ARC 206 LECTURE NOTES

FORCE
Force is defined as an agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion
of a body. For example, a man trying to push a cupboard as shown in figure (a) exerts a force 'F. If the
force is sufficient to cause motion, the cupboard will slide to the right and if not sufficient, the force F
only 'tends' to change the state of rest but not succeeding to cause motion.

Similarly, the figure below shows an arrangement to bring a rotating Wheel to a stop by applying
force P to press the brakes. Force is a vector quantity. It is characterised by:
1) Magnitude
2) Direction
3) Sense
4) Point of application

For the person pushing the cupboard, refer Fig. (a) and (b) the man applies a force of magnitude F,
whose direction is horizontal, sense is to the right and point of application is at C.
The S.L unit of force is Newton (N) or its multiples i.e. kilo-Newton (kN), where;
1 kN = 1000 N
The unit of force has been named after Sir Isaac Newton and one Newton force is defined as a force
required producing an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a body of mass 1 kg.

RESOLUTION OF A FORCE
Resolution or resolving a force implies breaking the force into components, such that the components
combined together would have the same effect as the original force. Fig. (a) Shows a force F acting at
an angle This force can be resolved into components Fl and F2 as shown in Fig. (b) or into
components Fx, and Fy, as shown in Fig. (c) below.
The components Fx and Fy, of the force F as shown in Fig. (c) are known as the rectangular or
perpendicular components of the force, since the two components are perpendicular to each other.

Usually, we require rectangular components of force and hence we will learn how to find rectangular
components of a force below.

Consider a force of magnitude F acting at an angle θ with the x-axis. Let the force be represented by a
line OA drawn to scale. From A drop a perpendicular on the x-axis at E and on the y-axis at P. Length
(OE) represents the magnitude of the component along x-axis (Fx) with direction from O to E, while
length (OP) represents the magnitude of the component along y-axis ( F ) with direction from O to P.

From the geometry;

Fx = F cos θ -i
Fy = F sin θ -ii
These are the two rectangular components of force F. The process of splitting up the given force into
two or more components in particular direction without changing effect on the body is called
resolution of a force. Generally, the given force is split up into two manually perpendicular force
components,
1 Horizontal component (x-component)
2 Vertical component (y-component)
COMPOSITION OF FORCES (RESULTANT OF FORCES)
Composition means to combine the forces acting in a system into a single force, which has the same
effect as the number of forces acting together. Such a. single force is known as resultant of the system.
Finding the 'resultant' helps to analyse the effect of the forces on the system and may form an
important step in the solution of engineering problems. We shall learn to find the resultant of
(a) Concurrent system of two forces using law of parallelogram of forces and Triangle law of forces.
(b) Concurrent system of more than 6 forces using method of resolution.
(c) Parallel system of forces.

(d) General system of forces.

Types of Resultant
Resultant of a force system may either be a (i) a force or (ii) a couple or (iii) a force couple. Let us
understand the three possibilities of a resultant in detail.

1. Resultant- Force
In a given force system consisting of number of forces, if on composition of these forces it results in a
single force, we call such a resultant as 'Resultant-Force'.

2. Resultant — Couple
In a force system if the resultant force is zero but the resultant moment is not zero, such a system
reduces into a couple.

3. Resultant-Force Couple
A resultant force when shifted to a new parallel position without change in its direction and sense,
introduces a couple in the system. Such a resultant consisting of a single force and a single couple is
called Resultant-Force.

Composition of Forces
Parallelogram law of forces
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram drawn from one of its angular points, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that angular point.
Assume two coplanar concurrent forces P and Q act from point O as shown from the figure above, the
resultant Vector R of the forces Vector P and Vector Q is the diagonal OC of the parallelogram. The
magnitude of the resultant is;

Triangle law of forces

The resultant of two forces acting at a point can also be found by using triangle law of forces.
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent
sides of a triangle taken in order, then the closing side of the triangle taken in the reversed order
represents the resultant of the forces in magnitude and direction. See the figure below.

Forces Vector P and Vector Q act at an angle θ. In order to find the resultant of Vector P and
Vector Q, one can apply the head to tail method, to construct the triangle. In Fig., OA and AB
represent Vector P and Vector Q in magnitude and direction. The closing side OB of the triangle
taken in the reversed order represents the resultant Vector R of the forces Vector P and Vector
Q. The magnitude and the direction of Vector R can be found by using sine and cosine laws of
triangles.
RESULTANT OF CONCURRENT SYSTEM OF FORCES USING METHOD OF
RESOLUTION
When more than two forces act at a point, the use of method of resolution is made to avoid tedious
repetition of parallelogram law of forces to successive forces. The following steps are adopted in the
solution.
Step 1: Resolve the inclined forces if any along the horizontal x-direction and the vertically y-direction.
Step 2: a) Add up the horizontal forces to get ∑Fx. Use sign Convention - → as + ve
b) Add up the vertical forces to get ∑Fy. Use sign convention - ↑ + ve

c) The resultant force R=

Step 3: The direction of the resultant force is the angle θ made by it with the x axis. To find angle θ, use
∑
Tan θ = . Note: while using the above relation take positive values of ∑F y and ∑ Fx. The value of
∑
θ so obtained will always be less than 90°.
Step 4: Decide the quadrant of the resultant, depending on the signs of ∑ Fx and ∑Fy.

RESULTANT OF PARALLEL SYSTEM OF FORCES

To find the Resultant of Parallel Force System follow the given steps,
Step 1: Since in a parallel system, the forces are directed in one direction only, they can be simply added
up using a sign convention for the sense of the force. i.e.
R=∑F
Step 2: Location of the resultant force forms an important step. The point of application of the resultant
force is found out using Varignon's theorem. The resultant is initially assumed to act either to the right or
left of the reference point at a perpendicular distance d.
Varignon's theorem ∑ MAF = MAR is used. If a positive value of d is obtained then the assumption made
earlier is true. If a negative value of d is obtained the resultant lies on the opposite side to what was
assumed.
RESULTANT OF GENERAL FORCE SYSTEM
To find the Resultant of General Force System follow the given steps.
Step 1: Follow the same procedure as discussed in the calculation of the resultant force R of the
system using Method of Resolution.
Step 2: To locate the position of the resultant follow step 2 of Resultant of Parallel system of Forces.

MOMENT OF A FORCE
We all are aware that a force can cause a body to slide, but at the same time it can cause a body to
rotate also. The rotational effect of a force is known as the moment of the force. When we talk of the
rotational effect, it has to be with respect to a point. The concerned point is known as the moment
centre. The rotational effect of the same force will vary from one moment centre to another and of
course if the point (moment centre) lies on the line of action of the force, the moment of force about
the point would be zero. The rotational effect or moment is measured as the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the moment centre to the force. This perpendicular distance is known
as the moment arm 'd'.

M=Fxd
The tendency to rotate could be either clockwise or anti-clockwise. Units of moment are N-m or N-
mm or kN-m
Sign: we shall take clockwise moments as positive moments, and anticlockwise moments as negative
moments.
VARIGNON'S THEOREM
Varignon, a French mathematician (1654 - 1722) established that the sum of the moments of a
concurrent system of forces about any point is equal to the moment of the resultant of the concurrent
system about the same point. Though originally derived for a concurrent system of forces, this
theorem can in fact be applied to any system of forces and is thus stated as 'the algebraic sum of the
moments of a system of coplanar forces about and point in the plane is equal to the moment of the
resultant force of the system about the same point.
Mathematically it is written as ∑MAF = MAR
Sum of moments of all forces about any point, say point A = Moment of the resultant about the same
any point, say point A.
SIGN CONVENTIONS
ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
According to James Ambrose in his book Simplified Mechanics and Strength of Materials a beam is a
structural member that resists transverse loads. He further notes that the supports for beams are
usually at or near the ends, and the supporting upward forces are called reactions. The loads acting on
a beam tend to bend it rather than shorten or lengthen it. Girder is the name given to a beam that
supports smaller beams; all girders are beams insofar as their structural action is concerned. For
construction usage, beams carry various names, depending on the form of construction; these include
purlin, joist, rafter, lintel, header, and girt. Materials used for that can be used for beams include steel,
reinforced concrete, wood etc.
TYPES OF BEAMS
There are, in general, five types of beams, which are identified by the number, kind, and position of
the supports. These are listed below:
a. A simple beam rests on a support at each end, the ends of the beam being free to rotate.
b. A cantilever beam is supported at one end only. The supported end is usually fixed in all
directions. A beam embedded in a wall and projecting beyond the face of the wall is a
typical example.
c. An overhanging beam is a beam whose end or ends project beyond its supports.
d. A continuous beam rests on more than two supports. Continuous beams are commonly
used in reinforced concrete and welded steel construction.
e. A restrained beam has one or both ends restrained or fixed against rotation.
The figure below shows diagrammatically the different types of beams and their deformation under
loading.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL SUPPORT TO BEAMS
Up till now we’ve been talking about supports without giving a thought to the type or nature of the
support. Here we shall consider their nature and different types. We have basically 3 different types of
structural support. These are listed below:
a. Roller Support: allows horizontal movement but has restraint in the vertical direction and
rotation (moments).

b. Pin Or Hinge Support: allows rotational movement but has restraint in both the horizontal and
vertical directions.

c. Fixed Support: has restraint in all directions. This means that this support is fixed in the
vertical and horizontal directions and does not allow moments (rotation) to occur about that
support. This support restrains movement in all directions.

EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

For a general coplanar force system, equilibrium can be established with the satisfying of three
equations, as follows:
1. The algebraic sum of the horizontal forces is zero (∑H= 0).
2. The algebraic sum of the vertical forces is zero (∑V= 0).
3. The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point in the plane is zero (∑M= 0).
STATICALLY DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
We have learnt that the function of a structure is to transmit forces from one point in space to another.
We also know that the main objective of the structural analysis is the determination of support
reactions and internal forces (or stress resultants) distribution.
Some structures can be completely analysed by the use of the conditions or equations of static
equilibrium (i.e., ∑H= 0, ∑V= 0, ∑M= 0). These structures are referred to as statically determinate
structures. Examples of statically determinate structures are: simply supported beams, cantilever
beams, single and double overhanging beams, three-hinged arches etc
Structures that cannot be analysed by the equilibrium equations alone are known as statically
indeterminate structures. For such structures a knowledge of some geometric conditions under load is
required (i.e. compatible deformation). Example of indeterminate structures are: fixed beams,
continuous beams, two-hinged arches, portals, multi-storied frames etc. Statically indeterminate
structures occur more frequently in practice than statically determinate structures, the former are
generally more economical in that they are stiffer and stronger hence utilize less material for carrying
loads. Therefore, we need to learn the methods of analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
DEGREE OF INDETERMINACY
As a rule, a structure can be identified as being statically indeterminate or determinate by drawing
free-body diagrams of all its members, or selective parts of its members, and then comparing the total
number of unknown reactive force and moment components with the total number of available
equilibrium equations. For a coplanar structure, there are at most three (3) equilibrium equations for
each part, so that if there is a total of n parts and r force & moment reaction components, we have

Where; n = the total parts of structural members,

r = the total number of unknown reactive force and moment components
in particular, if a structure is statically indeterminate, the additional equations needed to solve for the
unknown reactions are obtained by relating the applied loads and reactions to the displacement or
slope at different points on the structure. These equations, which are referred to as compatibility
equations, must be equal in number to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure. Compatibility
equations involve the geometric and physical properties of the structure.
Example:
Classify each of the beams below as shown below as statically determinate or indeterminate. If
statically indeterminate indicate the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The beams are subjected to
external loadings that are assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
HOME WORK (Submit unfailingly on Thursday, 16th June, 2022)
Classify each of the beams below as shown below as statically determinate or indeterminate. If
statically indeterminate indicate the number of degrees of indeterminacy.
TYPES OF LOADS
The following types of loads can act on beams.
1. Point Load: This load is concentrated at a point which can either act perpendicular or inclined
to the point of action.

2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL): In this loading the load of uniform intensity is spread
over a length. A UDL can be converted into an equivalent point load by multiplying the load
intensity with the length. This equivalent point load would act at the centre of the spread.

3. Uniformly Varying Load (UVL): The load of uniformly varying intensity is spread over a
length. UVL can be converted into an equivalent load, which is equal to the area under the
load diagram, the equivalent point load would act at the centroid of the load diagram. See the
diagram below.

4. Trapezoidal Load: In this loading pattern, the load intensity varies uniformly from a lower
intensity of w1 N/m to a higher intensity of w2 N/m over a span L metres. This loading is
therefore a combination of a UDL of intensity w1 and a UVL of intensity varying from zero
to (w2-w1) N/m. The UDL portion is replaced by a point load of (w1L) acting at L/2 from A.
The UVL portion is replaced by a point load of ½(w2-w1)L acting at L/3 from B. Thus, a
trapezoidal loading is replaced by two-point loads as shown below.
 5. Couple Load (Moments): A couple load acting on a body on a body tends to cause the
rotation of the body. A couple load’s location on the body is of no significance because
couples are free vectors.

6. Varying Load: In this loading intensity varies. The figure below shows a varying distributed
load of parabolic nature. The equivalent point load is the area under the curve acting at the
centre of gravity area.

REACTIONS
Calculation of reactions – Point loads
The three rules of equilibrium can be used to calculate reactions. As discussed earlier a reaction is a
force (usually upwards) that occurs at a support of a beam or similar structural element. A reaction
counteracts the (usually downward) forces in the structure to maintain equilibrium. It is important to
be able to calculate these reactions. If the support is a column, for example, the reaction represents the
force in the column, which we would need to know in order to design the column.
Consider the example shown in the Fig below.

The thick horizontal line represents a beam of span 6 metres which is simply supported at its two
ends, A and B. The only load on the beam is a point load of 18 kN, which acts vertically downwards
at a position 4 metres from point A. We are going to calculate the reactions RA and RB (that is, the
support reactions at points A and B respectively).
From vertical equilibrium, which we discussed in above, we know that:

Total force upwards = Total force downwards

Applying this to the example shown in Fig. 31, we can see that:

RA + RB = 18 kN

Of course, this doesn’t tell us the value of RA and it doesn’t tell us the value of RB. It merely tells us
that the sum of RA and RB is 18 kN. To evaluate RA and RB then, we clearly have to do something
different.
Let’s use our new-found knowledge of moment equilibrium. We found out above that if any structure
is stationary, then at any given point in the structure:

Total clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment

The above applies at any point in a structure. So, taking moments about point A:

(18 kN × 4 m) = (RB × 6 m)
Therefore RB = 12 kN. Note that there is no moment due to force RA. This is because force RA passes
straight through the point (A) about which we are taking moments.
Similarly, taking moments about point B:

Total clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment

(RA × 6 m) = (18 kN × 2 m)

Therefore RA = 6 kN.

As a check, let’s add RA and RB together:

RA + RB = 6 + 12 = 18 kN

This is what we would expect from the first equation above.

Calculation of reactions – Uniformly distributed loads

Calculate the end reactions for the beam shown above. Use the same procedure as before.
Vertical equilibrium:
RA + RB = (3 kN/m × 2 m) = 6 kN
Taking moments about A:
(3 kN/m × 2 m) × 1 m = RB × 4 m
Therefore:
RB = 1.5 kN
Taking moments about B:
(3 kN/m × 2 m) × 3 m = RA × 4 m
Therefore:
RA = 4.5 k N
Check:
RA + RB = 4.5 + 1.5 = 6 kN (as expected from the first equation).

HOMEWORK
(Kindly submit on unfailingly on 5th July,2022 by 10:00 am. Hard copies only)
1. In each case, calculate the reactions at the support positions below.
SHEAR & BENDING MOMENT
Before we go into shear and bending moment, we shall learn more about two important structural
terms.

Hogging and sagging

You have probably already encountered the term sagging – for example, you may have a bed that
sags, or dips, in the middle. Sagging, or downward deformation, is illustrated in Fig. 36 (a). Hogging –
an upward deformation – is the opposite (or mirror image) of sagging. The concept of hogging is
illustrated in Fig. 36 (b).

Figure 1 Illustration of Hogging and Sagging.

We’re going to discuss the deformations shown in Fig. 37. Consider, as an example, beam number 1
in Fig. 37, which is simply supported at either end and is subjected to a central point load. Clearly,
the beam will tend to sag under that load, as indicated by the line in the corresponding diagram in
Fig. 38. When the beam has sagged, the fibres in the very top of the beam will be squashed
together; in other words, they will be compressed. Similarly, the fibres in the bottom part of the
beam will have stretched, which indicates that the bottom of the beam is in tension.
The fact that the bottom of the beam is in tension is indicated by the letter T (for tension) placed
underneath the line in beam number 1 in Fig. 38. Beam number 2 in Fig. 37 will tend to hog (or
‘break its back’) over the central support as a result of the point loads at either end. This hogging
profile is indicated by the line in the corresponding diagram in Fig. 38.
In this case, we will see that the top of the beam will be in tension and therefore we’ve indicated
tension (letter T) above the line at the support position. We can analyse the remaining beams in Fig.
37 in a similar fashion and obtain the deformed profiles and tension positions for each one
(indicated by the lines and letter T respectively in Fig. 16.2). If you have difficulty visualising the
deformation of the beam shown in beam number 4, replicate the situation by holding a standard-
length ruler horizontal by gripping it firmly with your left hand at its left-hand end and applying an
anticlockwise twist with your right hand at the right-hand end. You will then see the ruler deform in
the manner depicted for beam number 4 in Fig. 38 and tension will occur on the underside.
When examining the deformed shapes of the beams indicated in Fig. 38 for beams 6 and 7,
remember that a fixed support firmly grips a beam, while a pinned (or simple) support permits
rotation to take place.
Figure 2 Deformation in beams.
 Figure 3 Result of deformation in beams.

SHEAR
Shear is a cutting or slicing action which causes a beam to simply break or snap. Consider two steel
plates that overlap each other slightly, with a bolt connecting the two plates through the
overlapping part, as shown in Fig. 39. Imagine now that a force is applied to the top plate, trying to
pull it to the left. An equal force is applied to the bottom plate, trying to pull it to the right. Let’s now
suppose that the leftward force is slowly increased, as is the rightward force. (Remember that the
two forces must be equal if the whole system is to remain stationary.) If the bolt is not as strong as
the plates, eventually we will reach a point when the bolt will break. After the bolt has broken, the
top part of it will move off to the left with the top plate and the bottom part will move off to the
right with the bottom plate.
Let’s examine in detail what happens to the failure surfaces (that is, the bottom face of the top part
of the bolt and the top face of the bottom part of the bolt) immediately after failure. As you can see
from the ‘exploded’ part of Fig. 39, the two failure surfaces are sliding past each other. This is
characteristic of a shear failure. We’ll now turn our attention to a timber joist supporting the first
floor of a building, as shown in Fig. 40. Let’s imagine that timber joists are supported on masonry
walls and that the joists themselves support floorboards, as would be the case in a typical domestic
dwelling – such as, perhaps, the house you live in. Suppose that the joists are inappropriately
undersized – in other words, they are not strong enough for the loads they are likely to have to
support.
Now let’s examine what would happen if a heavy object – for example, some large piece of
machinery – was placed on the floor near its supports, as shown in Fig. 40. If the heavy object is near
the supporting walls, the joists may not bend unduly. However, if the object is heavy enough and the
joists are weak enough, the joist may simply break. This type of failure is analogous to the bolt
failure discussed above. With reference to Fig. 40, the right-hand part of the beam will move
downwards (as it crashes to the ground), while the left-hand part of the beam will stay put – in other
words, it moves upwards relative to the downward-moving right-hand part of a beam. So, once
again, we get a failure where the two failure surfaces are sliding past each other: a shear failure. So a
shear failure can be thought of as a cutting or slicing action.
So, this is a second way in which a beam can fail – through shear. Beams must be designed so that
they do not fail in this way. (Incidentally, the half-headed arrow notation shown in Fig. 40 is the
standard symbol used to denote shear.)

Figure 4 Shear in a bolt connecting two plates.

Figure 5 Shear in a Timber joist.

Summarily, a shear force is the force tending to produce a shear failure at a given point in a beam.

The value of shear force at any point in a beam = the algebraic sum of all upward and downward
forces to the left of the point.
(The term ‘algebraic sum’ means that upward forces are regarded as being positive and downward
forces are considered to be negative.)

Consider the example shown in Fig. 41 below, in which the end reactions have already been
calculated as 25 kN and 15 kN as shown (you should check this). To calculate the shear force at point
A, ignore everything to the right of A and examine all the forces that exist to the left of A.
Remember, upward forces are positive and downward forces are negative.
Adding the forces together:
Shear force at A = + 25 – 30 – 10 = –15 kN

Figure 6 Shear force example.

BENDING MOMENT
Consider a simply supported beam (that is, a beam that simply rests on supports at its two ends)
subjected to a central point load. The beam will tend to bend, as shown in Fig. 42. The extent to
which the beam bends will depend on four things:
(1) The material from which the beam is made. You would expect a beam made of rubber to bend
more than a concrete beam of the same dimensions under a given load.
(2) The cross-sectional characteristics of the beam. A large diameter wooden tree trunk is more
difficult to bend than a thin twig spanning the same distance.
(3) The span of the beam. Anyone who has ever tried to put up bookshelves at home will know that
the shelves will sag to an unacceptable degree if not supported at regular intervals. (The same
applies to the hanger rail inside a wardrobe. The rail will sag noticeably under the weight of all those
clothes if it is not supported centrally as well as at its ends.)
(4) The load to which the beam is subjected. The greater the load, the greater the bending. Your
bookshelves will sag to a greater extent under the weight of heavy encyclopedias than they would
under the weight of a few light paperback books.
If you carry on increasing the loading, the beam will eventually break. Clearly, the stronger the
material, the more difficult it is to break. A timber ruler is quite easy to break by bending; a steel
ruler of similar dimensions might bend quite readily but it’s unlikely that you would manage to break
it with your bare hands! This is evidently one way in which a beam can fail – through excessive
bending. Beams must be designed so that they do not fail in this way.
 Figure 7 Illustration of Bending moments.

The bending moment is the magnitude of the bending effect at any point in a beam. We
encountered moments in earlier, where we learned that a moment is a force multiplied by a
perpendicular distance, it’s either clockwise or anticlockwise and is measured in kN.m or N.mm. The
value of bending moment at any point on a beam = the sum of all bending moments to the left of
the point. (Regard clockwise moments as being positive and anticlockwise moments as being
negative.)
Consider the generalized example below in Fig 43. Beam AB supports two point loads, M and N,
located at the positions shown. The end reactions at A and B are RA and RB respectively. Suppose we
are interested in finding the shear force at position X, which is located a distance x1 from the support
A, x2 from point load M and x3 from point load N. The shear force and bending moment at X are
calculated as follows:
Shear force at X = RA – M – N
Bending moment at X = (RA × x1) – (M × x2) – (N × x3)
(Remember: clockwise moments are positive, anticlockwise moments are negative.)
Figure 8 Bending moment calculation.

Consider – again – the beam shown in Fig. 41. To calculate the bending moment at point A, ignore
everything to the right of A and examine the forces (and hence moments) that exist to the left of A.
You should realize that, as we are calculating the moment at A, all distances should be measured
from point A to the position of the relevant force. See Fig. 44 for clarification.
Bending moment at A = (25 kN × 4 m) – (30 kN × 2 m) – (10 kN × 1 m)
= 100 – 60 – 10
= 30 kN.m

Figure 9 Bending moment calculation.

HOME WORK
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

There are three standard cases of beam loading that are so common that the reader would be well
advised to commit the results to memory. These are:
• beam with a central point load;
• beam with a non-central point load;
• beam carrying a uniformly distributed load over its entire length.
These cases, along with their respective shear force and bending moment diagrams, are shown in
the Figs below.

i. beam with a central point load

ii. beam with a non-central point load

iii. beam carrying a uniformly distributed load over its entire length
One thing to be aware of now is the following rule, which always holds:
Where the shear force is zero, the bending moment is either a local maximum,
a local minimum or zero.

We shall have a look at two examples for the point load case and the uniformly distributed load
case.

1. Point load case

The beam below in Fig 45 is supported at its two ends, A and G, and experiences an 18 kN point load
at point E, which is 4 metres from the beam’s left-hand end. The reactions at the left- and right-hand
ends are 6 kN and 12 kN respectively.
We are going to calculate the shear force and bending moment values at 1 metre intervals along the
beam, in other words at points A, B, C, D, E, F and G. When you do this or a similar exercise yourself,
I suggest you use graph paper and draw vertical guide lines to make the draughtsman ship easier.
 Figure 10 Standard case 1: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for a beam carrying a point central load.

Shear forces
Remember; always look at what’s going on to the left of the point at which you’re trying to calculate
shear force.) First of all, draw a horizontal straight line representing zero shear force. This will be the
base line from which the shear force diagram is drawn. There is nothing to the left of point A, so the
shear force at point A is zero. If we go a very small distance (say 2 millimetres) to the right of A,
there is now a 6 kN upward force to the left of the point we’re considering. So the shear force at this
point is 6kN. We can represent this effect by a vertical straight line at point A, starting at the zero
force base line and going up to a point representing 6 kN. Each of points B, C, D and E has a 6 kN
force to the left of it (i.e. the reaction at point A), so the shear force at each of those points is 6 kN.
These values can be plotted on our shear force diagram.
Now consider a point a very small distance (say 2 millimetres) to the right of E. If we examine all the
forces to the left of this point, we see that there is an upward force of 6 kN (at A) and a downward
force of 18 kN (at E). The shear force at this point must be (6 – 18) = –12 kN (which means 12 kN
below the base line). The shear forces at F and just to the left of G will have the same value (–12 kN).
At G itself the sum of all the forces = (6 kN – 18 kN + 12 kN) = 0 kN. So
the shear force at G is zero. The shear force diagram is drawn in Fig. 45 (b).

Bending moments
Again, we will be looking solely at forces and moments to the left of thepoint we’re considering. We
will calculate the moment at each point, remembering that:
• clockwise moments are positive and anticlockwise moments are negative;
• distances are measured from the force concerned to the point considered.
Bending moment at A = +(6 kN × 0 m) = 0 kN.m
Bending moment at B = +(6 kN × 1 m) = 6 kN.m
Bending moment at C = +(6 kN × 2 m) = 12 kN.m
Bending moment at D = +(6 kN × 3 m) = 18 kN.m
Bending moment at E = +(6 kN × 4 m) – (18 kN × 0 m) = 24 kN.m
Bending moment at F = +(6 kN × 5 m) – (18 kN × 1 m) = 12 kN.m
Bending moment at G = +(6 kN × 6 m) – (18 kN × 2 m) = 0 kN.m
The bending moment diagram is drawn in Fig. 45 (c).

2. Uniformly distributed load example

Beam AG, shown in Fig. 46, spans 6 metres. It supports a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m along
its entire length. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
 Figure 11 Standard case 2: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for a beam carrying uniformly distributed load
across its entire lenght.

First of all, calculate the reactions. This is easy in this case because of the symmetry of both the
beam itself and its loading. Each end reaction will be half the total load on the beam. So
RA = RG = (4 kN/m × 6m)/2 = 12 kN
We will now try the metre-by-metre approach – as pioneered in the earlier example – to drawing
the shear force and bending moment diagrams. So, we are going to calculate the shear force and
bending moment values at points A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
Shear forces
(Remember, always look at what’s going on to the left of the point at which you’re trying to
calculate shear force.) As before, draw a horizontal straight line representing zero shear force. This
will be the base line from which the shear force diagram is drawn. There is nothing to the left of
point A, so the shear force at point A is zero. If we go a very small distance (say 2 millimetres) to the
right of A, there is now a 12 kN upward force (the reaction at A) to the left of the point we’re
considering. So the shear force at this point is 12 kN. We can represent this effect by a vertical
straight line at point A, starting at the zero force base line and going up to a point representing 12
kN.
Each of points B, C, D, E, F and G has this 12 kN upward force to the left of it (i.e. the reaction at
point A), but they also have downward forces to the left. Let’s consider each of these points in turn.
Point B:
Upward force to left = 12 kN.
Downward force to left = (4 kN/m × 1m) = 4 kN.
Therefore shear force at point B = 12 – 4 = 8 kN.
Point C:
Upward force to left = 12 kN.
Downward force to left = (4 kN/m × 2m) = 8 kN.
Therefore shear force at point C = 12 – 8 = 4 kN.
Point D:
Upward force to left = 12 kN.
Downward force to left = (4 kN/m × 3m) = 12 kN.
Therefore shear force at point D = 12 – 12 = 0 kN.
Point E:
Upward force to left = 12 kN.
Downward force to left = (4 kN/m × 4m) = 16 kN.
Therefore shear force at point E = 12 – 16 = –4 kN.
Point F:
Upward force to left = 12 kN.
Downward force to left = (4 kN/m × 5m) = 20 kN.
Therefore shear force at point F = 12 – 20 = –8 kN.
Immediately left of Point G:
Upward force to left = 12 kN.
Downward force to left = (4 kN/m × 6m) = 24 kN.
Therefore shear force left of point G = 12 – 24 = –12 kN.
At point G, there is an upward reaction of 12 kN. So the net shear force
at G will be –12 + 12 = 0 kN.
These values can be plotted on our shear force diagram in Fig. 16.10 (b).

Bending moments
Once more, we will be looking solely at forces and moments to the left of the point we’re
considering. As in earlier examples, we will calculate the moment at each point, remembering that:
• clockwise moments are positive, and anticlockwise moments are negative;
• distances are measured from the force concerned to the point considered.
Bending moment at A = +(12 kN × 0 m)
= 0 kN.m
Bending moment at B = +(12 kN × 1 m) – (4 kN/m × 1m × 0.5m) = 12 – 2
= 10 kN.m.
Bending moment at C = +(12 kN × 2 m) – (4 kN/m × 2m × 1m) = 24 – 8
= 16 kN.m.
Bending moment at D = +(12 kN × 3 m) – (4 kN/m × 3m × 1.5m) = 36 – 18
= 18 kN.m
Bending moment at E = +(12 kN × 4 m) – (4 kN/m × 4m × 2m) = 48 – 32
= 16 kN.m
Bending moment at F = +(12 kN × 5 m) – (4 kN/m × 5m × 2.5m) = 0 – 50
= 10 kN.m
Bending moment at G = +(12 kN × 6 m) – (4 kN/m × 6m × 3m) = 72 – 72
= 0 kN.m
The bending moment diagram is drawn in Fig. 16.10 (c).
POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE
Look at the beam shown in Fig. 47 (a). It is supported at A and C and experiences a point load at B
and at the free end D. By examining the beam and deducing the way in which it might bend (in the
same way as we did with the examples at the very beginning of this chapter), we can deduce that:
• the beam is sagging at point B;
• the beam is hogging at support C;
• the beam is hogging at point D.
Clearly, somewhere between points B and C, the nature of the beam’s deflection switches from
sagging to hogging. This point is termed the point of contraflexure. But where, exactly, does the
point of contraflexure occur?
By now you should be able to calculate the reactions and draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams. These are shown in Figs 47 (b) and (c) respectively.
Now, earlier on you were introduced to a convention which stated that the bending moment
diagram is always drawn on the tension side of the zero line. This suggests that:
• if the bending moment profile is below the zero line, tension occurs in the bottom face of the
beam, which suggests it is sagging;
• if the bending moment profile is above the zero line, tension occurs in the top face of the beam,
which suggests it is hogging.
It follows from this that where the bending moment diagram crosses the zero line, the nature of
deflection of the beam switches from sagging to hogging (or vice versa). Therefore a point of
contraflexure occurs wherever the bending moment profi le crosses the zero line. In the current
example, that point is 2.5 metres from the left-hand end of the beam. This is determined by
recognising that the two (hatched) triangles that constitute the bending moment diagram are similar
(in the mathematical sense of the word). The deflected profile of the beam is shown in Fig. 47 (d).
Figure 12 Deflected forms and contraflexure.