opposite to those of the longitype 1. Height:- Increase in average height observed in many
populations over the past century. Improved nutrition,
Normotype Between Longitype and Brachitype access to healthcare, and overall socioeconomic
development have contributed to this increase.
Mixed type Show characteristics of different types in (Haupsie 1996)
different parts of the body, i.e. they maybe
2. Weight and Body mass:- Increased availability of
brachitype in one part, longitype in the
calorie-dense foods and sedentary lifestyles have
other and normotype in still another, etc
contributed to a rise in obesity rates, leading to an
increase in average body weight and body mass index
KRETSCHMER’S METHOD (BMI) over time.
In the first edition of his book “Korperbau und Charakter” 3. Secular improvements in selected measures of static
(Physique and Character)in 1921, Ernst Kretschmer strength and motor performance during the last
identified 4 physical and psychic types: pyknic, athletic, century are generally proportional to increases in body
asthenic, and dysplastic physiques. Later, leptosomic was size. (Robert Malina 2004)
used instead of asthenic. 4. Cognitive development:- Average IQ scores have
increased over time, a phenomenon known as the
Pyknic or Short stature. They have thick bodies “Flynn effect.”
Fatty and narrow shoulders. These types of
Negative secular trends:
individuals have large and heavy head,
massive thoracic and abdomen, and their 1. Age at puberty/menarch:- A decreasing trend in the
extremities are more developed. age at which individuals enter puberty, particularly
among females. Factors such as improved nutrition
Athletic or Linearity of trunk, limbs, and face. and overall health have been associated with earlier
Muscular The bones are small and there is little onset of puberty. (A.M. Tripathi 1987)
musculature.
Leptosome Well-developed musculature and bony
or Lean structure and the body is generally well CLIFF NOTE
proportioned They have less amount of
fat in their bodies, but have substantial
muscle amount.
Dysplastic Individuals with incongruous admixtures
of the other 3 types.
296
 CASE STUDY

Secular changes in age at menarch in Indian

Population (Balaji Ramraj et al, Journel of
Clinical epidemiology and global health, 2021)
A decline in the mean age of menarche was
found among adolescent girls compared to
their mothers. Outside food consumption,
sedentary lifestyle and hours of activity were
found significant factors.

METHODOLOGIES FOR GROWTH STUDIES.

Major Anthropometric Measurements:
2. Late wisdom teeth (Micro-evolution)
3. Age of adolescent growth spurt is being delayed. Age group Measurement
(Aksglaede 2008)
Weight, length, weight for length,
Secular trends can vary across different populations and Upto 2 years
and head circumference
regions. Socioeconomic disparities, cultural factors, and
genetic influences can all affect the manifestation of
Weight, height, body mass index
these trends. Above 2 years
(BMI), and head circumference
Application:
Understanding secular trends in growth and development
is crucial for public health planning, as it helps identify TYPES OF GROWTH STUDIES:
areas where interventions may be needed. Cross-Sectional Study:
In a cross-sectional study, a cross section of a given
CASE STUDY age group, sex group or of a given population are
studies and there is no periodic assessment. This type
of study is used in analysis of growth and development
Secular changes in body proportions to provide base line information at one point of time.
Jantz RL. Cranial change in Americans: Merits: (Malina et al., 2004))
1850-1975. Journel Forensic Science 2001. 1. Cheaper, less time consuming, can include much
Secular changes in body proportions, which larger number of subjects in a brief duration.
presumably reflect environmental influences, 2. Since it provides information on body size, stage of
also have been observed. It is interesting that maturity or level of performance and especially activity
skull proportions changed during the last attained at the time of survey. This method is very useful
century, with the head and face becoming for constructing growth standards for communities.
taller and narrower. Some anthropologists Eg- Cross-sectional surveys are valuable in assessing
feel that such changes are related to the the nutritional status and health related problems of
trend toward a softer diet and less functional children prevailing in different communities at any
loading of the facial skeleton, but firm given point of time.
evidence does not exist. Demerits:
1. Since there is no periodic follow up measurement
(measured once at a given point of time), it doesn’t
reveal individual differences in rate of growth (growth
CLIFF NOTE velocity) of different body dimensions of children.
2. Don’t provide precise information about timings of
particular phases of growth like onset of “Juvenile
growth spurt”, attainment of “Peak height velocity”, “
Longitudinal Study:
Longitudinal study involves repeated observations
on the same individuals at specific intervals over a
period of time. Repeated observations on the same 297
 individuals at specific intervals over a period of time. 1. If the aim of the study is to ascertain growth patterns
Merits: of children of a community, a cross-sectional method
would suffice.
1. Constancy of sample size and strict adherence
to stipulated periodicity. Thus, besides providing 2. To investigate variations during the adolescent growth
information about the distance (gross size) growth spurt, a longitudinal design over several years would be
attainments, they also provide growth velocity related necessary so that the time of initiation of the growth
data i.e., about individual rate of growth measured by spurt and of peak of the growth spurt can be identified
increment between two successive periods (e.g., kg/ and the magnitude of the spurt quantified.
year or cm/year). 3. A mixed longitudinal study also provides information
2. Provide information about the timing of particular on both growth status and rate of growth.
phases like ‘onset of juyenile growth spurt’ or Utility of growth studies:
‘adolescent growth spurt’ of individuals. So, such 1. For assessment and monitoring of child health and
studies help in understanding the influence of genetic nutrition.
and environmental factors on the growth dynamics of
2. For epidemiological investigations aimed at
children.
understanding the determinants of human growth.
3. Due to periodic measurement, they provide information Example - For healthy normal children” the course
about duration of any disease or nutritional stress with and pattern of growth and maturation is determined
which any child might have remained afflicted with for a by their genetic complement (if unconstrained by
longer period. Similarly, effect of intervention (medical/ environmental factors). With infection, inadequate
nutritional etc.) may also be assessed. nutrition, hormonal deficiency or other unfavourable
Demerits: environmental factors, growth” can be impaired.
1. Very expensive and require great skills to organize.
2. Takes a long time to complete and relatively small
number of subjects can be followed. It is not always
possible to maintain consistency of sample size
throughout the entire span of the study.

‘Linked longitudinal studies’ i.e., studies covering the

ages 0 to 6, 5 to 11, 10 to 15, 14 to 20 years. Through
this design within a period of 6 years, whole age range
of growing phase of human life is spanned. However,
efficient sampling of the population is crucial to
obtain smooth joins of the data collected during short
intervals.

Serial Study / Mixed Longitudinal Study:

Serial study or Mixed Longitudinal Study:- A group of
children is followed longitudinally, some children leave
the study and others join it as new entrants at some age
points (giving various degrees of longitudinally). Such a
study combines data for individuals who were measured CLIFF NOTE
on all occasions and data for individuals who were
measured on only several occasions.
Merits:
1. Compared to longitudinal study, relatively cheaper to
conduct and also less time and effort consuming.
2. Provide us with both distance and velocity curves, i.e.
these include information on both growth status and
rate of growth.
Demerits:
1. Risk of Data manipulation:- Estimation of growth
velocity of different body parameters from mixed
longitudinal data involving missing values.
Thus, the type of method that should be used depends on
298 the objective of the study.
Chapter: 12
DEMOGRAPHY, FERTILITY,
BIOEVENTS, AND DEMOGRAPHIC
THEORIES
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/questions
Relevance of menarche, menopause and other bio-
events to fertility
Menopausal symptoms (10 marks, 2023)
Fertility patterns and differential
Critically discuss the reduction in age at menarche
The Demographic Transition in human females over the successive generations.
Demography theories- biological, social and cultural (15 marks, 2020)
Biological and socio-ecological factors influencing Delineate the factors influencing fertility in Indian
fecundity, fertility, natality and mortality. population (15 Marks, 2021)
Discuss the bio-social determinants of fertility and
fecundity (15 Marks, 2021)
Discuss the biological factors influencing fertility
in light of the relationship between fecundity and
fertility.(15 marks, 2019)
Define fecundity and explain major factors affecting
fecundity in Indian populations. (15 marks, 2018)

299
 Secular trend in age at menarche:
Relevance of menarche, menopause and While the observed reduction in menarcheal age has
other bio-events to fertility leveled off in many industrialized North American and
European nations, it has continued to fall in some
Menarche and menopause are two significant bio-events developing nations. Furthermore, a decreasing trend
of fertility. of age at menarche has been reported by most Indian
1. Menarche studies (Bagga et al 2000).
It is the onset of the first menstrual cycle in girls and Nevertheless, according to Bagga and Kulkarni
generally takes place at adolescence. (2000), the lowering of age at menarche in India was
Menarcheal age is known to be impacted by genetics. at an average rate of about 6 months per decade
However, Socioeconomic factors such as wealth as compared to 3–4 months in some countries of
status, family size, place of residence, educational Europe, North America. However, Pathak et al. (2014)
level of parents may also influence the age at onset of have established a reduction of nearly one month per
menstruation. (Pathak et al 2014, Ameade et al 2016) decade using the Indian Human Development Survey
(IHDS) data.
A normal onset of menarche is considered to occur
between the ages of 11–15 years.
However, huge spatial variations in age at menarche CASE STUDY
have been reported both between and within sub-
national populations. The mean age at menarche
in developed countries is lower than in developing Secular trend in age at menarche among
countries. Indian women by Trupti Meher & Harihar
Sahoo (Scientific Reports, Nature 2024)
Age at menarche This study highlighted a secular declining
trend in menarcheal age among Indian
women. A majority of women (66.2%)
Developed countries Age
attained menarche between the ages
of 13–14 years. Moreover, about 17.2%
France 13.05 years of women experienced an early age at
menarche, whereas 16.7% of women had
United Kingdom 13.3 years a late age at menarche. The mean age at
menarche for the sampled women was
USA 12.8 years 13.49 years.

Age at menarche
Puberty and menarche:
Developed countries Age Menarche represents the final physical event in a
series of steps known as puberty.
Sri Lanka 13.05 years A growth spurt is the first physical event which is closely
followed by secondary sex characteristic development
Bangladesh 15.8 years typified by breast budding (thelarche) then the arrival
of pubic hair growth (pubarche) and then lastly the
Nepal 16.2 years onset of menses (menarche).
Hormonal changes at menarche:
Puberty and menarche result from the changes in
Age at menarche in different Indian population the hormone levels of estrogens, androgens and
progestogens which begin to be secreted in increasing
Age at men- amounts from the ovaries and adrenal glands.
Population Study
arch (Year) Release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland
Singh and Thapar stimulates ovarian hormone secretion of estrogens
Bhootia women 16.38 and progestogens.
(1983)
Pituitary release of LH and FSH is regulated by
Mundas 12.76 Tyagi et al (1983)
gonadotropic releasing hormone or GnRH which is
Punjabi girls 12.30 Goyal et al (2016) released into pituitary portal blood by the hypothalamus.

South Indian Omidvar et al

13
300 girls (2018)
 Physiological impacts
Causes of late menarche:
Infertility (no longer possible to bear children)
Menarche can be delayed in normally developing
females due to Cessation of Oestrogen secretion.
abnormalities Overall physiological impacts: Vaginal dryness.
of the female
g e n i t o u r i n a r y Acne appears Symptoms
tract. Females with
an imperforate
Armpit hair
hymen may grows
present with Breast Develop
delayed menarche
and often have a
history of recurrent Uterus
bigger
grow

cyclic abdominal or Menarche

(menstruation
pelvic pain. begins)

Menarche can Pubic hair grows

be delayed in Body shape rounds Symptoms Experienced Most
adolescents with During Menopause
very low body mass Night 55%
due to starvation, sweats
malabsorption, Mood
swings 64%
or an eating
disorder such as anorexia nervosa. It is estimated Sleep 65%
disturbance
that minimum body fat of 17% is necessary
Hot
for menarche, with 22% body fat required for flashes 66%
maintaining regular menses. (Baker ER et al 1985)
Gas 69%
Significance:
Age at menarche is a unique biological marker
that signifies the transition of a young girl from
Premature menopause
childhood to womanhood. Menarche is an indicator
of the onset of fertility and reproductive ability. The age at which menopause naturally occurs may reflect
nutritional and environmental circumstances as well as
It is also considered as an indicator to measure
genetic factors.
the quality of life of a population because in the
diagnosis of delayed puberty, pathological and
hormonal disorders, the menarcheal age is very Terms Description
crucial.
Last menstrual cycle one
Menopausal women
or more year ago.

Menopause Last menstrual cycle be-

Prematurely menopausal
yond 12 months below the
According to WHO, natural menopause is defined as women
age of 40.
“permanent cessation of menstruation resulting from
the loss of ovarian follicular activity”, which is normally Menopause between 40
Early menopause.
recognized after a year-long consecutive amenorrhea. and less than 45 years.
This is an essential physical and hormonal event in a
healthy woman’s reproductive cycle. Premature menopause (before age 40 yr) is high
among Indian women.
It is the transition of a woman’s life from reproductive
phase to a non-reproductive phase, which has According to a PAN India study by Ahuja (2016),
biological, emotional, sociocultural significance. there is a strong association between early onset of
menopause and various factors such as illiteracy, poor
Physiological basis of menopause
socio-economic background, underweight, parity, and
With increasing age, the ovarian function depletes age at pregnancy.
and decreases its production of oestrogen and
Studies have shown that age at menarche,
progesterone hormones, and thus the gradual decline
breastfeeding of previous child, age at first pregnancy,
in fecundity.
plays a very important role in determining the onset of
It generally occurs between the age of 45-50 years. menopause. (Canavez FS et al 2011)
There are also effects of nulliparity (never given birth), 301
 usage of oral contraceptive pills, having a live birth or
psychoanalysis, proposing a “menstrual
not, on the onset of natural menopause.
complex” that incorporates menstruation
Menopausal age is associated with a number of factors into the Oedipus complex.
with includes smoking, level of education, working
Daly argues that menstruation is a
status, abortion, body mass index and food habits.
fundamental aspect of female sexuality
that has been repressed both by society
Factors for decline in age at menopause in India and Freud’s psychoanalytic institution.
(Source: Exploring the triggers of premature and He suggests that the ambivalence
early menopause in India: a comprehensive analysis towards the maternal figure and the
based on National Family Health Survey, 2019–2021 menstrual taboo are deeply rooted in
by Sampurna Kundu & Sanghmitra Sheel Acharya, the unconscious, necessitating further
Nature (2024)) investigation to understand the origins and
Marital status has significant association with impacts of these repressions on female
premature menopause, with around 4.1% sexuality and cultural dynamics.
prevalence among those who were widowed/
divorced/separated.
Tobacco (4%), alcohol (4.1%) and regular
fried food (2.3%) consumption are significantly Cultural relevance of menopause
associated with premature menopause.
Menarche and Menopause events are associated with
The women whose age at menarche is more than rituals and festivals among different communities.
15 years, have higher percentage of premature
menopause (1.1%). Ritu Kala Samskara ceremony by Hindu
communities in South India states like Karnataka,
Premature menopause was comparatively higher Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu celebrates the
among those who used unhygienic methods of girl’s rite de passage after menarche.
menstruation (0.76%).
In the United States, there is a new craze “The Hot
Those whose age at first birth was below 18 years Flash Mob” where women and men get together
of age, premature menopause was higher among to celebrate the Menopause by dancing in the
them (6.3%). streets.
Overweight (3.2%) and obese (3.5%) women are
observed to experience premature menopause in
comparison to lower BMI categories. Demography theories- Biological, Social and
Premature menopause is significantly higher Cultural
among diabetic women (5.1%) 1. The Demographic Transition Theory
Theory was first developed by Warren Thompson in
1929. But the first authentic theory was given by FW.
CASE STUDY Notestein in 1945.

(Source: The study at the University of First Stage:

Nairobi, Kenya (2005) High Population
A study found that in Western Kenya, Growth Potential
malnutrition led to delay of menarche by
1.5-2 years compared to a US reference
population in Luo tribe. (Environmental) Fourth Stage: Second Stage:
Stationary Population
Population Explosion

CASE STUDY Third Stage:

Incipient Decline

Reproductive power; menstruation, magic,

and taboo by Natalie Rose Dyer Stages of Demographic transition
In this study, author mentions the argument
of Claude Dagmar Daly who critiques
Freud’s neglect of the “blood taboo” in
302
 Demographic dividend
Demographic Transition Model
The demographic dividend is the economic growth
Births and
Deaths per potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age
Thousand structure, mainly when the share of the working-age
per Year population (15 to 64) is larger than the non-working-age
40 - share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older).
Population (UNFPA).
Birth
Growth
30 - Rate
Period of demographic dividend in large economics
20 - END OF
1964 Japan 40 yrs 2004
DEMOGRAPHIC
1984 Italy 18 yrs 2002 DIVIDEND
START OF
10- Death DEMOGRAPHIC 1987 Republic of Korea 40 yrs 2027
DIVIDEND
Rate 1991 China 23 yrs 2014

1994 China 32 yrs 2031

1994 Brazil 32 yrs 2028

Stages
1 2 3 4 Time 2006 Brazil 32 yrs 2038
High Early Late Low
2018 India 37 Yrs 2055
Stationary Expanding Expanding Stationary INDIA’S DEPENDENCY RATIO:
PAST AND FUTURE 2018 Bangladesh 34 yrs 2052
90 81.5%
80
70 77%

1. First Stage: The society is rural and agro-based. 60

49.8% 49.5% 52%
50
The high birth- rates due to children being seen as 40
30
economic assets. The high death rate is due to lack of 20
nutritional food and medical facilities. Both are roughly 10
0
in balance.
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060
2. Second Stage: Population Explosion The death rate
declines due to improved food supply and medical Although India has been experiencing the first
facilities. But family attitude and thereby birth rate do demographic dividend since the last two or three
not change. Hence, population increases. decades, we could not reap the expected economic
3. Third Stage: Incipient decline Death rates are low benefits during this period, mainly due to structural
and birth rates diminish. This is due to enhanced deficiencies and inadequate employment generation.
economic conditions, women’s improved status, and Population aging in India
contraception.
The median age was 26.8 years in 2015 and projected
4. Fourth Stage: Stationary Population Birth rate and
to increase to 38.1 years by 2050.
death rate are both low and again at near balance. Thus,
The proportion of aged 60+ was just 5% in 1951 which
the population stabilizes. The model can be applied
grew to 7.5% in 2001 and is expected to reach 12.4% in
to many countries, helping them in family planning.
2026. Currently, it stands around 10.7%.
population control and leveraging their demographic
dividend. The proportion 60+ has doubled in India during the last
Example-India is in the Third Stage, with a rich 100 years.
demography dividend expected to last for approximately Aging challenges in India are enormous – rising burden of
25 years more. non-communicable diseases, a vulnerable female-heavy
Age Structural Transition and Its Impact on older adult population, a changing family structure, and a
lack of social safety net.
Population Aging in India (2023)
Age structural transition is a process and a
consequence of shiftingage structure from a young CASE STUDY
aged population to old aged population.
Age structural transition is underway in India since the
Economic Survey 2016-17 pointed out that Indian
last five decades. If we consider the broad age groups,
states are following different transition phase.
currently,
Peninsular India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa
Around 26% of the population in India is under age etc.) are close to completing their transition.
15.
North India (Bihar, Rajasthan. Uttar Pradesh)
The share of the working age of 15–64 is around is still in the early stages with an expanding
67%. population.
The proportion 65+ is 7%. The result is that Peninsular India is expected to
This is likely to move to 18%, 67%, and 15%, respectively, peak in 2020s; while North India in 2040s.
in 2050. 303
 Demography Theories D. Cost Benefit Analysis of children By Harvey Liebenstein:
1. Sexual Behaviour Related Theories: According to him, there are 3 types of utility of having
A. Malthusian Theory (1766-1834) - It was given by additional child:
Thomas Robert Malthus in an ‘Essay on principle Consumption good: Source of pleasure for parents.
of population” as it affects the future happiness of Productive unit: More children more income
mankind.’ earning hands.
It says that while the population grows by Source of security: For parents in old age.
geometric progression while food grows by According to him, based on economic growth and
arithmetic progression. income fertility decision changes.
The theory has four cornerstones: 2. Food Fertility Nexus Related Theories:
1. Geometric progression (GP) of populations. Theory of De Castro –
2. Arithmetic progression (AP) of food production It says that less consumption of proteins by females
3. Preventive checks:- Voluntary controls over leads to fatty degeneration of liver, causing it to
the growth population can prevent miseries. He become weak. A weak liver is unable to neutralize
advocated controls like late marriage of women and excess oestrogen, which causes fertility to rise.
chastity before marriage. Theory of Thomas Doubleday –
4. Positive checks by nature (miseries):- Before It says that vegetarian diet increases fertility and
people die of hunger, nature will keep a check on non-vegetarian die decreases it. Further, leanness
population by miseries like bad food, famine. is favourable to fertility. Also, consumption of animal
Criticisms: fat, and leading a sedentary life add to the fat levels,
i. Advances in Agriculture: thereby interfering with the fertilization process.
Contrary to Malthus’s view, technological Theory of Herbert Spencer
advancements and capital accumulation have Spencer argued that fertility decreases when the
increased agricultural production, outpacing complexity of life increases Lower forms of life
population growth. have high genesis (reproductive energy) because
ii. Broader Production Considerations: there is lower individualization (energy for self-
Malthus focused only on food production, neglecting development), whereas higher forms have low
other types of production when discussing genesis due to higher individualization.
population size. 3. Population Density Theories:
iii. Living Standards and Birth Rates: Theory of Pearl and Reed-
Malthus incorrectly predicted living standards According to this logistic theory of population
would remain at subsistence level. Instead, they growth, a population will grow rapidly at first, then
have risen, and birth rates have fallen as economies more slowly as it approaches the environment’s
grew and contraceptive use increased. carrying capacity, following an S-shaped curve. In
iv. Mathematical Progressions: the words of Pearl and Reed, “Population wanes and
waxes, rises and falls, and increases rapidly and
Malthus’s assertion of geometric population growth
slowly but on the whole it is ever increasing.”.
and arithmetic food production lacks empirical
evidence, as these growth patterns do not follow
precise mathematical series.
1,250
B. Robert Ardrey’s Theory –
It postulates that animal species and primitive societies Carrying
have since long practiced population control measures, 1,000 Exponential capacity
aimed at controlling sexual behaviour. growth model
Population size(M)

Example-Cholainaikens of Kerala were aware of herbal 750

prescriptions useful in family planning. Logistic
C. Fertility function theory by Herbert Spencer: growth model
500
He explained in his book, “The Principles of Biology”,
1880. According to him “preservation of species is
250
general biological law governing population growth.”
Individual is liked to longevity and genesis is linked to
reproduction. He maintained that lower forms of life 0
have high genesis because there is low individuation 0 5 10 15

whereas higher forms of life have low genesis due to Number of generations(t)
high individuation.
304
 Sadler’s Theory-
“The fecundity of human beings is in the inverse ratio Population
of the condensation of their numbers.”Moreover,
the fertility rate decreases with the increase in the Births Migration
density of population.
Scientific Theory of Surplus by Marx’s: In capitalist Deaths
economic system labour gets a small share of wage
compared to capilatist. As machinery increases
unemployment increases then wage level of labour
goes down and large population becomes surplus. Number of Size of
Immigration Emigration
Results of socially unjust practices of capitalism are Marriages Family
poverty and hunger.
Fig.: The Factors Affecting Population
Theory of Social Capillarity by A.Dumont, 1890:
Social capillarity governs fertility behaviour in civilized
community.He assumed every society has hierarchic 2. Socio-ecological factors:
social order. For sociial mobility small family is 1. Nutrition:
favourable, so lower social status people have less
fertility. However, this is not same in societies having
rigid caste and social system like India. CASE STUDY
Consumer durable model: Gary. S. Becker 1960
“Economic Analysis of Fertility:” According to him both Chronic malnutrition in Saharia of Madhya
children and household durable goods are identical. Pradesh has led to early menopause and thus
Consumers take a rational decision based on taste, lower fertility.
utility and cost. In the same ways, number of children
are decided based on requirement and expenses which
occur on children.
Theory of Intergenerational Wealth Flow’ J.C. Caldwell: 2. Age of marriage:
According to him, if wealth flow is more from parents Example- In Kerala, people marry late, losing significant
to children then fertility would be less like in modern years of fecundity period. This implies low fertility rate.
societies. But, if wealth flow is more from children to 3. Social customs: Patriarchal mindset promotes couples
parents then fertility would be more like in primitive to have children till desired number of male children
societies. are born.
Biological and socio-ecological factors influencing
fecundity, fertility, natality and mortality Economic Survey 2017-2018 mentioned about
Fecundity: son meta-preference in India. The desire for a male
child has created 21 million “unwanted” girls in India
Fecundity refers to the capacity to bear child, while
between 0 and 25 years.
fertility is the actual reproductive performance.
Compared with other species, the fecundity of the
4. Iliteracy and Superstitions: Using contraceptives is
human being is much smaller, and the probability of a
considered anti-natural.
woman becoming pregnant in a cycle is approximately
20–25%, depending on one’s age. The fertility cycle of 5. Economic conditions: High infant mortality rate in poor
a young couple (<30 years) is not greater than 30%. societies leads to high fertility to compensate the loss
of two working hands.
Biological factors:
1. Age of menarche and menopause: The period between
Natality
these two events marks the reproductive span and Natality is the measure of birth rate of a population. It is
thereby fecundity of a woman. While menarche is generally expressed as number of live births per 1000
mostly genetically determined, age at menopause has population per year.
environmental bearing.
2. Frequency of sexual intercourse
3. Contraception and induced abortion

305
 Pradesh has led to a high infant mortality rate.
CASE STUDY 3. Social and Religious beliefs-

Dr. Robert J. Gordon, in his book “The Himba: CASE STUDY

People of the Cattle,” The Himba people in
northwestern Namibia have communal birth
rituals, value children for labor and social Kamayura tribe of Brazilian Amazon kill twins
status, and maintain a close-knit community and children of single mothers as they see
through these practices. them as bad omens.

Mortality 4. Illiteracy and superstitious- using contraceptives is

considered anti- natural in some societies, which can
Mortality is the measure of the death rate of a population. lead to higher natality.
It is generally expressed as number of deaths per 1000
population per year. It varies with age and sex.
CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Pattern of contraceptive use, determinants
and fertility intentions among tribal women
Napoleon Chagnon in his book “The in Kerala, India: a cross-sectional study By
Yanomamo: The Fierce People,” Aswathy Sreedevi et al (BMJ, 2022),
Chagnon characterized Yanomamo, of The current use of contraceptives was
Amazon rainforest (Brazil and Venezuela) reported by 26.4% of Indigenous women
as very violent, with said violence serving in the reproductive age group. This is
the purpose related to natural selection: much less than that the state average of
as noted by a reviewer, “the men who killed 53%.
the most enemies, tended to have more
The contraceptive use varies in other
wives and children — so passing on the
states among the tribals with higher use
genes that made the successful warriors
reported in Assam (36%) and Bengal
and leaders.”
(40%).
He highlights the anthropological aspects
of death and dying within their cultural
context. The interplay between spiritual
beliefs, traditional healing practices, U-shaped and J-shapted mortality curve:
and the impacts of disease on mortality When a study reports a U-shaped curve it means that
rates shapes their experiences and there is the lowest incidence of disease in the middle
understanding of mortality. ranges, with peaks in both the lower and upper ranges.
The typical age specific mortality curve of higher
mortality countries is “U” shaped. This is because here
The factors influencing natality and mortality are – mortality is higher in both infancy and old age. For
low mortality countries, it is J- shaped due to the low
Biological Factors:
infant mortality rate.
1. Age of mother during child birth order, period of
In case of “backwards-J” shaped curve, the outcome
spacing between births, prematurity, weight at birth.
is still the best in the middle region, but the outcome is
2. Lethal and sub-lethal genes. worse in the low levels than the high levels.
3. Healthcare technology - immunology (vaccination),
gene therapy.
4. Factors affecting fertility and fecundity have an impact CLIFF NOTE
on natality (e.g. age of menarche and menopause)
Socio-ecological Factors
1. Economic conditions - Factors like poverty and
unemployment can lead to high mortality.
2. Nutrition-
Example- Chronic malnutrition in Saharia of Madhya
306
 CLIFF NOTE

Figure -A U shaped curve depicting relationship between

BMI and ‘All cause mortality’

1.4

1.3
Relative Risk of Total Mortality

1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
g/d

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Drinks Per Day
Alcohol Consumption
Fixed Model (n=56) Random Model (n=56)

Figure - A J-shaped curve depicting the relationship

between alcholol consumption and risk of mortality.
J-Shaped Curve
Disease Risk

Vitamin D Level

Figure - A Backward J shaped curve 307

 Chapter: 13
APPLICATIONS
IN ANTHROPOLOGY

SYLLABUS Past year

themes/questions
Applications of Anthropology :
Anthropology of sports, Discuss various methods of personal identification
Nutritional anthropology, based on skeletal remains. (15 marks, 2023)
Anthroplogy in designing of defence and other Discuss the practical applications of DNA
equipments, technology in the current scenario. (15 marks,
Forensic Anthroplogy, 2023)
Methods and principles of personal identification and Pedigree analysis in genetic counselling. (2022)
reconstruction, What is meant by health? Is the burden of life style
Applied human genetics—Paternity diagnosis, genetic diseases on rise? Justify your answer with suitable
counselling and eugenics, DNA technology in diseases examples. (2022)
and medicine, serogenetics and cytogenetics in Discuss how anthropological knowledge of the
reproductive biology. human body may be used in designing equipments
and articles of human use. (2022)
How are the cases of disputed paternity solved?
Discuss the recent techniques. (2021)
What is anthropometry? Discuss its role in assessing
the nutritional status and sports capability of a
person. (2021)
Ethics and genetic engineering. (2020)
What are the applications of human genomic
research in human welfare? (2020)
Anthropological inputs in facial reconstruction.
(2019)
‘Applied human genetics has come to touch every
sphere of human life’.Discuss in light of recent
advances in molecular anthropology. (2019)

308
 biological maturation or physical growth.
APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY (Damo, Oliven, and Guedes 2008).
Socio-cultural aspect:
In 1941, Margaret Mead, Elliot Smith etc founded the
Society of Applied Anthropology and defined applied Earlier sporting events were used by wealthy in which
anthropology as: ‘Application of anthropological the athletes were typically not wealthy or privileged.
perspectives through interdisciplinary scientific Commercialization of sports have reversed this trend
investigation of human relationships for solving as now common people attend sporting events to
practical problems’. watch wealthy athletes compete. Commercialization
In short, Applied anthropology can be defined as has created opportunities for financial and cultural
anthropology which is used for solving a problem. success for people with exceptional athletic abilities.
Margaret Mead (1975)- “All anthropology is applied” Among Indigenous Americans, an aggressive style of
basketball called reservation ball (Rezball) is prominent
ANTHROPOLOGY OF SPORTS in reservation communities. Rezball is different as its
History techniques encourage relentlessly aggressive play and
quick shooting.
E.B. Tylor was one of the first anthropologists to explore
games, considering their theoretical significance Sporting contexts such as baseball or football games
in understanding human cultures. Tylor’s interests or the Olympics also represent cultural frameworks
focused upon issues such as the geographical through which broader secular rituals are performed.
distribution of different types of games in part as a For example, in Sumo Wrestling (Japan), the pre-
way of tracing the origins of specific games, such as bout rituals in Sumo are steeped in Shinto tradition,
patolli which he notes was played in pre-Columbian highlighting the importance of purification and respect
Mesoamerica. (Tylor 1880). Tylor’s work on the history for opponents. Another example is singing of the
of games covers a very broad range of recreational national anthem at the beginning of sporting events
activities including backgammon, hockey, chess, in the US or the performance of patriotic rituals at
tennis, ball tossing, and wrestling. times of crisis like the lack on the World Trade Towers
in 2001.

Kinanthropology:
CASE STUDY
Kine-anthropology combines principles and
methods from anthropology and kinesiology
(the study of human movement) to examine the Ben Carrington, Race, Sport and Politics: The
relationships between human beings, culture, and Sporting Black Diaspora (2010)
physical activity. (Bill Ross 1972) In this book, Ben Carrington shows that
over the past century sport has occupied a
Anthropologists view sports from various perspectives: dominant position within Western culture in
producing ideas of racial difference and alterity
Anthropologists who study sports do so within a larger while providing a powerful and public modality
context of sports and society. for forms of black cultural resistance.
Anthropologist Ajeet Jaiswal (2019) describes the Carrington suggests that in the modern,
anthropology of sports as the study of human growth hyper-commercialized sports world, the “black
and development. athlete” image has become a commodity,
Many anthropologists understand sports as a cultural potentially limiting the transformative power
performance. If one conceives of sports as a sort of of Black athleticism.
performance, one also sees that each performance is
unique to the performer.
Interests of anthropologists researching sports might Selection of Sportsperson:
include Kinanthropology helps in “selection of sport-person” by
1. Archaeological research related to sports tools. providing valuable insights into various aspects of human
Example- The lacrosse sticks of the Iroquois, hammers movement, physical capabilities, and cultural factors that
from the oldest Olympic hammer-throw competitions, influence sports performance. They do so through:
and the modern-day American football uniform. 1. Biomechanical analysis
Colosseums, weapons, and artistic representations
Anthropologists analyze movement patterns,
of competition, have been traced back to as early as
technique, and physical abilities relevant to specific
2000 BCE in China.
sports. By using motion capture technology, force
2. Cultural anthropological research pertaining to how plates, and other tools, they can identify strengths,
humans interact with sports. weaknesses, and areas for improvement in an athlete’s
3. Biological/physical anthropological research on movement mechanics. 309
 2. Anthropometric assessments
This is done to evaluate an individual’s body CASE STUDY
composition.
For Example- Fat %, skeletal structure (Height, weight, Physical attributes in favour of Usain Bolt
width etc, and body proportions. (Debaere, 2013)
3. Physiological testing Longer leg length leads to longer step
This is done to assess athlete’s cardiovascular fitness, length and therefore greater speed. With
strength, power, endurance, flexibility, and other Usain Bolt towering His height of 1.96m
physiological parameters. and weight of 96 kg provides a stride
4. Cultural considerations advantage over his smaller competitors.
Understanding the cultural background and social
contexts of athletes helps in identifying individuals who
are likely to excel in specific sports that hold cultural
significance. CASE STUDY
Since the publication of “Scientific Basis of Athletic
Training” 1958 by Morehouse and Rasch, many Physical attributes in favour of Lionel Messi
publications have provided insights and refinements (The Athletic 2022)
in understanding the relationship between height,
Lionel Messi’s long body and short legs
weight, and sports performance.
provides him agility and thus edge in
football. For taller defenders that agility can
Physical characteristics Preferred Sports be difficult to deal with.

Tall Basketball, Volleyball, and

High jump.
CASE STUDY
Short height Gymnastics, Diving, or
(Compact body size and Artistic skating.
lower center of gravity) ‘Anthropology of sport’ by J. W. Traphagan
(2015)
Heavy body weight Boxing, Wrestling, or Sports can serve as a platform for the
Weightlifting, Football transmission of cultural values and familial
roles.
Low body weight Long-distance running,
Fathers are deeply involved in their
Cycling
children’s baseball activities in Japan, often
reflecting societal expectations and ideals
of Japanese masculinity and fatherhood.
Sports Preferable Physical characteristics The sport becomes a site where fathers
and sons bond, and where fathers impart
Tennis 1. Large mass, broad shoulders, large values such as discipline, perseverance,
Player wrist and ankle diameters. and the fighting spirit. (Yasumoto and
(Male) 2. Ecto-mesomorphic somatotype. LaRossa 2010)
(Copley Cave (2007) notes that through these
1980) sport events, young people learn to
Indian Strength, power, aerobic-anaerobic persevere through hardships and help to
Kabbadi capacity, neuromuscular coordination build a sense of willingness to endure.
Player and muscular endurance are most
(Dey, important components of the game.
Khanna, Kabaddi players have:
Batra 1993) 1. Higher mean height and weight than CLIFF NOTE
average Indian population.
2. Total body fat % and body weight
higher than footballers, hockey players
and boxers (Sodhi and Sindhu).
3. Endomorphic mesomorph
310 somatotype.
 indigenous food procurement, production, nutritional
CASE STUDY value, and sustainability of traditional diets.
Explores food’s role in cultural, ethnic, and social
identity formation and impact of identity on health.
Book- “Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation,
Aphrodisia, Doping,” (2005) by John M. Examines the shift from traditional to industrialized
Hoberman diets and health impacts due to impact of globalization,
urbanization, and Westernization.
Hoberman explored the intersection of sports,
doping, and the pharmaceutical industry. Analyzes nutritional inequalities i.e. disparities in
nutritious food access, influenced by socio-economic
1. He critically examined the ways in
and political factors.
which hormone doping has shaped the
competitive landscape and influenced Anthropological methods in nutrition research through
social perceptions of human potential use of ethnographic fieldwork, dietary assessments,
and the pursuit of physical excellence. So, and theoretical frameworks.
anabolic steroid use is tolerated in sports Applied Nutritional Anthropology to develop culturally
because people want to see record- appropriate nutrition interventions and policies by
breaking performances and corporate considering cultural contexts and local knowledge.
interests make a lot of money from those
performances.
2. He explored the evolution of attitudes
CASE STUDY
toward sexual behavior beginning in the
1890s. In “Women and food chain: The gendered politics
3. With the entry of women into the of food”, Patricia Allen (2007)
workforce during World War II, the Alfred Author argues that although the agrifood
Kinsey studies, and the emergence of system is going through a period of rapid
sexual disinterest as a disease state etc change, gender relations in the agrifood
enhanced the acceptance of estrogen and system remain surprisingly static.
testosterone as therapeutic agents. She highlights that though cooking is almost
4. He analyzed the role of technology in universally coded as women’s work in the
shaping sports and athletic performance. home, yet women are less likely than men to
work as cooks in restaurants.

Significance of study of sports in Anthropology:

Sport, like other areas of human activity such as religion
ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS:
or marriage, can be viewed as an institutional structure
worthy of analysis in its own right. It is integrated with Nutritional Status Assessment of a community is one of
other institutions within any cultural context and thus the first step in the formulation of public health strategy
demand attention if we are to take a holistic look at to combat malnutrition by identifying ‘at risk’ groups/
any given society. populations and determine the contributing factors.
NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY Methods:
Definition: 1. Anthropometric method
Nutrition is the source of energy that is required to 2. Biochemical method
carry out all the processes of human body. A balanced 3. Clinical method
diet is a combination of both macro-nutrients and 4. Dietary intake method.
micro-nutrients. 1. Anthropometric method:
Nutritional anthropology is the study of food and Anthropometry (Greek Anthropos: human and metry:
nutrition from evolutionary, behavioural, social and measurement) reveals changes in the morphological
cultural perspectives, and how these interact in the variation due to inadequate food intake or malnutrition.
production of nutritional health at the individual,
community and population levels. There are different anthropometric measurements
to get the full comprehensive overview of a person’s
Scope: situation.
Study of cultural Food Practices in terms of food beliefs, 1. Height:- Influenced both by genetic as well as
preparation, rituals, taboos, and symbols attached to the environmental factors. Long term nutritional
specific food and how these aspects shapes dietary deprivation affects the height of the children.
choices and nutritional outcomes.
For children under 2 years of age, height is
Study of traditional Food Systems by investigating 311
 measured by Infantometer. Stadiometer or a It determines the development of muscles that is
portable anthropometer is used for children who a good tool for screen and determining the risk of
can stand. mortality in children.
2. Weight:- Weight that is lower than what is 4. Head and chest circumference:- Since the
considered as healthy for a given height is described head size relates to the size of the brain and
as underweight. brain size increases rapidly during infancy, head
circumference can access chronic nutritional
problem in children under 2 years.
CASE STUDY Chest circumference (measured from the level of
nipple in mid inspiration) in a normally nourished
Impact of maternal food restriction on progeny child grows even faster than head during the
Ravelli et al., 1976 has found that in both 2nd and 3rd year of life. Chest circumference
animals and humans females who are severely overtakes the head circumference by about 1
food restricted during the first one to two year age. But, in a protein energy malnourished
trimesters of pregnancy have progeny who child, the head circumference remains to be
have a higher prevalence of obesity, diabetes, higher than chest circumference even at the
insulin resistance, and hypertension later age of 2.5 to 3 years.
in life. Example, progeny of survivors of the 5. BMI (Body Mass Index):
Dutch famine in World War II demonstrated a
Weight (in Kg)
higher prevalence of obesity and diabetes.
BMI =
Lower birth weight and upper body fatness: Height2 (in meters)
Oken and Gillman, 2003 found that lower
birth weights appered to be associated with
BMI is a measure of body fat based on height
increased upper body visceral adiposity in
and weight.
later life with its attendant increased risk of
cardiovascular disease. The risk of mortality and morbidity increases
with decrease in BMI and also increase in BMI.

INDICATORS FOR ASSESSMENT OF

CASE STUDY NUTRITIONAL STATUS:
1. IN CHILDREN:
Genetic component of obesity
One of the mechanisms by which differences in Under-nutrition
Meaning Index
energy metabolism may contribute to obesity indicators
may involve defects in uncoupling proteins Under-weight Low weight for Weight for age=
(UCP). Several types of uncoupling proteins age Weight of the
have been identified. Fleury and colleagues child / Weight
(1997) first described human uncoupling of the reference
protein 2 (UCP-2) and its links to obesity and child of the same
hyperinsulinemia. Bouchard (1997) noted that age X 100
markers near the UCP-2 gene in humans are
linked to differences in resting metabolic rate. Stunting Low height for Height for Age=
Age Height of the child
/ Height of the
For example, healthy weight range for 5’7” feet tall reference child of
Indian male is 64 to 68.5 Kg. the same age X
100
3. Mid- Upper Arm
Circumference (MUAC):- Wasting Low Weight for Weight for
MUAC is the midpoint Height height= Child’s
present between the weight / Weight
shoulder tip (i.e., the tip of of the reference
the acromion of scapula) child of the same
to the elbow tip (i.e., the age X 100
tip of the olecranon of the
fore arm of the left arm).
312 It indicates fat- free mass.
INDEXES:

ANTHROPOMETRIC CHILD WITH PROTEIN-

DESCRIPTION NORMAL CHILD
MEASUREMENT ENERGY MALNUTRITION

RAO INDEX Ratio of standing height to >0.15 <0.15

(weight in kg/ (height in sitting height
cm)2 x 100)

Skinfold thickness Picking the skinfold >10 mm <6 mm

between the thumb and the
fore finger.

Bangle Test (4 Cm in Measurement of wrist Does not pass Passes above the elbow
Diameter) circumference

KANAWATI TEST Measurement of chest >0.32 0.28-0.32 – Mild

(MUAC/Head circumference 0.25-0.28 –Moderate
Circumference) < 0.25 – Severe

PONDERAL INDEX Ratio of weight to height >2.5 2.0-2.5 – Borderline

(Wt/Ht)3 cubed <2.0 – Severe

Chest Circumference Measurement of chest >1.0 <1.0

circumference at the nipple
level

Mid Arm Circumference Measurement of the 16 cm 13.5cm – mild

(MAC) circumference of the upper 12.5cm-Moderate
arm <12.5cm –Severe

II. IN ADULTS: High BMI is associated with Type 2 diabetes and high
A. BMI risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
B. Waist Hip ratio:-
ADULT Nutritional Status BMI Range (kg/m²) Higher ratio indicates abdominal obesity.

SEVERE CHRONIC Classification WHR

<16
ENERGY DEFICIENCY

UNDERWEIGHT < 18.5 NORMAL < 0.90

NORMAL WEIGHT 18.5 - 24.9

INCREASED RISK 0.90 - 0.99
OVERWEIGHT 25.0 - 29.9
SUBSTANTIALLY INCREASED
≥ 1.00
RISK
OBESITY CLASS I 30.0 - 34.9
Utility:
OBESITY CLASS II 35.0 - 39.9
Anthropometric indicators can be used
OBESITY CLASS III ≥ 40.0 1. To supervise child’s health as it is a crucial component
that can epidemiologically assess the nutritional status
of a definite population of children.
Note:-
2. To evaluate the effects of nutritional intervention
BMI < 16.0 Kg/m2 is likely to have poor energy stores programme.
and thus poor physical activity or output. Such persons
3. To initiate or admit children to the programme or to
have increased infection risk because of the impaired
discharge children from the programme.
immunity.
4. To plan effective nutrition interventions.
313
 5. Helpful for policy makers and other public health 1. KWASHIORKOR
programmes. Kwashiorkor is a Ghanaian word means ‘second-child
2. BIOCHEMICAL METHOD: disease.” It is named so because Kwashiorkor is usually
associated with the period immediately following
Biochemical changes in body fluids such as Blood, weaning, which often takes place after the birth of
Urine, stool etc are assessed. If the symptoms are second child.
non-specific during clinical diagnosis, the biochemical
tests confirm the result or the deficiency disease.
Also, these tests often detect initial changes in the
metabolism of body and nutrition before appearance FORMS OF UNDER-NUTRITION (WHO):
of symptoms. 1. Wasting (Low Weight for Height)
Example- 2. Stunting (Low height for Age)
1. Hemoglobin Percentage. 3. Under-weight (Low weight for age)
2. Vitamin D level. 4. Deficiencies in vitamins and minerals
3. Sugar level in Urine.
4. Parasites and eggs in stool. After weaning, the child may receive enough food to
satisfy hunger, but does not receive the proteins vital
3. CLINICAL METHOD:
for normal health, growth and development.
It involves assessment of Clinical signs and symptoms
Symptoms:
to point out particular deficiency in nutritional status.
1. Edema of feet due to fluid retention in the feet.
For example, deficiency of Vitamin C causes Scurvy
which presents as fatigue, bleeding gum etc. 2. Retarded growth and psychomotor development.
3. Severe wasting of muscle and adipose tissue
For details on other vitamin deficiencies, refer leading to the thinness of upper arms.
to chapter-9 (Paper-1)
4. The child is unable to balance its head when
4. DIETARY METHOD: pulled from a lying to sitting position.
An adequate and balanced diet is required for growth, 5. Extra vascular fluid retention distend the
maintenance, repair, living processes and overall health abdomen (pot-belly).
of an individual. 6. The child is apathetic, miserable, withdrawn and
According to NIN guidelines (National Institute of indifferent to its environment.
Nutrition, ICMR), Recommended Dietary Allowances Complications:- Kwashiorkor suppresses the Insulin-
(RDAs) are the levels of intake of essential nutrients production causing a reduced protein synthesis which
required to meet the nutritional needs of all healthy leads to hyponatremia, immunosuppression, edema and
individuals in a particular life stage and gender group. diarrhea.
The dietary intake of an individual or a community is
assessed by 24-hour recall method.
CASE STUDY
For details on nutritional requirements of
various component of diet, refer to chapter-9.
Increased prevalence of Kwashiorkor in
MALNUTRITION children of Urban-migrants in Jharkhand (I
Malnutrition refers to cellular imbalance between the Chaand, 2019)
supply of nutrients and energy and the body’s demand In urban areas, movement of people
for them to ensure growth, maintenance and specific into the cash economies often decrease
function. the supply of proteins. Poorer sections
TYPES OF MALNUTRITION: of society in urban areas thus became
victims of Kwashiorkor.
1. Protein-energy malnutrition
Lack of adequate social safety nets, limited
2. Micronutrient malnutrition
livelihood opportunities, inadequate child
1. PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION: care support and care, and seasonal male
Protein-caloric malnutrition is most common form of migration leave mothers and caregivers
undernutrition. It includes Kwashiorkor and Marasmus. vulnerable and limit proper child care and
feeding practices.
Marasmus is complete food deprivation with
exceptionally limited quantities of protein and energy.
Kwashiorkor is characterized by extreme protein
deficiency.
314
2. MARASMUS B. Mineral deficiency:
Marasmus is derived from Greek word which means Although the causes of mineral malnutrition is complex,
withering or wasting. It results from a diet low in both the primary determinant is insufficient dietary intake.
protein and calories. Few important mineral deficiencies are mentioned
It is more frequent among children younger than 5 below:
years, but usually soon after weaning.
Symptoms:
MINERAL CLINICAL SIGNS OF DEFICIENCY
Extreme growth Wasting of Diarrhea
Zinc Impaired wound healing, skin lesions,
retardation muscles and
increased susceptibility to infections,
subcutaneous
Diarrhoea, poor appatite, reduced
fat (extreme
taste and smell acuity.
under-weight)
Iodine Impaired thyroid hormone synthesis
Severe anemia Mental Death leading to Hypothyroidism and goiter,
retardation permanent neurological damage and
mental retardation.
Note:- Lack of specific nutrients in the diet may lead to
Iron Microcytic Hypochromic anemia
less severe form of malnutrition.
(Fatigue, Paleness, Weakness,
2. MICRO-NUTRIENT MALNUTRITION Breathing difficulty)
A lower micronutrient consumption than current RDA
Calcium Cataracts, Dental changes, Brain
(Recommended Dietary Allowance) leads to Chronic
alterations, Osteoporosis, Rickets.
metabolic disorders. Micro-nutrient malnutrition can
be due to Vitamin deficiency or mineral deficiency.
A. Vitamin deficiency: HIDDEN HUNGER:
‘Hidden hunger’ is a condition caused by energy-
rich and nutrient-poor diet. These micro-nutrient
Deficiency DISEASES/CLINICAL SIGNS deficiencies can ultimately cause various chronic
diseases like cancer, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular
Vitamin A Night blindness, dry eyes, increased diseases.
susceptibility to infection.
Impaired vision in low light, dry eyes
Micronutrient deficiencies accelerate mitochondrial
Vitamin D Rickets (in children), osteomalacia (in decay and degenerative diseases associated with
adults). ageing.
Soft and weak bones, skeletal
deformities
Vitamin B12 Megaloblastic anemia, neurologic NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR INDIANS (ICMR-NIN,
disorders. 2020)
Fatigue, weakness, shortness of
breath, pale skin, neurologic symptoms Few Dietary Recommended Dietary Allowance
(tingling), numbness, memory problems) components (RDA)

Vitamin C Scurvy. Protein Men= 54.0 g/d

Women= 46.0 g/d
Weakness, fatigue, bleeding gums, slow
Pregnant women= +9.5 (2nd
wound healing, joint pain
trimester) +22.0 (3rd trimester)
Protein Kwashiorkor: Edema (swelling), muscle
Fats and Oils Activity Adult male Adult
wasting.
Level female
Marasmus: Severe wasting, emaciation,
muscle and fat loss, stunted growth Sedentary 25 g/dl 20 g/dl
Activity
Essential Dry, scaly skin, hair loss, impaired wound
fatty Acids healing Moderate 30 25
Activity
Heavy 40 30
Activity
315
Dietary fibre 30 g/2000 kcal
 Dietary 100 – 130g of carbohydrates/day tissues are atrophied.
carbohydrate Impaired cognitive abilities:- Nutritional deficiency
during early childhood hampers brain development
Calcium and Men= Women= 1000 mg/day. leading to poor cognitive abilities in later life.
Phosphorous
Folic Acid (B9) Men: 300 µg/day, Women: 220 µg/
day, Pregnant women: 570 µg/day. CASE STUDY
Iron Men and post-menopausal women=
8 mg/day; Pre-menopausal women= A recent study from Brazil on 19 marasmic
18 mg/day. children aged less than six months,
successfully treated for malnutrition,
did not show significant lag in their IQ
compared with their siblings and peers.
DISTRIBUTION OF DEFICIENCY DISEASES: Thus, malnutrition does not affect
intelligence or is cause of mental
DEFICIENCY PREDOMINENT REGIONS
retardation.
Protein deficiency South American, African,
Indian and South-East Asian
populations
CASE STUDY
Mineral deficiency Northern American continent,
upper part of South- East Asian
countries and some African Tribes are comparatively more vulnerable
populations to food and nutrition uncertainty than
their rural counterparts. Studies carried
Multi-vitamin Africa, Middle-East and some
out among the tribal groups in different
deficiency islands of Pacific Ocean
States of the country revealed that their
socio-economic conditions and nutritional
OVERNUTIRITION AND OBESITY: status are largely influenced by the eco-
Obesity refers to excess fat accumulation which system (Rao et al. 1994).
may unfavorably affect health of an individual leading A study by Kapoor et al 2012 showed that
to reduced life expectancy and increased health prevalence of Chronic energy deficiency
problems. among the Car Nicobarese 45.3%.
An adult with BMI > 30kg/m² is said to be obese while a In another study by Chatterjee K et al
child is considered obese when his or her body weight (2016) among Munda children of Gumla
is 20 % greater than that for his sex and age-specific district, 56% of children were found to be
weight-for-height standard. underweight, with 29% children as severely
Few examples of over-nutrition: underweight.

Over-nutrition Clinical symptoms INDIAN TRIBES BMI (AUTHOR)

Excessive Hypercalcemia (high levels of (STATE)
amounts of calcium in the blood) causes
vitamin D sluggish nerve reflexes, weak Baiga (MP) Male= 17.5, Female=
muscles and unnatural calcification 18.3
of soft tissue. (Chakma et al
Excess amounts Increased body weight, insulin 2009)
of carbohydrate resistance, cardiovascular problems. Oraon (JH) Male= 18.8, Female=
and fats 19.7
(Mittal & Srivastava
EFFECTS OF NUTRITIONAL STRESS:
2006)
Early childhood mortality:- Prolonged nutritional
stress among children is a major leading to infant and Sahariya (RJ) Male= 17.6, Female=
early childhood mortality. 17.8
Increased likelihood of infections:- Cell mediated (Bhasin & Jain
immunity responses against bacterial infection get 2007)
reduced in severely malnourished individuals. The
316 thymus gland and thymus dependent lymphoid
 CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Triple Burden of Obesity, Undernutrition, and “Food taboos during pregnancy and lactation
Cardiovascular Disease Risk among Indian among tribal population of south India”
Tribes” (2016) by Gautam K. Kshatriya et al (2023) by Anju Damu Ade et al.
The mean high body fat percentage in In a study conducted among Yanadi,
3 tribes of Gujarat, which are Dhodias, Erukulas, Nakkala, Vaddi tribes of Tirupati
Kuknas, and Chaudharis. district, 57 % of respondents avoided
The prevalence of under-nutrition was fruits during pregnancy like papaya, pine-
>50% among the Koras and Bathudis. apple, mango etc. 11% respondents
avoided black coloured food items like
Over 60% of women among Koras, Oraons
black sesame seeds, black berries, black
and Bathudis had high undernutrition
grapes etc. Over 12% respondents
prevalence.
avoided non-vegetarian food like meat,
Major tribal-dominated states, such chicken, fish etc. 28 % respondents said
as Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra they don’t include any special food during
Pradesh, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh have pregnancy. Over 40% of respondents
experienced a high rate of urbanization. avoided vegetables during lactation.
Subsidised rice, wheat and sugar under Such avoidance was mainly to prevent
food programs along with weaning away miscarriage, promote easy delivery, and
from previous practices of food collection prevent foetal malformations.
from forests due to various forest
protection acts have led to restricted
diversity in food basket of poor tribals.
The study concluded that extensive
urbanization is strong risks factor for
CASE STUDY
CVDs (Cardio-vascular Diseases).
Base studies: Malnutrition and Onset of menarche
Hawkes (2006) concluded “Nutrient Intake through Childhood and Early
that globalization-driven nutritional Menarche Onset in Girls: Systematic Review
transition and change in food habits and Meta-Analysis” (2020) by Ngan Thi Kim
disproportionately affect poor populations. Nguyen et al.
Poor are the worst affected by a cultural Malnutrition, particularly undernutrition
convergence towards low quality diets and inadequate energy intake, can be
(such as inexpensive vegetable oil and associated with delayed onset of menarche.
trans-fat). Higher intakes of energy and protein were
Allen LH (2006) study demonstrated the associated with Early Menarche Onset
association between low-diversity in diet (EMO) risk. High intake of fiber- and MUFA-
and nutritional deficiencies. rich foods may protect girls from EMO.

ANTHROPLOGY IN DESIGNING OF DEFENCE

AND OTHER EQUIPMENTS
CASE STUDY
Designs that do not take into account human variations
result in poor job performance.
The Adi tribe of Arunachal accesses several Anthropometry (measurement of human body)
indigenous plant and animal species from diverse plays very important role in designing equipment as
ecosystems, based on their sound knowledge of it provides information on the range and variation in
local biodiversity, and apply traditional agronomic, body shapes. Differences in body shapes affects the
cultural, and harvest strategies to conserve and utility of equipment, clothing or work space, and is
sustain their natural resources against abrupt especially significant in designing automobile seating
weather anomalies and climate change. or aeroplane cockpit where reach or field vision is a
critical factor.
Applied Anthropology during World –war –II: Focus on
317
 defense equipments
2. They consider local preferences, cultural meanings
1. Improvising the cock-pit size in different types of air
and thus ensure cultural sensitivity in the
craft and designing of various seat configurations
appliance’s aesthetics, materials, and symbols.
for both fighters and bombers (Example- Jet fighter
Ejection seats) which assisted in reducing cockpit 3. They facilitate community engagement sessions,
fatigue and discomfort by proper body support. involving end-users in the design process. They
seek feedback, suggestions, and preferences from
2. Analysing human posture in zero gravity on Skylab community members, allowing them to have a
experience. sense of ownership and pride in the final product.
3. Flight clothing:- Anthropologists have provided 4. They strive to understand the local market
sculptor-carved wooden head forms in 4 statistically dynamics, distribution channels, and adoption
derived sizes: extra-large, large, medium and small. barriers.
Designing of face masks in various sculptured face
forms for correct fit.
Clothing for high altitudes has to be designed in a FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
manner that would prevent muscles from expanding. Latin ‘Forensis’ means ‘Court of law’.
Using the anthropological technique, it was construed The term Forensic Anthropology entails the application
that stature and weight generally yield the highest of anthropological knowledge to queries of law.
correlations with other body dimensions and were
projected to be diagnostic dimensions for complex In 1971, Charles Snow defined forensic anthropology
fitting garments. as the application of physical anthropology, the specific
knowledge of humans, race, age, sex, and person’s
4. A gun turret is designed using scientific principle unusual variation to the medico-legal prudence
that any extrusion from an aircraft adds air resistance problem.
in such a manner that the gunner has all the free
movement of his body needed. This not only reduces
their discomfort of long occupancy in a cramped Scholars Work
enclosure but also increased efficiency of crewmen, Mathiew Orfina Publication on poison detection
and ensured effective means of escape from an (1813) and its impact on animals
aircraft in emergency.
John E. Purkinji Publication on nature of
Post-1942 applications:
(1823) fingerprints (fingerprint
After 1942, anthropometric applications were exploited classification system based on 9
by other fields of human activities to improve work principles)
efficiency by reducing discomfort of people. The design
requirements include Orfilla (1825) Data about the measurements of
arm bones and their differences
1. Workplace design= designing of any space for human
in sex.
occupancy during work, recreation, rest, education,
travel, treatment, etc. Thomas Dwight Essay on ‘The Identification of
Example- Designing of automobile interiors, aircraft (1878) Human Skeleton: A Medico-Legal
cockpit, seating apparatus, doors, tunnels, furniture (Father of Study’.
and kitchen. American Forensic
Measurements required:- Reach limits, body clearance, Anthropology)
eye location, etc. Alphonse Bertillon Proposed a system of
2. Clothing and personal equipment design: (1885) anthropometry of adult persons
Example:- designing of garments, sportswear, press for personal identification
suits, helmets and gloves, knobs, handles, switches, etc. Scope and Aim:
to ensure proper fitting and comfortable movement. The scope of forensic anthropology as an applied
Measurements required:- circumferences, body discipline in physical anthropology was recognized by
contours, limb movements etc C C Show in 1972.
The scope and aim of forensic anthropologists are
comprehensive and increasing day by day. It involves:
FEW IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF EQUIPMENT 1. Human identification:- It involves the collection,
DESIGN IN ANTHROPOLOGY preservation, and examination of human skeletal
remains for reconstruction and identification of the
1. Anthropologists prioritize user-centered design
incidents surrounding the individual’s death. Example-
principles, ensuring that the appliance is intuitive,
Skeletal analysis to estimate age, sex, ancestry,
user-friendly, and culturally appropriate
stature, and other biological characteristics to create
318 biological profiles. Such information is then compared
 with missing persons records or used to establish the Bones are consumed rarely by fire though exposure
identity of unknown individuals. due to fire changes the color and the bone’s texture,
2. Trauma analysis:- Done to know the cause and manner and make the bone more deformed and brittle which
of death. Through identification of fractures, gunshot may make visual detection difficult
wounds, knife injuries, blunt force trauma, and other 2. Whether the bones are of humans or animals?
types of skeletal trauma, anthropologists reconstruct 3. Whether the bones belong to one or more persons?
events leading to death and provides evidence in Example- An extra set of any of the bones means that
criminal investigations. the bones belong to more than one person
3. Taphonomy:- It is the study of the processes that 4. What is the sex, age, race, and stature of an individual?
affect the decomposition, preservation, and alteration
An individual’s sex can be determined by skull, pelvis,
of human remains. Forensic anthropologists assess
long bones, and other skeletal remains such as the
the postmortem changes, including the effects
mandible, clavicle, and scapula. Approximate age
of weathering, animal scavenging, burial, and
of skeletal remains can be determined from cranial
environmental factors to estimate the postmortem
sutures, dentition, and epiphyseal union of long bones.
interval and understanding the context of the crime
scene. Methods of Forensic Anthropology:
4. Mass disaster and human right abuses:- In cases like 1. Data gathering methods:
airplane crashes, natural disasters, or mass graves Anthroposcopy involves visual examination of human
resulting from human rights violations, forensic body with the help of a lens or x-rays.
anthropologists recover, analyze, and identify human Osteometry is the study and measurement of
remains, providing closure to families and contributing human bones using calipers and an osteometric
to the investigation of crimes against humanity. board. Osteometric methods quantify many of the
5. Humanitarian Efforts:- Forensic anthropologists anthroposcopic characteristics in ratio scales to
are involved in humanitarian efforts, working with determine sex, age, ethnicity and stature from human
international organizations and agencies to locate skeleton.
and identify victims of human rights abuses, armed Chemical methods
conflicts, or natural disasters. They provide expertise Histology:- Microscopic analysis of tissues.
to ensure the proper handling, identification, and 2. Data analysis methods.
repatriation of human remains.
a. Decision tables:- Helps make a single determination
6. Expert proceedings and Court testimony:- about the sex of the skeleton.
Anthropologists provide expert testimony in court,
presenting their findings and interpretations to assist Table Difference between Fresh (contemporary) and old
in legal proceedings by providing objective analysis (non contemporary)
based on their specialized knowledge.
Contemporary Bone Noncontemporary Bone
7. Research and Training:- In areas such as skeletal
biology, trauma analysis, and human identification
techniques. Also, they play a role in training law
enforcement personnel, medical examiners, and other
professionals in the proper recovery and handling of
human remains.
Role and functions of Forensic Anthropologists:
Forensic anthropologists are involved in evidence
discovery and recovery such as:
1. Identification of decomposed or mutilated bodies:-
Any evidence left at the site even in an unimportant
proportion, finger prints, skeletal remains, teeth, saliva,
blood or scratches of skin tissues. Identification holds
b. Range charts :- Help to determine the central
significance for legal and humanitarian issues, in
tendency of multiple ranges of estimates through
solving criminal cases, resolving inheritance concerns,
visual representations. If the age at death of a
marital status, etc.
decomposed body is to be assessed from skeletal
2. The analysis of skeletal and fragmentary remains data; we can guess it through data available from
:- Anthropologists are well versed in racial variations, growth studies. For example, fusion of clavicle
estimation of stature from broken bones and (lateral epiphysis) occurs at starts at 16.5 years in
assessment of understanding postmortem skeletal females and 17.5 years in males. The transition from
Regarding skeletal remains, forensic anthropologists “fusing” to “fused” occurs at age 21 in females and
help answer following questions: age 20 in males.
1. Whether the remains are bones? 319
 CASE STUDY

Forensic Tools for Species Identification of

Skeletal Remains: Metrics, Statistics, and
OsteoID” (2022) by Heather M. Garvin et al
Nonhuman remains comprise a significant
portion (25–30%) of total cases assessed
by forensic anthropologists. Faunal species
identification, however, can be challenging
for practitioners given the number of bones
in a skeleton, variety of potential species,
and similar morphology amongst related
species. While forensic anthropologists
are required to be experts on the human
skeleton, zoo-archaeological training and
expertise in comparative osteology can
vary greatly amongst practitioners.
For species identification, a freely available
web tool (OsteoID) was created from the
huge study data, where users can filter
photographs of potential bones/species
using a few basic measurements and
c. Indexes access 3D scans and additional resources
d. Discriminant functions:- It uses more than two to facilitate identification.
measurements to differentiate between different OsteoID also includes supplementary
groups. images (e.g., 3D scans), creating
e. Regression equations:- It is used to predict one an additional resource for forensic
characteristic from other characteristics. Sir anthropologists and others involved
Thomas Galton first used regression method to in skeletal species identification and
study inheritance pattern. comparative osteology.

CASE STUDY
METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF PERSONAL
“Blood–Bone–Tooth Model for Age Prediction IDENTIFICATION AND RECONSTRUCTION
in Forensic Contexts” (2021) by Helena Definition:
Correia Dias et al According to Christensen et al, 2013, Personal
Based on DNA Methylation levels (DNAm), identification is defined as the determination of the
several age-related markers have been individuality of a person. It also refers to the process
investigated in different tissues, including of linking an unknown personal object or material
blood, saliva, buccal swabs, sperm, teeth (which may be a whole body, a skeleton, a finger print,
and bones, allowing the development of a biological fluid, etc.) back to an individual of known
tissue-specific age prediction models identity.
(APMs) with high accuracy to predict age Personal Identification may be complete (absolute)
in forensic context. and incomplete (partial):
1. Complete identification is the absolute fixation or exact
specification of the individuality of a person along with
the determination of exact place in the community
occupied by him.
CLIFF NOTE
2. Partial identification refers to the ascertainment of
only some facts about the identity while others remain
still unknown.
Example- Identification as a female, Christian, about 40
years of age, having 6 feet height.
320
 Bertillon system of Identification
Alphonse Bertillon in 1879 (French criminologist)
1st developed the anthropometric system of
physical measurements of body parts, especially
components of the head and face, to produce a
detailed description of an individual, which is widely
used as a reliable, scientific method of criminal
investigation
Components:
1. Descriptive Data: Colour of eyes, hair, complexion,
shape of nose, ear and chin.
2. Body measurements: Height, head length, head
breadth, arm span, sitting height, left middle finger
A. For Living: length, left little finger length, left foot length, right
1. Impersonation related to Inheritance of property, ear length, cheek width and cubit.
Pension, Life insurance, Voting rights, Passport 3. Body marks: moles, scars and tattoo marks
2. Disputed identity in cases of divorce or nullity of 4. Photographs: front view and right profile of the
marriage head.
3. Disputed sex Limitations:
4. Missing persons 1. Limited to adults.
5. Interchange of new born babies in hospitals 2. Subjectivity compromises accuracy in
6. Identification of accused in criminal cases of assault, measurement
murder, dacoity, sexual offenses or an absconding
soldier
Components:
Method:
The ‘big fours’ of personal identification are determination
Fingerprint is a powerful means of identification. of age, sex, stature and ethnicity. Various components:
1. Photography is also an important aid in identification 1. Race determination:- Determination of skeletal race
of living or ancestry is difficult as skeleton does not contain
2. Finger prints, palm prints and toe prints, birth any obvious racial characteristics and also due to
marks or several personal impressions with regard intermixture or exogamy there is no pure ethnic group.
to characteristic gestures, movements or shape and Yet, features like head shape, breadth of nasal aperture,
other features of the teeth, eyes and hair, or voice are nasal root, jaw thickness, brow ridge size and forehead
used. slope help in race determination.
B. For Dead:- To identify victims of mass disasters,
identification of a dead body etc Characteristics Mongoloid Caucasoid Negroid
Method:
General form Large, Rounded Smooth,
Sometimes, due to rapid decomposition in the hot season, Smooth large, elongated
or through damage caused by wild animals, identification moderately
of dead becomes difficult. rugged
1. Primary Characteristics:- Age, Sex, Stature etc cannot
be altered after death. Cranial form Broad Medium Long
2. Secondary characteristics:- Features, personal
Skull Height Middle High Low
belongings (pocket contents, clothes including any
marks/defects/stitching, jewellery etc.), Hairs, Scars,
Tattoos, External peculiarities including deformities,
whether natural or due to disease, occupational stigma, CLIFF NOTE
Race, religion and nationality.
3. Comparative data/techniques: Dental patterns or
restorations, fingerprints, footprints or handprints,
superimposition technique, neutron activation analysis,
anthropometry, trace evidence comparisons and other
fortuitous comparisons (Vij, 2008).
321
 2. Sex determination:- Determining the sex of the
Male Skulls
unknown skeleton material depends upon relative
completeness of the skeleton. In a complete skeleton
of a sub-adult the sex determination may be a little
better than a guess i.e. around 50 percent (Brues,
1958) as sex can be determined more accurately after
attainment of puberty.
A. Sex determination from skull:

Charasteristics Male Female

Size and weight Large and heavy Small and light

Skull vault Curved Flattened

Glabella Strongly Weakly

developed developed
Supra-orbital Very prominent Less prominent
ridges
Foramen Large and broad Small and Female Skulls
magnum narrow

Giles and Elliot (1962) diagnosed the sex of the skull by

means of the following formula:
1.16 (Cranial length) + 1.66 (Basion - Nasion length) +
1.0 (Basion - Prosthion length) + 3.98 (Facial Breadth)
+ 1.94 (Upper facial height)
If this sum is below 891.12 then we are dealing with
a female in 4/5th of all the cases whereas above this
figure we are dealing with a male, whatever be the race.

CLIFF NOTE

Table: Sex differentiation from morphology of Mandible

Mandible Males (if above Females (if below

these values) these values)
Angle More everted Less everted

Size of sockets of Larger Smaller

teeth
Muscular More Less pronounced
impression pronounced
Total length If higher than 112 If below 95 mm
mm
Bigonial breadth 103 mm 87 mm

Weight 80 gm 38 gm

322
B.Sex determination from pelvis:
(CIMDL)’, characterized by the destruction
Female Pelvic Bones Male Pelvic Bones of the nasal septum, lateral nasal walls and/
or hard palate.
Intravenous drug injection in heroin addicts
has been associated with osteomyelitis.
Alterations of bone mineral density,
such as osteopenia and osteoporosis,
and their consequent increased risk of
fractures, have implications in personnel
identification. Results from forensic
toxicology, in conjunction with skeletal
changes that may be drug related, could
help identification by adding to the
biological profile.

3. Age determination:- It can be done by analysis of bone

histology (number of osteon increases with age),teeth
eruption sequence, cranial suture closer, pubis
symphysis face, sternal end of ribs and ossification of
various bones etc. Most of the bones get ossified by
the age 18 (limitation).

Charasteristics Male Female

Pelvis as a whole Massive with Smoother

huge muscular
marks
Acetabulum Large Small

Pubic arch More pointed More rounded

Pelvic brim Heart shaped Circular

Iliac bones High and vertical Lower and

laterally
divergent
Bone Epiphysial union Expected age
On combining the skull and the pelvis the sex determination
can be performed with over 96 % accuracy. Femur Fusion of head 15.5 to 17 years
to shaft

CASE STUDY Fusion of distal 16.5 to 17.5 years

end

“How Do Drugs Affect the Skeleton?

Implications for Forensic Anthropology” 1. Age determination using dentition
(2022) Gustafson developed a method to determine the age
by Nicholas Márquez-Grant et al beyond 11 years by studying the degenerating stages of
teeth like attrition (wearing down of incisal or occlusal
Chronic Cocaine use causes ‘Cocaine-
surfaces), periodontosis, development of secondary
induced midline destructive lesion
dentine, cementum apposition, root resorption and 323
 transparency of root (four stages of change. (Dey & Kapoor, 2015)
A. Age determination through analysis of developmental 5. Fingerprints, Iris pattern biometrics, Retina pattern
changes in dentition: biometrics:- A fingerprint is an individual characteristic.
Morrees, Fanning and Hunt developed methods of A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an
radiological age assessment. For deciduous teeth, it individual’s lifetime as they appear in intra-uterine life.
focused on the root resorption and exfoliation of the
deciduous mandibular canines and molars, where four
stages were presented with different data according
to the individual’s sex. The one for permanent
dentition focused on the developmental changes of
the permanent dentition, where tooth development is
divided into 13 stages for single-rooted teeth and in 14
stages for multi-rooted teeth. Separate data tables are
presented for males and females.
B. Age determination through analysis of degenerative
changes in dentition:
Age estimation methods based on developmental
changes offer higher accuracy and precision than
age estimation methods based on the degenerative 6. DNA biometrics:- Almost everything belonging to
changes of the skeleton or dentition. Several a person like saliva on envelope; blood; hair; finger
degenerative changes have been explored for age nails; used tooth picks; ear buds; sweat etc may be a
estimation purposes such as dental wear, root very good source of it as every one of these has cells
resorption, cementum apposition, dental coloration, containing DNA.
periodontal recession, secondary dentine apposition
7. Handwriting and voice biometrics.
and root translucency.
Root translucency is produced by the increase in
peritubular dentin deposits of hydroxyapatite, which
changes the refractive index of root dentin.

BONE DEGENERATIVE CHANGES User speaks Voice pattern is detected Vocal features are analysed
to produce unique
voiceprint
Articular surfaces changes
Osteophytes
Cartilage ossification

Voiceprint captured is compared

with information stored in database

Periodontal recession
Tooth color
Secondary dentin apposition
Root translucency Database determines whether voiceprint
matches the information stored, and if access is granted or not

TOOTH POSTFORMATION CHANGES

APPLIED HUMAN GENETICS
4. Height determination:- Muller (1935) provided Applied Genetics is directed at changing the genomes
a method for reconstruction of stature from of organisms, to increase their utility to humans.
fragmentary remains of long bones. This is done Techniques are derived from cytogenetics, molecular
primarily by measuring the long bones and then biology, and Mendelian and quantitative genetics.
comparing the measurements with the chart based
regression equation or through the use of multiplication Typically, applied geneticists have expertise in one
factor. (Stature = Maximum length of the long bone x or more related fields of study such as agronomy,
Multiplication factor (For femur, factor is 4.4). biochemistry, botany, entomology, food processing,
forestry, microbiology, pathology, physiology, and
Also Hand outlines have been used to predict stature statistic
324 which is a new perspective in forensic examination
1. PATERNITY DIAGNOSIS
Paternity Diagnosis helps to establish genetic proof
whether a man is the biological father of an individual
or not. This paternity test is carried out by using DNA Counselling interview
analysis.
Methods of DNA analysis for Paternity diagnosis
1. Before DNA fingerprinting came into existence, blood
group polymorphisms like ABO, MN and Rh systems
were most widely used to exclude a particular person Treatment Prescription
as the parent of a child.
2. Nowadays, DNA fingerprinting is used. The DNA
fingerprinting technique assures the probability of
parents to > 99.9% if the alleged father is biologically
Counseling and Support for Decision-Making regarding
related and the probability is 0% when the alleged
reproductive choices, family planning, and managing the
father is not biologically related to the child.
impact of genetic conditions on the individual’s health
Refer to chapter on ‘Physical anthropology and well-being.
(Unit 9) for details on DNA Fingerprinting.
2. GENETIC COUNSELLING AND EUGENICS
1. GENETIC COUNSELLING:
Term coined by Sheldon Reed. Follow-Up and Referrals
According to American Society of Human Genetics- Advantages (Fraser, 1974).
“Genetic counseling is the process of helping people It helps the individual/family to:
understand and adapt to the medical, psychological, 1. Comprehend the medical facts including the diagnosis,
and familial implications of genetic contributions to probable course of the disorder, and the available
disease, including the impact of genetic factors on management.
health and well-being.”
2. Appreciate the way hereditary contributes to the
Genetic counseling can be practiced under 4 scenarios: disorder and the risk of recurrence in specified
1. Preconception, relatives.
2. Preimplantation, 3. Understand the alternatives for dealing with the risk
3. Prenatal, and of recurrence.
4. Postnatal 4. Choose a course of action which seems to them
appropriate in their view of their risk, their family goals,
Rules of Genetic counselling:
and their ethical and religious standards and act in
1. Advisors should be value-neutral. accordance with that decision;
2. Couples should be able to make informed decision on 5. To make the best possible adjustment to the disorder
future reproduction. in an affected family member and/or to the risk of
3. Latest information should be offered. recurrence of that disorder.
4. Differentiate between genetic disorders and Issues:
phenotypically similar conditions (Phenocopy) 1. Mistaken paternity might get revealed leading to
Stages: issues of Confidentiality. Example- If the child is
Gathering Medical and Family History (about personal homozygous for an allele that only the mother carries.
health, previous genetic conditions or diseases, family 2. Difficulty in interpreting genetic analysis. Example- In
history of genetic disorders, and relevant environmental case of auto-immune diseases or a dominant disease
factors.) and Pedigree constriction with low expressivity.
3. Failure to differentiate between neutral polymorphism
and disease.
Genetic screening based on biochemical tests. Eg- In 4. Late developing disease councelling.
Preatal cases, procedures such as Amniocentesis or Example- Huntington’s Chorea
chorionic villus biopsy are used to get the probability of 5. Phenocopy ( environmental induced, non-heriditary
genetic disorders phenotype of one individual which is identical to the
genotype-determined phenotype )

325
Mode of inheritance using Pedigree and test results.
 2. EUGENICS:
The concept of eugenics was 1st introduced by Sir negative practices. Since biotechnological
Francis Galton in 1883. Galton believed that the advances work on a probabilistic rather than
species could be improved using technological means a deterministic model, they do not shape
for controlled reproduction. the destiny of individuals, but rather provide
opportunities to prevent certain pathologies
Galton claimed that health and disease, as well as
and the hope that they can do so. WHO also
social and intellectual characteristics, were based
doesn’t consider genetic counseling a eugenic
upon heredity and the concept of race.
practice, because it is not carried out as State
The most well-known application of eugenics occurred policy.
in Nazi Germany. They implemented a campaign
of forced sterilization that culminated in the near
destruction of the Jewish people, as well as an effort
to eliminate other marginalized ethnic minorities, such
CASE STUDY
as the Sinti and Roma, individuals with disabilities and
LGBTQ+ people.
Views on Eugenics: Studies carried out on couples with problems of
Politically, eugenics can be practiced from a liberal or an infertility have shown that PGD (preimplantation
authoritarian standpoint. genetic diagnosis) reduces the frequency of
aneuploidy in couples with at high risk for this
1. Under liberal eugenics, people autonomously choose
condition, increasing the probability of carrying
the genetic characteristics of individuals,
a pregnancy to term. It has also diminished
2. Under authoritarian eugenics it is the State that the probability of monogenic disorders such
determines who should or should not be born. as Sanjad-Sakati syndrome, Canavan disease,
Biological eugenics can also take two forms: Cystic-Fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, Duchenne
1. Negative eugenics:- Used to avoid the birth of people muscular dystrophy, and others.
with undesirable genetic characteristics or traits.
Example-
a. Sexual disconnection for people with sex-linked
diseases such as Colour blindness, night blindness, CASE STUDY
hemophilia, etc.
b. Immigration control Sex selection for social reasons
c. Aborting an individual with Patau Syndrome Sex selection for social rather than medical
(trisomy 13), reasons is another practice associated with
d. Marriage restrictions on people with genetic assisted reproductive technologies (ART)
disroders (Eg- In Cyprus, Thalassemia screening is that can affect the genetic composition of
mandatory before couples can marry) the population, particularly in China where the
2. Positive eugenics:- People actively pursue the ratio of men to women is 1.2 to 1.
selection of genetic traits considered to be desirable. Marcus Pembrey (2002) argued against sex
Encouraging desirable individuals to bear more children selection, because to permit this practice
and also to produce genetically enhanced children. would lead us to a slippery slope, because
Example- arguments based on the autonomy of couples
a. Young persons having the best hereditary traits and cultural factors would eventually lead to
should be encouraged for early marriages. legitimizing the selection of more complex
b. Selected young men and women who have best genetic traits such as skin color, height, or
eugenic value should be encouraged to have more intelligence.
children.
c. In regard to assisted reproductive technology,
selection of an embryo that does not share a
Ethical considerations:
defective gene with its parents.
1. Prenatal Genomic Information:
Concerns arise whether generating an increasing
CASE STUDY amount of genomic information in the prenatal setting
about societal pressures to terminate pregnancies at
In her book “The Politics of Life Itself” (2012), risk for genetic disorders (e.g., Down Syndrome, spina
Nikolas Rose argues that the term“ Eugenics” bifida).
be applied exclusively to authoritarian and 2. Polygenic Risk Scores and IVF:
326 positive practices, and not for liberal and The potential use of genetic screening to screen
 embryos for intellectual, behavioral, and/or
psychological characteristics would be similar to Gene Correction Strategies
the historical practice of eugenics, which aimed to
eradicate particular groups of people.

IS GENETIC COUNSELLING A FORM OF Replacement/

EUGENICS? –A Debate Genome Editing
According to Ricardo Luque (2018),
Supplementation/
In pre-implantation consultation (In Assisted Augmentation
Reproduction technology), the genetic selection
Inhibition
of embryos can be considered eugenic when it is Suppression
used to change the natural course of reproduction
or used for non-medical purposes.
Gene Replacement Therapy: Replacing a defective
1. One goal is to avoid the consequences for both or non-functional gene with a functional copy. The
the child and the parents of having a child with new gene provides the instructions necessary for the
a genetic disease. This can be justified by the production of a functional protein, thereby addressing
reproductive beneficence principal. the underlying cause of the disease.
2. A second goal is to reduce healthcare costs arising Gene Editing: Gene editing techniques, such as
from genetic disease. CRISPR-Cas9, allow for precise modifications to the
Prenatal diagnosis, when linked to abortion as DNA sequence. This can involve correcting disease-
a response to congenital malformations, can be causing mutations, removing harmful genes, or
considered negative eugenics. introducing specific genetic changes to achieve
Post-natal counselling (when a couple whose therapeutic effects.
child has a congenital disease wants to know of Gene Addition Therapy: In some cases, additional
the risk of having another child affected by the genes may be introduced into the cells to enhance
same disorder):- It is very similar to preconception their function or provide a therapeutic effect. This
counseling in the way it is carried out and in terms approach is particularly relevant for diseases where
of the possible eugenic consequences. the production of a specific protein is insufficient.
Several authors assert that when parents abort a Gene Silencing: Involve the use of small RNA molecules
pregnancy based on the results of prenatal genetic to silence or downregulate the expression of specific
counseling, they may be engaging in negative eugenics genes associated with diseases.
because they are impeding the birth of people with
certain physical or genetic traits.
Deliver targeted
nucleases to
Ex vivo In vivo
cells by physical, Introduce modified
cells back into patient
chemical, or viral
Nondirective counseling (patients receive information methods AAV
in the clearest and most impartial form possible so that DNA RNA
Lipid
it is they who make their own reproductive decisions) nanoparticle
is based on the idea of separating clinical genetics Protein Letivirus
from the eugenic practices. Extract stem or Direct delivery
progenitor cells to patient using
viral or non-viral
delivery vehicle
3. DNA TECHNOLOGY IN DISEASES AND
MEDICINE
See chapter ‘Physical anthropology (Unit 9) for
Gene Therapy CAR-T Cell Therapy
Recombinant DNA Technology. Eye (cornea, retina) Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Liver Acute Myeloid Leukemia
1. GENE THERAPY: Lung B Cell Lymphoma
Heart
In Vivo

Ex. Vivo

Inner Ear
Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a person’s Bone marrow niche
Muscle (local, systemic)
genes to treat or cure disease. Central Nervous System
Stem Cell Therapy
"Highly preferred for SCID-X1
Gene therapy utilizes various delivery methods to treatment of different ADA-SCID
Beta Thalassemia
genetic diseases due to
introduce therapeutic genes into target cells. long term expression"

1. Viral vectors (such as retroviruses, lentiviruses, and

adenoviruses) and
2. Non-viral vectors (such as liposomes and
nanoparticles). 327
 Applications:
Gene therapy has the potential to treat a wide range of to favourable gene–environment interaction.
genetic disorders, including inherited disorders (such Carriers of a longevity-associated variant (LAV)
as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy), of the BPIFB4 gene enjoy prolonged health
certain types of cancer, neurological disorders (such spans and lesser cardiovascular complications.
as Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease), and Moreover, supplementation of LAV-BPIFB4
immune system disorders. via an adeno-associated viral vector improves
cardiovascular performance in limb ischaemia,
Ethical challenges related to Gene therapy: atherosclerosis, and diabetes models.
Irreversible impact:- Once edited, the effects of the
corrected gene are irreversible. There is no turn off
point, no half‑life and no withdrawal from this therapy.
This is the main reason they are called living drugs.
Uncertainty:- As the process of gene editing is so National Policy for Rare Disease 2021

2021
complex and intricate, little is known about how these National Biotechnology Development Strategy
genetically modified cells will behave over the time. (2021-2025)
Off-target gene mutation:- It can potentially result in Competence based training course by NMC
insertional mutagenesis. Despite the fact that CRISPR/
Cas proves to be an efficient tool for clinical somatic National Guidelines in Gene Therapy Product

2019
use, it has not reached the stage to be utilized in human Development and Clinical Trials 2019
genome editing for clinical reproductive purposes. New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules 2019
Genome editing performed on human embryos has a
high risk of causing pathologic diseases and disabilities
Revised National Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical
that can permanently affect the patient and the 2017 and Health Research in 2017
offspring. Although the specificity of Cas9 targeting is
Regulations and guidelines for recombinant DNA
tightly controlled, potential off-target cleavage activity research and biocontainmen 2017
could still occur in DNA sequences.
National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research 2017
Genetic Mosaicism:- In CRISPR germline gene therapy,
the CRISPR/Cas vector is inserted immediately after
2016

fertilization so that each successive cell resulting Accelerating the application of Stem cell
from cleavage is genetically modified. However, the technology in Human Disease
vector can persist and transcribe, making it possible to
further introduce the Cas protein into parts of already Government of India initiatives for developing
engineered cells and potentially initiate another Gene Therapy in India
cleavage, leading to mosaicism.
Informed consent:- Although somatic gene therapy
meets the need for informed consent, given long 2. STEM CELL TRANSPLANT
term hazards, germline embryo editing poses a more Stem cells are undifferentiated cells having potential
difficult regulatory issue, that is, whether consent of to develop into different types of cells. Stem cell
a future generation is required and, if so, who should transplantation replaces damaged bone marrow with
express consent because embryos cannot consent to healthy stem cells, offering the potential to restore blood
germline intervention. cell production.
Types of stem cell transplant:
Autologous transplant: Patient’s own stem cells are
CASE STUDY collected, harvested and then reintroduced into their
body after receiving high-dose chemotherapy.
Allogeneic transplant: Here the patient receives
stem cells from a donor (sibling, family member or an
unrelated volunteer).

Paper:- ‘The longevity-associated BPIFB4 gene

CLIFF NOTE
supports cardiac function and vascularization in
aging cardiomyopathy’ by Annibale Puca et al. in
Cardiovascular Research (2023).
Some exceptional individuals maintain good
health until the very late stage of their life due
328
Process for stem cell transplantation:

Stem cell transplant

Stem cells are
Collection of patient separated and removed
blood stem cells

Remaining
blood is returned
Patient receives to patient
pretreatment to release
HSC from bone marrow
into bloodstream

Stem cells
are frozen
until needed
Thawed stem cells
are infused back
into patient

Patient receives
supportive treatment to
Benefits of CAR-T therapy
help bone marrow regrow
While existing treatments work towards increasing life
of patients, CAR-T technology holds promise of curing
certain types of cancers.
Benefits: Unlike chemotherapy, CAR-T is administered only once
A life-saving treatment for patients with certain types to a patient. Short treatment time needed and more
of cancer and blood disorders. rapid recovery.
Used to treat autoimmune diseases, metabolic SEROGENETICS AND CYTOGENETICS IN
disorders, and genetic diseases. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Potential for a cure, as the new stem cells can produce Genetics and molecular biology have been instrumental
healthy blood cells for the rest of the patient’s life. for a better understanding of heritable defects causing
Risks: human infertility.
It is a complex and high-risk procedure, with potential Let’s look at role of sero-genetics and cyto-genetics in
of complication from infections. reproductive biology.
It may lead to serious complications like graft-versus- 1. Serogenetics in Reproductive biology
host disease (GVHD). GVHD is a condition where the Serogenetics is the branch of genetics that studies
transplanted stem cells attack the patient’s body. serological proteins.
3. CHIMERIC ANTIGEN RECEPTOR T (CAR-T) CELL Few examples of serological proteins- Gonadotropins
THERAPY FSH,LH, HSG or sex hormones like testosterone
It is a way to get immune cells called T cells (type of oestrogen and progesterone.
white blood cell that attacks foreign pathogens) to
fight cancer by editing them in the lab.
T cells are taken from patient’s blood and are edited by
adding a gene for a man-made receptor (called CAR).
CAR is special receptor, created in the laboratory, that
is designed to bind to certain proteins on cancer cells.
CAR is then added to T cells.
This helps them better identify specific cancer cell
antigens.
These changed T cells called CAR- T cells.
CAR-T cells are then given back to the patient.

329
 MALE Secreted Role in Reproduction FEMALE Secreted Role in Reproduction
Hormone By Hormone By

Testosterone Leydig Cells Promotes the development Estrogen Ovarian Stimulates the growth and
in Testes and maintenance of male Follicles development of the uterus
reproductive organs, such lining (endometrium).
as the testes, prostate, and Promotes the development
seminal vesicles. of mammary glands in
Stimulates the production of preparation for lactation.
sperm (spermatogenesis). Plays a role in fetal
Plays a role in the development, particularly
development of secondary in the development of the
sexual characteristics in reproductive system.
males, such as facial and body
Progesterone Corpus Supports the maintenance
hair, deepening of the voice,
Luteum of the uterine lining to allow
and muscle growth.
implantation and provide a
Gonadotro- Hypothala- Regulates the release of suitable environment for the
pin- Releasing mus follicle-stimulating hormone developing embryo.
Hormone (FSH) and luteinizing Inhibits uterine contractions
(GnRH) hormone (LH) from the to prevent premature labor.
anterior pituitary gland. Helps prepare the breasts for
Stimulates the production and milk production.
release of FSH and LH, which
FSH (Follicle- Anterior Stimulates the growth and
play vital roles in reproductive
Stimulating Pituitary development of ovarian
processes.
Hormone Gland follicles, which contain the
FSH (Follicle- Anterior In males, stimulates the eggs. Helps in the production
Stimulating Pituitary production of sperm of estrogen by the ovarian
Hormone Gland (spermatogenesis) by acting follicles.
on the Sertoli cells in the
LH (Luteiniz- Anterior Triggers ovulation, the
testes.
ing Hormone) Pituitary release of the mature egg
Plays a role in the growth Gland from the ovary.
and development of the
Stimulates the formation of
seminiferous tubules in the
the corpus luteum, which
testes.
produces progesterone.
LH (Luteiniz- Anterior In males, stimulates the Maintains the function of
ing Hormone) Pituitary production of testosterone by the corpus luteum in early
Gland the Leydig cells in the testes. pregnancy.
Promotes the release of
mature sperm from the Inhibin Ovarian Inhibits the secretion of
testes (spermatozoa) Follicles, FSH, regulating the follicular
through a process called Corpus development and maintaining
spermiogenesis. Luteum a balance between FSH and
LH levels.

hCG (Human Syncytio- Supports the corpus

Chorionic Go- trophoblast luteum, ensuring the
CLIFF NOTE nadotropin) (developing production of progesterone
placenta) during early pregnancy.
Helps maintain the
uterine lining and prevent
menstruation.
Detected in pregnancy tests
as its presence indicates
pregnancy.

330
2. Cytogenetics in Reproductive biology Male Issue Probable Cytogenetic
Chromosomal disorders significantly impact fertility causes
and the miscarriage risk. Cytogenetic testing can
be performed on individuals experiencing infertility Azoospermia/oligozo- Microdeletion Y chromo-
or recurrent pregnancy loss to assess whether ospermia some.
chromosomal abnormalities are contributing to
reproductive difficulties. Small testes, cryptorchidism, Nonsyndromic 46,XX
hypospadias, infertility, Testicular Disorders of
To illustrate, the most clinically important structural ↑FSH ↑LH↓T; Sex Development (De la
disorders in infertile females are translocations, both
Chapelle syndrome)
reciprocal (exchange of two terminal segments from
different chromosomes) or Robertsonian (centric
fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes) responsible Female Issue Probable Cytogenetic
for blocks of meiosis and structural alterations of the X causes
chromosome.
Short stature, skeletal Turner syndrome (XO)
Thus, cytogenetics (alongwith Serogenetics) help in
abnormalities, kidney
assessment of causes of infertility, identify carriers of
problems, webbed neck,
inherited diseases and plan antenatal testing.
lymphedema; ovarian
hypofunction, infertility
Irregular menstrual Fragile X-associated pri-
cycles, early menopause, mary ovarian insufficiency.
premature ovarian failure, Mutation in FMR1 gene.
infertility

For details on cytogenetics, refer to “Chapter

9- Physical anthropology”.

CLIFF NOTE

Figure - Role of genetic tests in reproductive medicine.

For example, during the antenatal period, a variety of

techniques are available to identify a transmissible
disorder to the offspring in the presence of carrier or
affected couples. For example, invasive PND (Pre-natal
diagnosis) is usually performed on DNA extracted from
fetal cells obtained by chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
(between the 11th and 13th weeks of gestation) or from
amniocytes (from the 15th to the 20th week).
Few indications for Cytogenetic tests in reproductive
biology:

331