Understanding Physics

JEE Main & Advanced

MECHANIC
S Volume 1

Understanding Physics
JEE Main & Advanced

MECHANIC
S Volume 1

DC PANDEY
[B.Tech, M.Tech, Pantnagar, ID 15722]

ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

 Understanding Physics
JEE Main & Advanced

ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series),

MEERUT All Rights Reserved

© SARITA PANDEY
No part of this publication may be re-produced, stored in a retrieval system or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, web or
otherwise without the written permission of the publisher. Arihant has obtained all
the information in this book from the sources believed to be reliable and true.
However, Arihant or its editors or authors or illustrators don’t take any responsibility
for the absolute accuracy of any information published and the damage or loss
suffered thereupon.

All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only.

ADMINISTRATIVE & PRODUCTION OFFICES

Regd. Office
'Ramchhaya' 4577/15, Agarwal Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi -110002
Tele: 011- 47630600, 43518550; Fax: 011- 23280316
Head Office
Kalindi, TP Nagar, Meerut (UP) - 250002
Tel: 0121-2401479, 2512970, 4004199; Fax: 0121-2401648

SALES & SUPPORT OFFICES

Agra, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bareilly, Chennai, Delhi, Guwahati,
Hyderabad, Jaipur, Jhansi, Kolkata, Lucknow, Meerut, Nagpur & Pune.

ISBN 978-93-13190-55-4

Published by
ARIHANT PUBLICATIONS (I) LTD.

For further information about the books published by Arihant, log on to

www.arihantbooks.com or e-mail at [email protected]

/arihantpub /@arihantpub Arihant Publications /arihantpub

Understanding Physics
JEE Main & Advanced
 PREFACE
The overwhelming response to the previous editions of this
book gives me an immense feeling of satisfaction and I take
this an opportunity to thank all the teachers and the whole
student community who have found this book really
beneficial.

In the present scenario of ever-changing syllabus and the

test pattern of JEE Main & Advanced.
The NEW EDITION of this book is an effort to cater all the
difficulties being faced by the students during their preparation
of JEE Main & Advanced. Almost all types and levels of
questions are included in this book. My aim is to present the
students a fully comprehensive textbook which will help and
guide them for all types of examinations. An attempt has
been made to remove all the printing errors that had crept in
the previous editions.

I am very thankful to (Dr.) Mrs. Sarita Pandey, Mr. Anoop

Dhyani and Mr. Nisar Ahmad

Comments and criticism from readers will be highly

appreciated and incorporated in the subsequent editions.

DC Pandey
Understanding Physics 2. MEASUREMENT AND ERRORS
JEE Main & Advanced

CONTENTS
1. BASIC MATHEMATICS
1.1 Basic Mathematics 1-12 13-31

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Rounding off a Digit

Errors in Measurement and Least Count Significant Figures Algebraic Operations with Significant Figures Error Analysis

3. EXPERIMENTS 33-78
3.1 3.2
3.3 Screw Gauge
3.4 Determination of ‘g’ using a Simple Pendulum Young’s
3.5 Modulus by Searle’s Method
3.6 Determination of Specific Heat
3.7 Speed of Sound using Resonance Tube
3.8 Verification of Ohm’s Law using Voltmeter and Ammeter
3.9 Meter Bridge Experiment
3.10 3.11 Post Office Box
Vernier Callipers Focal Length of a Concave Mirror using u-v method Focal
Length of a Convex Lens using u-v method
Understanding Physics 79-96
JEE Main & Advanced 4. UNITS AND

DIMENSIONS
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Fundamental and Derived Units Dimensions
Units Uses of Dimensions

5. VECTORS 97-125
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 of Two Vectors Components of a Vector
Vector and Scalar Quantities Product of Two Vectors
General Points regarding Vectors Addition and Subtraction

6. KINEMATICS 127-214
6.1 Introduction to Mechanics and Kinematics
6.2 Few General Points of Motion
6.3 Classification of Motion
6.4 Basic Definition
6.5 Uniform Motion
6.6 One Dimensional Motion with Uniform Acceleration One
6.7 Dimensional Motion with Non-uniform Acceleration Motion in
6.8 Two and Three Dimensions
6.9 Graphs
6.10 Relative Motion

7. PROJECTILE MOTION 215-259

7.1
Introduction
7.2
Projectile Motion
7.3
Two Methods of Solving a Projectile Motion
7.4
Time of Flight, Maximum Height and Horizontal Range of a
Projectile 7.5
Projectile Motion along an Inclined Plane
 7.6
Relative Motion between Two Projectiles
Understanding Physics 261-359
JEE Main & Advanced 8. LAWS OF

MOTION
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 Newton’s Laws of Motion Constraint Equations Pseudo
Types of Forces Force
Free Body Diagram Equilibrium Friction

9. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 361-427

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Potential Energy
Introduction to Work Three Types of Equilibrium
Work Done Power of a Force
Conservative and Non-conservative Forces Kinetic Energy Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Work-Energy Theorem

10. CIRCULAR MOTION 429-476

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Centrifugal Force
Introduction Motion in a Vertical Circle
Kinematics of Circular Motion Dynamics of Circular Motion

Hints & Solutions JEE Main & Advanced 477-608

Previous Years' Questions (2018-13) 1-18

Understanding Physics
JEE Main & Advanced

SYLLABUS
JEE Main
Physics and Measurement
Physics, Technology and Society, SI units, Fundamental and derived units, Least
count, Accuracy and Precision of measuring instruments, Errors in
measurement, Dimensions of physical quantities, Dimensional analysis and its
applications.

Kinematics
Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line, Position-time graph, Speed and velocity,
Uniform and non-uniform motion, Average speed and instantaneous velocity,
Uniformly accelerated motion, Velocity-time and position-time graphs, Relations for
uniformly accelerated motion, Scalars and Vectors, vectors addition and subtraction,
Zero vector, scalar and vector products, Unit vector, resolution of a vector, Relative
velocity, motion in plane, Projectile motion, Uniform circular motion.

Laws of Motion
Force and inertia, Newton's first law of motion, Momentum, Newton's second law of
motion, impulse, Newton's third Law of motion, law of conservation of linear
momentum and its applications, Equilibrium of concurrent forces. Static and kinetic
friction, Laws of friction, rolling friction. Dynamics of uniform circular motion,
centripetal force and its applications.

Work, Energy and Power

Work done by a constant force and a variable force, Kinetic and potential
energies, Work energy theorem, power. Potential energy of a spring,
Conservation of mechanical energy, Conservative and non-conservative forces,
Elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions.

Centre of Mass
Centre of mass of a two particle system, Centre of mass of a rigid body.

Experimental Skills
Vernier Callipers and its use to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a
vessel. Screw gauge its use to determine thickness/diameter of thin sheet/wire.
Understanding Physics
JEE Main & Advanced

JEE Advanced
General Physics
Units and dimensions, Dimensional analysis, Least count, Significant
figures, Methods of measurement and error analysis for physical
quantities pertaining to the following experiments, Experiments based
on vernier callipers and screw gauge (micrometer).

Kinematics
Kinematics in one and two dimensions (Cartesian coordinates
only), Projectiles, Uniform circular motion, Relative velocity.

Laws of Motion
Newton's laws of motion, Inertial and uniformly accelerated
frames of reference, Static and dynamic friction.

Work, Energy and Power

Kinetic and potential energy, Work and power, Conservation of
linear momentum and mechanical energy.
Centre of Mass and Collision
System of particles, Centre of mass and its motion, Impulse,
Elastic and inelastic collisions.
Understanding Physics
JEE Main & Advanced

This book is dedicated to my honourable

(Late) Sh.
grandfather

Pitamber Pandey
a Kumaoni poet and a resident of Village
Dhaura (Almora), Uttarakhand

01
Basic Mathematics

Chapter Contents
1.1 Basic Mathematics
 2 ⚫ Mechanics - I

1.1 Basic Mathematics

The following formulae are frequently used in Physics. So, the students who have just gone in class XI
are advised to remember them first.

Logarithms
x
= , then x y y = = e
log ln
(i) e ≈ 2.7183 (ii) If e y

(iii) If10x= y, then x y = log10 (iv) log log ln 10 y y y = = e

0.4343 0.4343

a  
(v) log ( ) log ( ) log ( ) ab a b = + (vi) log log ( ) log ( ) ba b   = − n=
(vii) log log ( ) a n a

Trigonometry
(i) sin cos 2 2 θ θ + =1

(ii) 12 2 + = tan θ θ sec

(iii) 12 2 + = cot θ θ cosec

(iv) sin 2 2 θ θ θ = sin cos

(v) cos cos sin cos sin 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 θ θ θ θ θ = − = − = −

(vi) sin ( ) sin cos cos sin A B A B A B ± = ±

(vii) cos ( ) cos cos sin sin A B A B A B ± = +


  −

(viii) sin sin sin cos C DC D C D


+ = +  

2
22


  +

(ix) sin sin sin cos C DC D C D


− = −  

2
22

(x) cos cos cos cos C DC D C D

 + =+ −
2
22

(xi) cos cos sin sin C DD C C D − =− +

2
(xii) tantan 22
θ
θ θ

22
=
−

12
tan

(xiii) tan ( ) tan tan A BA B

± =±

1+
tan tan A B

(xiv) sin ( ) cos 90° + = θ θ

(xv) cos ( ) sin 90° + = − θ θ

(xvi) tan ( ) cot 90° + = − θ θ

(xvii) sin ( ) cos 90° − = θ θ (xviii) cos ( ) sin 90° − = θ

θ (xix) tan ( ) cot 90° − = θ θ

(xx) sin ( ) sin 180° − = θ θ

(xxi) cos ( ) cos 180° − = − θ θ (xxii) tan ( ) tan 180° − = − θ θ (xxvii) cos ( ) cos − = θ θ

(xxiii) sin ( ) sin 180° + = − θ θ (xxiv) cos ( ) cos 180° + = − θ θ (xxviii) tan ( ) tan − = − θ θ Differentiation

(xxv) tan ( ) tan 180° + = θ θ (xxvi) sin ( ) sin − = − θ θ

Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics ⚫ 3
 d d −1
(i) dx(constant) = 0 (ii) dxx nx ( ) =
nn

d
(iii) dxx e 1 d
(ln ) = (iv) dx(sin ) cos x x =
d x
(log ) or dx x
d d d
(v) dx(cos ) sin x x = − (vi) dx(tan ) x x = sec (vii) dx(cot ) x x = −
2

d d
cosec 2(viii) dx( ) tan sec sec x x x = (ix) dx( ) cot cosec cosec x x x = − (x)
d
dxe e
xx
()=

d d d
(xi) dxf x f x f x dxf x f x dx
{ } f x 121221( ) . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = +

d d
f x dxf x f x dxf x
()()()()
−
2112=
()
d
(xii) dxf x
1 2
() {}
fx ()
2 fx
2
d d
(xiii) dxf ax b a dx
( ) ( ) + = f X , where X ax b = +

Integration
nn +

=+
∫11( ) n ≠ −1 (ii) dxxx c ∫ e

x = log or ln x c +
(i) x dx nc ++

sin cos x dx x c = − + =+ = + (vi)

(iii) ∫(iv) cos sin x dx x c ∫ (v) e dx e c x x ∫
sec 2x dx x c = + =−+
∫tan (vii) cosec 2x dx x c ∫cot (viii) sec sec x x dx x c tan
=+ =−+
∫ (ix) cosec cosec x x dx x c cot ∫

( ) ( ) , + = f X dX
∫ ∫1where X ax b = +
f ax b dx
(x) a
Here, c is constant of integration.
 4 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Graphs
Following graphs and their corresponding equations are frequently used in Physics. (i) y mx = ,

represents a straight line passing through origin. Here, m = tan θ is also called the slope of line, where

θ is the angle which the line makes with positive x-axis, when drawn in anticlockwise direction from
the positive x-axis towards the line.

The two possible cases are shown in Fig. 1.1. In Fig. 1.1 (i), θ < ° 90 .Therefore, tan θ or slope of
line is positive. In Fig. 1.1 (ii), 90 180 ° < < ° θ .Therefore, tan θ or slope of line is negative.
y y

θ θ
x x

(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.1

Note That y mx = or y x ∝ also means that value of y becomes 2 times if x is doubled. Or it will remain
1
4th if x becomes 14times.

(ii) y mx c = + , represents a straight line not passing through origin. Here, m is the slope of line as
discussed above and c the intercept on y-axis.
y
y

c = +ve θ
x

θ c = +ve θ
x x c = –ve

(i) (ii)
(iii)
Fig. 1.2

In figure (i) : slope and intercept both are positive.

In figure (ii) : slope is negative but intercept is positive and
In figure (iii) : slope is positive but intercept is negative.

Note That in y mx c = + , y does not become two times if x is doubled.

1 y
∝ or x

y
(iii) x 2
= etc., represents a rectangular hyperbola in first and third
quadrants. The shape of
rectangular hyperbola is shown in Fig. 1.3(i).
y
y
 x
x

(i)
(ii)
Fig. 1.3

Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics ⚫ 5

From the graph we can see that y→ 0 as x → ∞ or x → 0 as y→ ∞.

4
= − represents a rectangular hyperbola in second and fourth quadrants as shown in
y
Similarly, x
Fig. 1.3(ii).
Note That in case of rectangular hyperbola if x is doubled y will become half.

(iv) y x ∝2or y x = 22, etc., represents a parabola passing through origin as shown in Fig. 1.4(i).
y x
y
x y ∝2
2
yx∝
x

(i) Fig. 1.4 (ii)

Note That in the parabola y x = 22or y x ∝2, if x is doubled, y will become four times. Graph x y ∝ or x y = 4 is
2 2

again a parabola passing through origin as shown in Fig 1.4 (ii). In this case if y is doubled, x will
become four times.
(v) y x = + 24 or x y = −
2
6 will represent a parabola but not passing through origin. In the first
equation ( ), y x = + 4 if x is doubled, y will not become four times.
2

(vi) y Ae Kx
−
= ; represents exponentially decreasing graph. Value of y decreases exponentially from A to 0.
The graph is shown in Fig. 1.5.
y

x
Fig. 1.5

From the graph and the equation, we can see that y A = at x = 0 and y→ 0 as x → ∞.
(vii) y A e Kx
−
=−
( ), 1 represents an exponentially increasing graph. Value of y increases exponentially from 0
to A. The graph is shown in Fig. 1.6.
y
A
 x
Fig. 1.6

From the graph and the equation we can see that y = 0 at x = 0 and y A → as x → ∞.

6 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Maxima and Minima

Suppose y is a function of x. Or y f x = ( ).
Then we can draw a graph between x and y. Let the graph is as shown in Fig. 1.7. y
P
x

Q
Fig. 1.7
dy
Then from the graph we can see that at maximum or minimum value of y slope or dx 

zero.

dy
Thus, dx= 0 at maximum or minimum value of y.   to the graph is 2

dy
By putting dx= 0we will get different values of x. At these values of x, value of y is maximum if d y
dx 2

(double differentiation of y with respect to x) is negative at this value of x. Similarly y is minimum if 2

dy
dx 2
dy
2is positive. Thus,

2= −ve for maximum value of y

dx 2

and d y
2= +ve for minimum value of y 2
dx

dy
Note That at constant value of y also dx= 0 but in this case d y
dx 2is zero.

V Example 1.1 Differentiate the following functions with respect to x x +

(d) x
d
(a) x x 3 2 + − 5 2 (b) x x sin (c) ( ) 2 3 6 Solution (a) dxx ()52x+
sin x(e) e

d d d
x dxx dxx dx

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3232+ − = + − 5 2 5 2

=+−35202
xx()
= + 3 10 2
xx
d d d
(b) dxx x x dxx x dx
 ( sin ) (sin ) sin . ( ) = + x

= + x x x cos sin ( )1

= + x x x cos sin
d d
(c) dxx dX
66
+ = , where X x = + 2 3
()()232X

= = 2 6 12 5 5 { } X X = + 12 2 3 5
()x

d x d d  Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics ⚫ 7

(d) dx xx dxx x dxx   =−2

sin ( ) (sin )

sin
x
(sin )

=(sin )( ) (cos ) −
xxx
1

2=sin cos − x x x

2 d d sin sin
(e) dxe dXe x x
()52xX
5
+ +
= , where X x = + 5 2 = 5eX=
55 2
ex

V Example 1.2 Integrate the following functions with respect to x


4 2

(a) ( ) 5 3 2 2 
 

x x dx + − −
∫(b) ∫
sin x
xdx

(c) dx
 ∫(d) ( ) 6 2 3
45x+ x dx +
∫

x x dx x dx x dx dx + − = + −
Solution (a) ( ) 5 3 2 5 3 2 2 2 ∫∫∫

∫ 32
xx
xc
5 3
22
=+−+
3
dx
xdx x dx x
2



 

(b) −
∫∫∫ 4=−

sin sin x 4 2

= − − + 4 2 cos ln x x c
1 dX
(c) dx
= =+45
∫ ∫ , where X x 45X

x 1 1
+4 =+

ln X c = + + 44 5 2

41 1
(d) ( ) 6 2 6
ln ( ) x c

33x dx X dX + = =+62
∫ ∫ , where X x
4 4
x
  c
=   +

X +
c= +
1 64 ( ) 6 2 24 2
1

V Example 1.3 Draw straight lines corresponding to following equations (a) y x

 = 2 (b) y x = − 6 (c) y x = + 4 2 (d) y x = 6 4–

Solution (a) In y x = 2 ,slope is 2 and intercept is zero. Hence, the graph is as shown below. y

tan slope = 2 θ =

θ
x

Fig. 1.8

8 ⚫ Mechanics - I

(b) In y x = − 6 ,slope is − 6 and intercept is zero. Hence, the graph is as shown below. y

Fig. 1.9
θ
tan = – 6 θ x

(c) In y x = + 4 2,slope is + 4 and intercept is 2. The graph is as shown below. y

tan = 4 θ

θ
x

Fig. 1.10

(d) In y x = − 6 4,slope is + 6 and intercept is – 4. Hence, the graph is as shown below. y

tan = 6 θ

θ
x

–4

Fig. 1.11

V Example 1.4 Find maximum or minimum values of the functions (a) y x

x = + − 25 5 10 2(b) y x = − − 9 3 2
()
dy
Solution (a) For maximum and minimum value, we can put dx= 0.
dy
or dx= − = 50 10 0 x

1
∴x= 5
2
 Further, d y

2=
2 dx
50
ord y

1 1
2has positive value at x = 5.Therefore, y has minimum value at x = 5. dx

1 Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics ⚫ 9

Substituting x = 5in given equation, we get 2

1
55 10 54
1
   
ymin =   + −  

25  =

(b) y x x x = − − = − − + 9 3 9 9 6 2 2 ( )

or y x x = − 62

dy
∴ dx= −6 2x
dy
For minimum or maximum value of y we will substitute dx= 0
or 6 2 0 − =x or x = 3

To check whether value of y is maximum or minimum at x = 3we will have to check whether 2
dy
dx 2
dy
2is positive or negative.

2= −2
2 dx
ord y

2is negative at x = 3. Hence, value of y is maximum. This maximum value of y is, dx

ymax = − − = 9 3 3 9 ( )2

Exercises
Subjective Questions
Trigonometry
1. Find the value of
 (a) cos120° (b) sin 240° (c) tan ( 60 ) − ° (d) cot 300° (e) tan 330° (f) cos

( ) − ° 60 (g) sin ( 150 ) − ° (h) cos ( 120 ) − °

2. Find the value of

(a) sec2 2 θ θ − tan (b) cosec2 2 θ θ − − cot 1 (c) 2 45 15 sin cos ° ° (d) 2 15 45 sin

cos ° °

Calculus
3. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x (a) x x
x 4 2 + − 3 2 (b) x x 2cos (c) ( ) 6 7 4

x + (d) e xx 5

(e) ( ) 1 + x
ex
4. Integrate the following functions with respect to t
(a) ( ) 3 2 2

t t dt − +
∫(b) ( cos ) ∫4 2

t t dt

−
t dt
∫ −(d) dt
(c) ( ) 2 4 4 5. Integrate the following functions

∫ ()61t−

/ 3
π

2t dt
∫(b) sin
(a) 2
∫x dx
0 / 6
π

10
∫(d) cos
dx (e) ( ) 2 4 1
(c) x
4

− ∫x dx 0
2t dt
∫

6. Find maximum/minimum value of y in the functions given below (a)

yx=−−512

( ) (b) y x x = − + 4 4 7 2
3
3 (d) y x x x = − + + 3 2 6 9 15

(c) y x x = −

(e) y x x = − (sin ), 2 where − ≤ ≤ π π

x
22

Graphs
7. Draw the graphs corresponding to the equations
 (a) y x = 4 (b) y x = − 6 (c) y x = + 4 (d) y x = − + 2 4 (e) y x = − 2 4 (f) y x

=−−46

Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics ⚫ 11

8. For the graphs given below, write down their x-y equations
yy yy4 135°
45° 30° xx2
30° x x

(a) (b) (c) (d)

9. For the equations given below, tell the nature of graphs.

(a) y x = 22(b) y x = − + 4 6 2
(c) y e x
−
=
64(d) y e x
−
=−
412
()

= −2

4 y
= (f) x
y
(e) x

10. Value of y decreases exponentially from y = 10 to y = 6. Plot a x-y graph.

11. Value of y increases exponentially from y = − 4 to y = + 4.Plot a x-y graph. 12. The graph shown in
figure is exponential. Write down the equation corresponding to the graph. y
12

4
x

13. The graph shown in figure is exponential. Write down the equation corresponding to the graph.
y

x
–4

Answers
Subjective Questions
1 3 1 1 1 1 1
1. (a) − 2(b) − 2(c) − 3 (d) − 3(e) − 3(f) 2(g) − 2(h) − 2

 
+ −


  (d) 3 1

2. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 3 1



2
2



3. (a) 4 6 2 3
x x + − (b) 22

x x x x cos sin − (c) 24 6 7 3

−
( ) x + (d) 54 5 e x e x x x + (e) −
xe x
4
4. (a) t t C 3 2 − + (b) 33
1
sin tt ( ) tC (d) 6ln ( ) 6 1 t C − +
1
−
+ + C (c) −+ 6 2 4 3

12 ⚫ Mechanics - I

5. (a) 4 (b) ( ) 3 1
−
(c) ln ( / ) 5 2 (d) Zero (e) − 1
2
6. (a) y x max = = 5 1 at (b) y x min = = 6 1 2 at / (c) y x y x min max = − = = = − 2 1 2 1 at and at
3



 

(d) y x y x min max = = = = 15 3 19 1 at and at (e) ymin = − − π

at x = − π /6 and

3 26



 

ymax = − π
at x = π /6
26 x
x
7.
yy

(e) (f)

xx
yy

(a) (b)
y xx
y

(c) (d)
 8. (a) y x = (b) yx

=−
3(c) yx

34 (d) y x = − + 2
=+

9. (a) parabola passing through origin

(b) parabola not passing through origin
(c) exponentially decreasing graph
(d) exponentially increasing graph
(e) Rectangular hyperbola in first and third quadrant (f)
Rectangular hyperbola in second and fourth quadrant

y
y
10
4
10. 11.

6x
x
–4
−
12. y e Kx = + 4 8 Here, K is a positive constant 13. y e Kx = − +
−
− 4 10 1( ) Here, K is positive constant

02
Measurement and Errors

Chapter Contents
2.1 Errors in Measurement and Least Count
2.2 Significant Figures
2.3 Rounding off a Digit
2.4 Algebraic Operations with
Significant Figures
2.5 Error Analysis
 2.1 Errors in Measurement and Least Count
To get some overview of error, least count and significant figures, let us have some examples.

V Example 2.1 Let us use a centimeter scale (on which only centimeter scales are
there) to measure a length AB.
AB
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fig. 2.1

From the figure, we can see that length AB is more than 7 cm and less than 8 cm. In this
case, Least Count (LC) of this centimeter scale is 1 cm, as it can measure accurately
upto centimeters only. If we note down the length ( )l of line AB as l cm = 7 then

maximum uncertainty or maximum possible error in l can be 1 cm ( ) = LC , because this

scale can measure accurately only upto 1 cm.

V Example 2.2 Let us now use a millimeter scale (on which millimeter marks are
there). This is also our normal meter scale which we use in our routine life.
From the figure, we can see that length AB is more than 3.3 Then, this measurement has two significant figures 3 and 4
cm and less than 3.4cm. If we note down the length, l AB cm in
A B 1234
= = 3.4
Fig. 2.2
which 3 is absolutely correct and 4 is reasonably correct (doubtful). Least count of this
scale is 0.1 cm because this scale can measure accurately only upto 0.1 cm. Further,
maximum uncertainty or maximum possible error in l can also be 0.1 cm.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.1

1. If we measure a length l = 6.24 cm with the help of a vernier callipers, then
(a) What is least count of vernier callipers ?
(b) How many significant figures are there in the measured length ?
(c) Which digits are absolutely correct and which is/are doubtful ?

2. If we measure a length l = 3.267 cm with the help of a screw gauge, then

(a) What is maximum uncertainty or maximum possible error inl ?
(b) How many significant figures are there in the measured length ?
(c) Which digits are absolutely correct and which is/are doubtful ?

2.2 Significant Figures

From example 2.2, we can conclude that:
"In a measured quantity, significant figures are the digits which are absolutely correct plus the first
uncertain digit".

Rules for Counting Significant Figures Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 15

Rule 1 All non-zero digits are significant. For example, 126.28 has five significant figures.
Rule 2 The zeros appearing between two non-zero digits are significant. For example, 6.025 has four
significant figures.

Rule 3 Trailing zeros after decimal places are significant. Measurement l = 6.400 cm has four
significant figures. Let us take an example in its support.
 Table 2.1

Measurement Accuracy l lies between (in cm) Significant

figures Remarks

l = 6.4 cm 0.1 cm 6.3 6.5 − Two

l = 6.40 cm 0.01 cm 6.39 6.41 − Three closer l = 6.400 cm 0.001 cm 6.399 6.401 − Four more closer

Thus, the significant figures depend on the accuracy of measurement. More the number of significant
figures, more accurate is the measurement.
−
Rule 4 The powers of ten are not counted as significant figures. For example,1.4 ⋅
10 7has only
two significant figures 1 and 4.
Rule 5 If a measurement is less than one, then all zeros occurring to the left of last non-zero digit are
not significant. For example, 0.0042 has two significant figures 4 and 2.
Rule 6 Change in units of measurement of a quantity does not change the number of significant figures.
Suppose a measurement was done using mm scale and we get l = 72 mm (two significant figures).
We can write this measurement in other units also (without changing the number of significant figures) :
` 7.2 cm → Two significant figures.

0.072 m → Two significant figures.

0.000072 km → Two significant figures.

7.2 nm ⋅107 → Two significant figures

Rule 7 The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant. This also
sometimes arises due to change of unit.

For example, 264 m = 26400 cm = 264000 mm

All have only three significant figures 2, 6 and 4. All trailing zeros are not significant. Zeroes at the end
of a number are significant only if they are behind a decimal point as in Rule-3. Otherwise, it is
impossible to tell if they are significant. For example, in the number 8200, it is not clear if the zeros are
significant or not. The number of significant digits in 8200 is at least two, but could be three or four. To
avoid uncertainty, use scientific notation to place significant zeros behind a decimal point

8.200 ⋅103has four significant digits.

16 ⚫ Mechanics - I 8.20 ⋅103has three significant digits. 8.2 ⋅103has two significant
digits.
Therefore, if it is not expressed in scientific notations, then write least number of significant digits.
Hence, in the number 8200, take significant digits as two.
Rule 8 Exact measurements have infinite number of significant figures. For example, 10
bananas in a basket
46 students in a class
speed of light in vacuum = 299 792 458 , , ( ) m/s exact

22
π = 7(exact)
All these measurements have infinite number of significant figures.

V Example 2.3 Table 2.2

Measured value Number of significant figures Rule number
12376 cm 5 1
6024.7 cm 5 2
 0.071 cm 2 5
4100 cm 2 7
2.40 cm 3 3
1.60 km ⋅ 1014 3 4

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.2

1. Count total number of significant figures in the following measurements:
(a) 4.080 cm (b) 0.079 m (c) 950
(d) 10.00 cm (e) 4.07080 (f) 7.090 ⋅ 105

2.3 Rounding Off a Digit

Following are the rules for rounding off a measurement :
Rule 1 If the number lying to the right of cut off digit is less than 5, then the cut off digit is retained as
such. However, if it is more than 5, then the cut off digit is increased by 1.

For example, x = 6.24is rounded off to6.2to two significant digits and x = 5.328is rounded off to5.33 to
three significant digits.
Rule 2 If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is
increased by 1.
For example, x =14.252 is rounded off to x =14.3 to three significant digits.
Rule 3 If the digit to be dropped is simply 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit it left
unchanged if it is even.
For example, x = 6.250 or x = 6.25 becomes x = 6.2 after rounding off to two significant digits.

Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 17

Rule 4 If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one if
it is odd.
For example, x = 6.350 or x = 6.35 becomes x = 6.4 after rounding off to two significant digits.

V Example 2.4 Table 2.3

Measured value After rounding off to three significant digits Rule 7.364 7.36 1
7.367 7.37 1
8.3251 8.33 2
9.445 9.44 3
9.4450 9.44 3
15.75 15.8 4
15.7500 15.8 4

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.3

1. Round off the following numbers to three significant figures :
(a) 24572 (b) 24.937 (c) 36.350 (d) 42.450 ⋅ 109 2. Round 742396 to four, three and two
significant digits.

2.4 Algebraic Operations with Significant Figures

The final result shall have significant figures corresponding to their number in the least accurate
variable involved. To understand this, let us consider a chain of which all links are strong except the
one. The chain will obviously break at the weakest link. Thus, the strength of the chain cannot be more
than the strength of the weakest link in the chain.
Addition and Subtraction
Suppose, in the measured values to be added or subtracted the least number of digits after the decimal is
n. Then, in the sum or difference also, the number of digits after the decimal should be n.

V Example 2.5 1.2 3.45 6.789 11.439 11.4 + + = ≈

Here, the least number of significant digits after the decimal is one. Hence, the result
will be 11.4 (when rounded off to smallest number of decimal places).

V Example 2.6 12.63 10.2 2.43 2.4 − = ≈

Multiplication or Division
Suppose in the measured values to be multiplied or divided the least number of significant digits be n.
Then in the product or quotient, the number of significant digits should also be n.

V Example 2.7 1.2 36.72 44.064 ⋅ = ≈ 44

The least number of significant digits in the measured values are two. Hence, the result
when rounded off to two significant digits become 44. Therefore, the answer is 44.

18 ⚫ Mechanics - I

−
1
1101 ms
V Example 2.8

−≈

1= 108

10.2 ms107.94117647
−
V Example 2.9 Find, volume of a cube of side a m = ⋅
1.4 10 2.
Solution Volume V a =3
−−− −
=⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ ( ) ( ) ( ) 1.4 1.4 1.4 10 10 10 2 2 2 = ⋅
2.744 m 10 6 3
Since, each value of a has two significant figures. Hence, we will round off the result to two
significant figures.
−
∴V=⋅
2.7 m 10 6 3 Ans.

V Example 2.10 Radius of a wire is 2.50 mm. The length of the wire is 50.0 cm. If
mass of wire was measured as 25 g, then find the density of wire in correct
significant figures.
[Given, π = 3.14, exact]

Solution Given, r = 2.50 mm (three significant figures) = 0.250 cm (three significant figures)

Note Change in the units of measurement of a quantity does not change the number of significant figures.
Further given that,

l = 50.0 cm (three significant figures)

m = 25gm (two significant figures)

 π = 3.14 exact (infinite significant figures)

==
m
ρ V
π m
rl2

=25
( )( )( )( ) 3.14 0.250 0.250 50.0
= 2.5477 g/cm3

But in the measured values, least number of significant figures are two. Hence, we will round off the
result to two significant figures.
∴ ρ = 2.5 g/cm3 Ans.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.4

1. Round to the appropriate number of significant digits
(a) 13.214 234.6 7.0350 6.38 + + +

(b) 1247 450 78 + + + 134.5

2. Simplify and round to the appropriate number of significant digits
(a) 16.235 0.217 ⋅ ⋅ 5

(b) 0.00435 4.6 ⋅

Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 19

2.5 Error Analysis

We have studied in the above articles that no measurement is perfect. Every instrument can measure
upto a certain accuracy called Least Count (LC).

Least Count
The smallest measurement that can be measured accurately by an instrument is called its least count.
Instrument Its least count
mm scale 1 mm
Vernier callipers 0.1 mm
Screw gauge 0.01 mm
Stop watch 0.1 sec

Temperature thermometer 1°C

Permissible Error due to Least Count

Error in measurement due to the limitation (or least count) of the instrument is called permissible error.
Least count of a millimeter scale is 1 mm. Therefore, maximum permissible error in the measurement of
a length by a millimeter scale may be 1 mm.

If we measure a length l = 26 mm. Then, maximum value of true value may be ( ) 26 1 27 + = mm mm

and minimum value of true value may be ( ) 26 1 25 − = mm mm.
Thus, we can write it like,

l = ± ( ) 26 1 mm

If from any other instrument we measure a length = 24.6 mm, then the maximum permissible error (or
 least count) from this instrument is 0.1 mm. So, we can write the measurement like, l = ± ( ) 24.6 0.1
mm

Classification of Errors
Errors can be classified in two ways. First classification is based on the cause of error. Systematic error
and random errors fall in this group. Second classification is based on the magnitude of errors. Absolute
error, mean absolute error and relative (or fractional) error lie on this group. Now, let us discuss them
separately.
Systematic Error
Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known to us. Such errors can therefore be minimised.
Following are few causes of these errors :
(a) Instrumental errors may be due to erroneous instruments. These errors can be reduced by using more
accurate instruments and applying zero correction, when required.
(b) Sometimes errors arise on account of ignoring certain facts. For example in measuring time period
of simple pendulum error may creep because no consideration is taken of air resistance. These errors
can be reduced by applying proper corrections to the formula used.
(c) Change in temperature, pressure, humidity, etc., may also sometimes cause errors in the result.
Relevant corrections can be made to minimise their effects.
20 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Random Error
The causes of random errors are not known. Hence, it is not possible to remove them completely. These
errors may arise due to a variety of reasons. For example the reading of a sensitive beam balance may
change by the vibrations caused in the building due to persons moving in the laboratory or vehicles
running nearby. The random errors can be minimized by repeating the observation a large number of
times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. The mean value would be very close to the
most accurate reading. Thus,

aa a a
12
mean = + +… +
n
n
Absolute Error
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is called an absolute error.
Usually the mean value amis taken as the true value. So, if
aa a a
12
= ++…+
mn
n

Then by definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are, ∆a

a a 11= − m

∆a a a 2 2 = − m
………
∆a a a n m n = −
Absolute error may be positive or negative.
Mean Absolute Error
Arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements is called the mean
absolute error. Thus,
 ∆∆ ∆ ∆

aa a a

mean =| | | | | | 1 2 + +… +
n
n

The final result of measurement can be written as, a a a = ± ∆ m mean

This implies that value of a is likely to lie between a a m mean + ∆ and a a m mean − ∆ .

Relative or Fractional Error

The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured is called relative or
fractional error. Thus,
a
Relative error =∆ mean am
Relative error expressed in percentage is called as the percentage error, i.e.
mean
∆a 100

Percentage error = ⋅ am

Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 21

V Example 2.11 The diameter of a wire as measured by screw gauge was found to be
2.620, 2.625, 2.630, 2.628 and 2.626 cm. Calculate
(a) mean value of diameter (b) absolute error in each measurement (c) mean
absolute error (d) fractional error
(e) percentage error (f) Express the result in terms of percentage error Solution (a) Mean
value of diameter

am =2.620 + 2.625 + 2.630 + 2.628 + 2.626

5

= 2.6258cm

= 2.626cm (rounding off to three decimal places)

(b) Taking amas the true value, the absolute errors in different observations are,
∆a1 = 2.626 – 2.620 = + 0.006cm

∆a2 = 2.626 – 2.625 = + 0.001cm

∆a3 = 2.626 – 2.630 = – 0.004 cm

∆a4 = 2.626 – 2.628 = – 0.002cm

∆a5 = 2.626 – 2.626 = 0.000cm

(c) Mean absolute error,

∆∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆

aa a a a a

mean =| | | | | | | | | | 12345+ + + +
 5

=0.006 + 0.001+ 0.004 + 0.002 + 0.000

5

= 0.0026= 0.003 (rounding off to three decimal places)

∆a
(d) Fractional error = ± ammean=± 0.003

2.626= ± 0.001

(e) Percentage error = ± ⋅ = ± 0.001 100 0.1%

(f) Diameter of wire can be written as,

d = ± 2.626 0.1%

Combination of Errors
Errors in Sum or Difference
Let x a b = ±

Further, let ∆a is the absolute error in the measurement of a, ∆bthe absolute error in the measurement of
b and ∆x is the absolute error in the measurement of x.

Then, x x a a b b + = ± ± ± ∆ ∆ ∆ ( ) ( )

=±±±±()()abab∆∆

=±±±xab()∆∆

or ∆ ∆ ∆ x a b = ± ±

The four possible values of ∆x are ( ), ( ), ( ) ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ a b a b a b − + − − and ( ) − + ∆ ∆ a b .

22 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Therefore, the maximum absolute error in x is,

∆∆∆xab=±+()
i.e. the maximum absolute error in sum and difference of two quantities is equal to sum of the absolute
errors in the individual quantities.

V Example 2.12 The volumes of two bodies are measured to be

V cm 13
= ± ( ) 10.2 0.02 and V2cm3

= ( ) 6.4 0.01 ± . Calculate sum and difference in

volumes with error limits.
Solution V13
= ± (10.2 0.02)cm

and V23
= ± (6.4 0.01)cm

∆ ∆ ∆ V V V = ± + ( ) 12
 = ± (0.02 + 0.01)cm3= ± 0.03cm3

V V 1 23 3 + = + = ( ) 10.2 6.4 cm 16.6cm

and V V 1 23
− = − = ( ) 10.2 6.4 cm 3.8cm 3

Hence, sum of volumes = ± (16.6 0.03)cm3

and difference of volumes = ± (3.8 0.03) cm3

Errors in a Product
Let x ab =

Then, ( ) ( ) ( ) x x a a b b ± = ± ± ∆ ∆ ∆

∆∆∆
x a b
or x xab a b
  
  = ±   ±


 

111±∆∆∆∆∆x

b a a b
or 1 1 ± = ± ± ± ⋅ b(as x ab = )
x b a a
∆∆∆∆∆x
a b a b
or ± = ± ± ± ⋅
x
a
b
a
b
∆∆a b
Here, a b

⋅ is a small quantity, so can be neglected. ∆ ∆ ∆

x
a
b
Hence, ± = ± ±
x
∆x ∆∆ a b ∆∆a ∆∆a
a
Possible values of xare a b b b
b
  ∆∆a b  
  , a b      


  , − +


a
 b.
Hence, maximum possible value of
+

− band − − a

∆∆∆xa  
= ± +  
b a
x b
Therefore, maximum fractional error in product of two (or more) quantities is equal to sum of fractional
errors in the individual quantities.

Errors in Division
Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 23
a
Let x b =

±
Then, x xa a ± = ±

∆
∆ ∆
bb

∆
x a
or x xa a

 


  =±
1 1
 ± ∆ ∆

b 
b b  
 1
 ±

–
∆∆∆xa 1

a
as x b
b
 
  or 1 1 1
 

   
  = ±   ±
   =

x a b
±

∆b
As b< <1, so expanding binomially, we get ∆ ∆ ∆ x
a b


    
  = ±    
m
111±
x a b

∆∆∆∆∆x
a b a b
or 1 1 ± = ± + ± ⋅
x
a
b
a
b
∆∆a b
Here, a b

⋅ is small quantity, so can be neglected. Therefore, ∆ ∆

∆x

a b
±=±+
x a b

∆∆a b
,,– a b

∆x ∆∆∆∆a b a b  ∆∆a b
Possible values of xare a b a b   and – a b

 

 
    +
 
 . Therefore, the 

maximum value of

∆∆∆x
a
b
x a
b
 
= ± +  

or the maximum value of fractional error in division of two quantities is equal to the sum of fractional
errors in the individual quantities.
Error in Quantity Raised to Some Power
a
Let, x bnm
= . Then, ln ( ) ln ( ) ln ( ) x n a m b = −

Differentiating both sides, we get

da db
xn am b
dx In terms of fractional error we may write,

=⋅−

a b
∆ ∆ ∆ x xn am b ±

=±+

24 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Therefore, maximum value of

∆∆∆x
a b
xn am b
 
= ± +  
a
Note Errors in product and division can also be obtained by taking logarithm on both sides in x ab or x b
and then differentiating.


= = 

 V Example 2.13 The mass and density of a solid sphere are measured to be ( ) 12.4
0.1 ± kg and ( ) 4.6 0.2 ± kg/m3. Calculate the volume of the sphere with error
limits.
Solution Here, m m ± = ± ∆ (12.4 0.1) kg

and ρ ρ ± = ± ∆ ( ) 4.6 0.2 kg /m3

Volume Vm ρ
12.4 4.6
==

= 2.69 m3= 2.7 m3(rounding off to one decimal place)

Now, ∆ ∆ V ∆
  ρ
= ± +   ρ
m
V m

or ∆∆ ∆


  ⋅
m
V m
=±+V

12.4+0.2
0.1
 
= ±   ⋅

4.62.7= ± 0.14
∴ V V ± = ± ∆ (2.7 0.14) m3

V Example 2.14 Calculate percentage error in determination of time period of a

pendulum
l
Tg
= 2π

where, l and g are measured with ± 1% and ± 2% .

l
Solution T g
= 2π

+−
or T l g = ( ) ( ) ( ) / / 21 2 1 2 π
 Taking logarithm of both sides, we have
1 1
 
ln ( ) ln ( ) (ln ) ln ( ) T l g = + −  

π ...(i) 2 

2 2

Here, 2π is a constant, therefore ln ( )2π is also a constant.

Differentiating Eq. (i), we have

   
=+ dg   −  
1 1 11
0 2 21
dT dl
T l g
()()

dT dg
or T
 
Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 25 maximum value of ±  
max dg dl l 12
 
  =
12 m g

   
=   +  
1
dl
1
2
l
2
g
This can also be written as

∆∆T∆
g



 
1 1
100 2100 2100
l


  
  = ⋅  + ⋅

T max l g
⋅

or percentage error in time period

 1 
= ±  2 (percentage error in l ) + 
 1

2( ) percentage error in g
1
21 22 = ± 1.5% Ans.
1
 
= ± ⋅ + ⋅  

Final Touch Points

Order of Magnitude In physics, a number of times we come across quantities which vary over a wide
range. For example, size of universe, mass of sun, radius of a nucleus etc. In this case, we use the
powers of ten method. In this method, each number is expressed asnm
⋅10 , where1 10 ≤ ≤ n and
m is a positive or negative integer.If n is less than or equal to 5, then order of number is 10mand if n is
+1
greater than 5 then order of number is10m .

For example, diameter of the sun is1.39 m ⋅109. Therefore, the diameter of the sun is of the order of 109
m as n or1.39 ≤ 5.

Solved Examples
V Example 1 Round off 0.07284 to four, three and two significant digits. Solution 0.07284
(four significant digits) 0.0728 (three significant digits)
0.073 (two significant digits)

V Example 2 Round off 231.45 to four, three and two significant digits. Solution 231.5 (four
significant digits) 231 (three significant digits)
230 (two significant digits)

V Example 3 Three measurements are a b = = 483, 73.67 and c = 15.67. Find the value
ab
cto correct significant figures.
ab 483 73.67 ⋅
Solution c= 15.67

= 2270.7472

= ⋅ 2.27 103 Ans.

Note The result is rounded off to least number of significant figures in the given measurement i.e. 3 483 ( ) in .

V Example 4 Three measurements are, a b = = 25.6, 21.1 and c = 2.43. Find the value
a b c − − to correct significant figures.

Solution a b c − − = − − 25.6 21.1 2.43

= = 2.07 2.1 Ans.

Note In the measurements, least number of significant digits after the decimal is one (in 25.6 and 21.1). Hence,
the result will also be rounded off to one decimal place.

V Example 5 A thin wire has a length of 21.7 cm and radius 0.46 mm. Calculate the
volume of the wire to correct significant figures.
Solution Given, l = 21.7 cm, r = = 0.46 mm 0.046 cm
 Volume of wire V r l = π 2

22 2
= 7
( ( ) 0.046 21.7 )

= = 0.1443 cm 0.14 cm 3 3

Note The result is rounded off to least number of significant figures in the given measurements i.e. 2 (in 0.46
mm).

Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 27

V Example 6 The radius of a sphere is measured to be ( ) 1.2 0.2 ± cm. Calculate its
volume with error limits.
4 4 22
 
Solution Volume, V r = =  
3 33
π ( )1.2
3
7
= = 7.24 cm 7.2 cm 3 3

Further, ∆ ∆ V
r
V 3r
 
=  

∴ ∆∆

 ⋅ ⋅
  = 33 0.2 7.2
r
V r


=V
1.2
= 3.6 cm3

∴ V = ± ( ) 7.2 3.6 cm3

V Example 7 Calculate equivalent resistance of two resistors R1 and R2in

parallel where, R ohm 1 = ± ( ) 6 0.2 and R ohm 2 = ± ( ) 3 0.1
Solution In parallel,
111
= + ...(i)
R R R 12
63
or, RR R 1 2 ( )( )
ohm
= =
+ +=

Differentiating Eq. (i), we have R R 12

6 32

dR dR 1 dR 2
 −=−−2

R 2 R 2 R 2
1

Therefore, maximum permissible error in equivalent resistance may be 


 

∆∆ R
2
∆ RR 1 2

=+R
R 2 R 2 ()
1
2

Substituting the values we get,


 
0.2 0.1

6 32 2 22
∆R = +

( ) ( )( )

= 0.07 ohm

∴ R = ± ( ) 2 0.07 ohm Ans.

Exercises
Objective Questions
Single Correct Option
1. The number of significant figures in 3400 is
(a) 3 (b) 1
(c) 4 (d) 2
2. The significant figures in the number 6.0023 are
(a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 4 (d) 3
3. The length and breadth of a metal sheet are 3.124 m and 3.002 m respectively. The area of this
sheet upto correct significant figure is
(a) 9.378 m2(b) 9.37 m2
(c) 9.4 m2(d) None of these

4. The length, breadth and thickness of a block are given by l = 12 cm, b = 6 cm and t = 2.45 cm. The
volume of the block according to the idea of significant figures should be (a) 1 102 3 ⋅ cm (b) 2 102 3 ⋅
cm
(c) 1.763 cm ⋅ 102 3 (d) None of these
5. If error in measurement of radius of a sphere is 1%, what will be the error in measurement of
volume?
1
(a) 1% (b) 3%
(c) 3% (d) None of these
6. The density of a cube is measured by measuring its mass and length of its sides. If the maximum
error in the measurement of mass and length are 4% and 3% respectively, the maximum error in
 the measurement of density will be
(a) 7% (b) 9%
(c) 12% (d) 13%
7. Percentage error in the measurement of mass and speed are 2% and 3% respectively. The error in
the measurement of kinetic energy obtained by measuring mass and speed will be (a) 12% (b) 10%
(c) 8% (d) 5%
8. A force F is applied on a square plate of side L. If the percentage error in the determination of L is
2% and that in F is 4%. What is the permissible error in pressure?
(a) 8% (b) 6% (c) 4% (d) 2%
9. The heat generated in a circuit is dependent upon the resistance, current and time for which the
current is flown. If the error in measuring the above are 1%, 2% and 1% respectively, then
maximum error in measuring the heat is
(a) 8% (b) 6% (c) 18% (d) 12%

Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors ⚫ 29

10. Let g be the acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface and K the rotational kinetic energy
of the earth. Suppose the earth’s radius decreases by 2%. Keeping all other quantities constant,
then
(a) g increases by 2% and K increases by 2%
(b) g increases by 4% and K increases by 4%
(c) g decreases by 4% and K decreases by 2%
(d) g decreases by 2% and K decreases by 4%

11. A physical quantity A is dependent on other four physical quantities p, q, r and s as given by Apq
=2 3 . The percentage error of measurement in p, q, r and s are 1%, 3%, 0.5% and 0.33%
rs
respectively, then the maximum percentage error in A is
(a) 2% (b) 0%
(c) 4% (d) 3%
12. The length of a simple pendulum is about 100 cm known to have an accuracy of 1 mm. Its period of
oscillation is 2 s determined by measuring the time for 100 oscillations using a clock of 0.1 s
resolution. What is the accuracy in the determined value of g?
(a) 0.2% (b) 0.5%
(c) 0.1% (d) 2%
13. The mass of a ball is 1.76 kg. The mass of 25 such balls is
(a) 0.44 ⋅ 103kg (b) 44.0 kg
(c) 44 kg (d) 44.00 kg
14. The least count of a stop watch is 0.2 s. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to
be 25 s. The percentage error in the time period is
(a) 1.2 % (b) 0.8 %
(c) 1.8 % (d) None of these

Subjective Questions
1. Write down the number of significant figures in the following
(a) 6428 (b) 62.00 m
(c) 0.00628 cm (d) 1200 N
2. Write the number of significant digits in the following
(a) 1001 (b) 100.1
(c) 100.10 (d) 0.001001
3. State the number of significant figures in the following
−
(a) 0.007 m2(b) 2.64 kg ⋅ 1024 (c) 0.2370 g/cm 3

4. Round the following numbers to 2 significant digits

(a) 3472 (b) 84.16
(c) 2.55 (d) 28.5
5. Perform the following operations
(a) 703 7 + + 0.66 (b) 2.21 0.3 ⋅ (c) 12.4 ⋅ 84
 6. Add 6.75 cm ⋅ 103to 4.52 cm ⋅ 102 with regard to significant figures.
25.2
7. Evaluate 33.3
⋅ 1374
. All the digits in this expression are significant.

30 ⚫ Mechanics - I

8. Solve with due regards to significant figures

−−
( ) 4.0 2.5 ⋅ − ⋅ 10 10 4 6

9. The mass of a box measured by a grocer's balance is 2.300 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g
and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the box, (b) the difference in the
masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
10. A thin wire has length of 21.7 cm and radius 0.46 mm. Calculate the volume of the wire to correct
significant figures.
11. A cube has a side of length 2.342 m. Find volume and surface area in correct significant figures.
12. Find density when a mass of 9.23 kg occupies a volume of 1.1 m 3. Take care of significant figures.
13. Length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular slab are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 m respectively.
Find volume of the slab to correct significant figures.

14. The radius of a sphere is measured to be ( ) . 2.1 0.5 cm ± Calculate its surface area with error
limits.

15. The temperature of two bodies measured by a thermometer are ( ) 20 ± ° 0.5 C and ( ) 50 ± ° 0.5 C.
Calculate the temperature difference with error limits.
V
16. The resistance R I
= , where V = ± ( ) 100 5.0 V and I = ± ( ) 10 0.2 A. Find the percentage error in

R.
2

17. Find the percentage error in specific resistance given by ρπ

where r is the radius having

=r R l

value ( ) , 0.2 0.02 cm ± R is the resistance of ( ) 60 2 ± ohm and l is the length of ( ) . 150 ± 0.1

cm 18. A physical quantity ρ is related to four variables α β γ , , and ηas

32

ρα β

= ηγ

The percentage errors of measurements in α β γ , , and η are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2% respectively. Find
the percentage error in ρ.

19. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T L g = 2π / . Measured value of L is 20.0 cm

known to 1 mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using a
wrist watch of 1s resolution. What is the accuracy in the determination of g ?

Answers
Introductory Exercise 2.1
1. (a) 0.01 cm (b) 3
 (c) 6 and 2 are absolutely correct and 4 is doubtful.
2. (a) 0.001 cm (b) 4
(c) 3, 2 and 6 are absolutely correct and 7 is doubtful.

Introductory Exercise 2.2

1. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 4 (e) 6 (f) 4

Introductory Exercise 2.3

1. (a) 24600 (b) 24.9 (c) 36.4 (d) 42.4 ⋅ 109 2. 742400, 742000, 740000

Introductory Exercise 2.4

1. (a) 261.2 (b) 1910 2. (a) 20 (b) 0.020

Exercises
Objective Questions
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b)

Subjective Questions
1. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 2 2. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 4
3. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 4. (a) 3500 (b) 84 (c) 2.6 (d) 28 5. (a) 711 (b) 0.7 (c) 1.0 ⋅ 103 6. 7.20 ⋅ 103cm
−
7. 1040 8. 4.0 ⋅ 10 4
9. (a) 2.3 kg (b) 0.02 gm 10. 0.14 cm3
11. Area = 5.485 m2, Volume = 12.85 m3 12. Density = 8.4 kg/m3

13. Volume = 83

.55 m 14. ( ) 55.4 26.4 cm ±2

15. ( ) 30 1 ± °C 16. 7%

17. 23.4 % 18. 13%

19. 2.7 %

03
Experiments

Chapter Contents
3.1 Vernier Callipers
3.2 Screw Gauge
3.3 Determination of 'g' using a Simple Pendulum
3.4 Young's Modulus by Searle's Method
3.5 Determination of Specific Heat
3.6 Speed of Sound using Resonance Tube
3.7 Verification of Ohm's Law using Voltmeter
and Ammeter
3.8 Meter Bridge Experiment
3.9 Post Office Box
 3.10 Focal Length of a Concave Mirror using u-v method
3.11 Focal Length of a Convex Lens using u-v method

3.1 Vernier Callipers

Length is an elementary physical quantity. The device generally used in everyday life for measurement
of length is a meter scale (we can also call it mm scale). It can be used for measurement of length with
an accuracy of 1 mm. So, the least count of a meter scale is 1 mm. To measure length accurately upto
0.1 mm or 0.01 mm vernier callipers and screw gauge are used.
Vernier callipers has following three parts :
(i) Main scale It consists of a steel metallic strip M, graduated in cm and mm at one edge. It
carries two fixed jaws A and C as shown in figure.

CDS Main scale

3 P Fig. 3.1
01 56789V

10 M
E
AB

(ii) Vernier scale Vernier scale V slides on metallic strip M. It can be fixed in any position by screw S.
The side of the vernier scale which slide over the mm sides has ten divisions over a length of 9 mm. B
and D two movable jaws are fixed with it. When vernier scale is pushed towards A and C, then B
touches A and straight side of C will touch straight side of D. In this position, if the instrument is free
from error, zeros of vernier scale will coincide with zeros of main scales. To measure the external
diameter of an object it is held between the jaws A and B, while the straight edges of C and D are used
for measuring the internal diameter of a hollow object.
(iii) Metallic strip There is a thin metallic strip E attached to the back side of M and connected with
vernier scale. When jaws A and B touch each other, the edge of E touches the edge of M. When the jaws
A and B are separated E moves outwards. This strip E is used for measuring the depth of a vessel.

Principle (Theory)
In the common form, the divisions on the vernier scale V are smaller in size than the smallest division
on the main scale M, but in some special cases the size of the vernier division may be larger than the
main scale division. Let n vernier scale divisions (VSD) coincide with ( ) n −1 main scale divisions
(MSD). Then,
 n n VSD MSD = − ( )1

or 11

VSD MSD = −
n

 
n
n
11 1

MSD 1 VSD 1 MSD MSD MSD – = − −


  =
nn
Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 35

The difference between the values of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is known as
Vernier Constant (VC) or the Least Count (LC). This is the smallest distance that can be accurately
measured with the vernier scale. Thus,
1 ain scale
VC = LC = 1 MSD 1 VSD = MSD Smallest division on m
Number of divisions on vernier scale
 
−   = n

In the ordinary vernier callipers one main scale division be 1 mm and 10 vernier scale divisions
coincide with 9 main scale divisions.
9
1 VSD 10
= MSD = 0.9 mm

VC 1 MSD – 1 VSD 1 mm 0.9 mm = = −

= = 0.1 mm 0.01 cm

Reading a Vernier Callipers

If we have to measure a length AB, the end A is coincided with the zero of main scale, suppose the end
B lies between 1.0 cm and 1.1 cm on the main scale. Then,
1.0 cm < <1.1cm AB

01M23

ABV
Fig. 3.2

Let 5th division of vernier scale coincides with 1.5 cm of main scale.
Then, AB = + ⋅ = + ⋅ = 1.0 VC (1.0 5 0.01) cm 1.05 cm 5
Thus, we can make the following formula,
 Total reading = VC N n + ⋅

Here, N = main scale reading before on the left of the zero of the vernier scale. n = number of vernier
division which just coincides with any of the main scale division. Note That the main scale reading with
which the vernier scale division coincides has no connection with reading. Zero Error and Zero
Correction
If the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of main scale when jaw B touches A and
the straight edge of D touches the straight edge of C, then the instrument has an error called zero error.
Zero error is always algebraically subtracted from measured length.
Zero correction has a magnitude equal to zero error but its sign is opposite to that of the zero error.
Zero correction is always algebraically added to measured length.
Zero error → algebraically subtracted

Zero correction → algebraically added

36 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Positive and Negative Zero Errors

If zero of vernier scale lies to the right of the main scale the zero error is positive and if it lies to the left
of the main scale the zero error is negative (when jaws A and B are in contact).

Positive zero error VC = + ⋅ ( ) N x

Here, N = main scale reading on the left of zero of vernier scale.

x = vernier scale division which coincides with any main scale division.
When the vernier zero lies before the main scale zero the error is said to be negative zero error. If 8th
vernier scale division coincides with the main scale division, then
Negative zero error = − + ⋅ [0.00 cm VC 8 ]

= − ⋅ [0.00 cm + 0.01cm] 8

= − 0.08 cm
No Zero Error

0 Vernier scale
10 divisions

9 mm
Negative Error 0 Main scale
Vernier scale
3 10 divisions
0

Positive Error 0 9 mm
9 mm Main scale
Vernier scale
Main scale
0 10 divisions
8

Fig. 3.3 Positive and negative zero error

Summary
1 MSD
1. VC = LC = =Smallest division on main scale
 n Number of divisions on vernier scale=1 MSD 1 VSD –

2. In ordinary vernier callipers, 1 MSD = 1 mm and n =10

1
∴ VC or LC mm = 0.01cm = 10

3. Total reading = + ⋅ ( ) N n VC

4. Zero correction = − zero error

5. Zero error is algebraically subtracted while the zero correction is algebraically added.

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 37

6. If zero of vernier scale lies to the right of zero of main scale the error is positive. The actual length in
this case is less than observed length.
7. If zero of vernier scale lies to the left of zero of main scale the error is negative and the actual length
is more than the observed length.
8. Positive zero error = + ⋅ ( ) N x VC

V Example 3.1 N divisions on the main scale of a vernier callipers coincide with N + 1
divisions on the vernier scale. If each division on the main scale is of a units, determine
the least count of the instrument. (JEE 2003)

Solution ( ) N + 1 divisions on the vernier scale = N divisions on main scale ∴ 1

=
division on vernier scale +N

N 1divisions on main scale

Each division on the main scale is of a units.

 


N

N 1a units = ′ a (say)
=
∴ 1 division on vernier scale +

Least count = 1main scale division – 1 vernier scale division

 =
  +

a a aN
Naa
=−′=−
11N
+

V Example 3.2 In the diagram shown in figure, find the magnitude and nature of zero
error.
 M
0 0.5 1

0 5 V 10

Fig. 3.4

Solution Here, zero of vernier scale lies to the right of zero of main scale, hence, it has positive
zero error.

Further, N x = = 0 5 , , LC or VC 0.01 cm =

Hence, Zero error = + ⋅ N x VC

= + ⋅ 0 5 0.01= 0.05cm

Zero correction = − 0.05cm

∴ Actual length will be 0.05 cm less than the measured length.

V Example 3.3 The smallest division on main scale of a vernier callipers is 1 mm

and 10 vernier divisions coincide with 9 main scale divisions. While measuring
the length of a line, the zero mark of the vernier scale lies between 10.2 cm and
10.3 cm and the third division of vernier scale coincides with a main scale
division.
(a) Determine the least count of the callipers.
(b) Find the length of the line.

38 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Solution (a) Least Count (LC) =Smallest division on main scale

Number of divisions on vernier scale

1
==

10mm 0.1mm = 0.01cm

(b) L N n = + = + ⋅ ( ( LC) 10.2 0.01)cm 3 = 10.23cm

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.1

1. The main scale of a vernier callipers reads 10 mm in 10 divisions. Ten divisions of vernier scale
coincide with nine divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the callipers touch each other,
the fifth division of the vernier coincides with 9 main scale divisions and the zero of the vernier is to
the right of zero of main scale, when a cylinder is tightly placed between the two jaws, the zero of
the vernier scale lies slightly to the left of 3.2 cm and the fourth vernier division coincides with a
main scale division. Find diameter of the cylinder.
2. In a vernier callipers, N divisions of the main scale coincide with N m+ divisions of the vernier scale.
What is the value of m for which the instrument has minimum least count.

3.2 Screw Gauge

Principle of a Micrometer Screw
The least count of vernier callipers ordinarily available in the p
laboratory is 0.01 cm. When lengths are to be measured with 0

greater accuracy, say upto 0.001 cm, screw gauge and spherometer 95
are used which are based on the principle of micrometer screw
discussed below.
If an accurately cut single threaded screw is rotated in a closely
fitted nut, then in addition to the circular motion
Fig. 3.5

of the screw there is a linear motion of the screw head in the forward or backward direction, along the
axis of the screw. The linear distance moved by the screw, when it is given one complete rotation is
called the pitch (p) of the screw. This is equal to the distance between two consecutive threads as
measured along the axis of the screw. In most of the cases, it is either 1 mm or 0.5 mm. A circular cap is
fixed on one end of the screw and the circumference of the cap is normally divided into 100 or 50 equal
1
parts. If it is divided into 100 equal parts, then the screw moves forward or backward by 100
1
 or 50


  of the pitch, if the circular scale (we will discuss later about circular scale) is rotated through one
circular scale division. It is the minimum distance which can be accurately measured and so called the
Least Count (LC) of the screw.

Thus, Least countPitch

=
scale
Number of divisions on circular

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 39

If pitch is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on circular scale then,

LC = 1mm
100= 0.01mm
= 0.001cm = 10 m∝

Since, LC is of the order of 10 ∝m, the screw is called micrometer screw.

Screw Gauge
Screw gauge works on the principle of N
Circular (Head) Scale
micrometer screw. It consists of a U-shaped
S
AB E
H 0
5
metal frame M. At one end of it is fixed a small 10K

metal piece A. It is called stud and it has a plane R

face. The other end N of M carries a cylindrical
hub H. It is graduated in millimeter and half millimeter depending M
upon the pitch of the screw. This scale is called linear scale or face B of the screw, facing the plane face A is also plane. A hollow
pitch scale. cylindrical cap K is
A nut is threaded through the hub and the frame N. Through the Linear (Pitch) Scale
nut moves a screw S. The front

Fig. 3.6

capable of rotating over the hub when screw is rotated. As the cap is rotated the screw either moves in
or out. The surface E of the cap K is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. It is called the circular scale or
head scale. In an accurately adjusted instrument when the faces A and B are just touching each other.
 Zero of circular scale should coincide with zero of linear scale.

To Measure Diameter of a Given Wire Using a Screw Gauge

If with the wire between plane faces A and B, the edge of the cap lies ahead of N th division of linear
scale, and nth division of circular scale lies over reference line.
Wire
N
S
AB E
H

M 0

Fig. 3.7
K

R
 Then, Total reading = + ⋅ N n LC

40 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Zero Error and Zero Correction

If zero mark of circular scale does not coincide with the zero of the pitch scale when the faces A and B
are just touching each other, the instrument is said to possess zero error. If the zero of the circular scale
advances beyond the reference line the zero error is negative and zero correction is positive. If it is left
behind the reference line the zero is positive and zero correction is negative. For example, if zero of
circular scale advances beyond the reference line by 5 divisions, zero correction = + ⋅ 5 (LC) and if the
zero of circular scale is left behind the reference line by 5 divisions, zero correction
= − ⋅ 5 (LC).
Circular scale Circular scale

0 0
50 95

Reference line Reference line

(a) Positive zero error (b) Negative zero error
Fig. 3.8
Note In negative zero error 95th division of the circular scale is coinciding with the reference line. Hence there are
5 divisions between zero mark on the circular scale and the reference line.

Back Lash Error

When the sense of rotation of the screw is suddenly changed, the screw head may rotate, but the screw
itself may not move forward or backwards. Thus, the scale reading may change even by the actual
movement of the screw. This is known as back lash error. This error is due to loose fitting of the screw.
This arises due to wear and tear of the threading due to prolonged use of the screw. To reduce this error
the screw must always be rotated in the same direction for a particular set of observations.

V Example 3.4 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on the
circular scale. In measuring the diameter of a sphere there are six divisions on the
linear scale and forty divisions on circular scale coincide with the reference line.
Find the diameter of the sphere.
1
Solution LC = =

1000.01mm
Linear scale reading = = 6 (pitch) 6 mm

Circular scale reading = = ⋅ = n (LC) 0.01 0.4 mm 40

∴ Total reading = + = ( ) 6 0.4 6.4 mm

V Example 3.5 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on
circular scale. When faces A and B are just touching each without putting anything
between the studs 32nd division of the circular scale (below its zero) coincides with
the reference line. When a glass plate is placed between the studs, the linear scale
reads 4 divisions and the circular scale reads 16 divisions. Find the thickness of the
glass plate. Zero of linear scale is not hidden from circular scale when A and B
touches each other.

Solution Least count (LC) = Pitch

1
Number of divisions on circular scale= 100mm

= 0.01mm

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 41
 As zero is not hidden from circular scale when A and B touches each other. Hence, the screw
gauge has positive error.

e n = + = ⋅ = (LC) 0.01 0.32 mm 32

Linear scale reading = ⋅ = 4 1 4 ( ) mm mm

Circular scale reading = ⋅ = 16 ( ) 0.01mm 0.16 mm

∴ Measured reading = + = ( ) 4 0.16 mm 4.16 mm

∴ Absolute reading = Measured reading – e

= = ( – ) 4.16 0.32 mm 3.84 mm

Therefore, thickness of the glass plate is 3.84 mm.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.2

1. Read the screw gauge shown below in the figure.
Given that circular scale has 100 divisions and 0 5 10 Scale 70 60
in one complete rotation the screw advances by
Fig. 3.9
1mm.

2. The pitch of a screw gauge having 50 divisions on its circular scale is 1 mm. When the two jaws of
the screw gauge are in contact with each other, the zero of the circular scale lies 6 divisions below
the line of graduation. When a wire is placed between the jaws , 3 linear scale divisions are clearly
visible while 31st division on the circular scale coincides with the reference line. Find diameter of
the wire.

3.3 Determination of ‘g ’ using a Simple Pendulum

In this experiment, a small spherical bob is hanged with a cotton L
thread. This arrangement is called simple pendulum. The bob is T g
displaced = 2π

( should be small) θ
l
slightly and allowed to oscillate. ⇒

θθ

The period of small oscillations is given by r Fig. 3.10

where, L l r = + (as shown in figure) = equivalent length of pendulum

2
=4 2

∴ gL

π
...(i)
T
 To find time period, time taken for 50 oscillations is noted using a stop watch. ∴

T =Time taken for 50 oscillations

50
Now, substituting the values of T and L in Eq. (i), we can easily find the value of 'g'.
42 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Graphical Method of Finding Value of g

T2
Eq. (i) can also be written as
22

 
=  
4
π
...(ii)
T O
gL g
2
⇒TL ∝
Therefore, from the slope of this graph ( / ) = 42
2
Therefore, T versus L graph is a straight line passing through
4π
Slope = tan = θ g

42 L
Fig. 3.11
 
origin with slope =  

π g we can determine the value of g.

V Example 3.6 In a certain observation we get l cm = 23.2 , r cm = 1.32 and time taken

for 20 oscillations was 20.0 sec. Taking π2= 10, find the value of g in proper
significant figures.
Solution Equivalent length of pendulum,

L = + 23.2 cm 1.32 cm = 24.52 cm

= 24.5 cm (according to addition rule of significant figures)

20.0
1.00 s
Time period, T = =

20. Time period has 3 significant figures

−
π =⋅ ⋅ ⋅
4 10 10 2
 l 24.5
Now, g T = ( ) 422
( ) 1.00= 9.80 m/s Ans. 2
2

V Example 3.7 For different values of L, we get different values of T2. The graph
between L versus T2is as shown in figure. Find the value of 'g' from the given
graph.( ). Take π2= 10
L m( )

0.98

T2 2 (s ) O
4

Fig. 3.12

L
Solution From the equation, T g
= 2π

we get, Lg



 

2
π⇒ L T ∝

= T 42
2

i.e. L versus T2graph is a straight line passing through origin with slope =g 42

∴ Slope = = tan θ Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 43 2

πg

2
4 or g = ( ) tan 4

πθ

4 10 ⋅ ⋅ 0.98
= 4 = 9.8 m/s 2 Ans.

V Example 3.8 In a certain observation we got, l cm r cm = = 23.2 1.32 , and time taken
for 10 oscillations was 10.0 s. Find, maximum percentage error in determination of
'g'.

Solution l = 23.2 cm ⇒ ∆l = 0.1 cm

 r = 1.32 cm ⇒ ∆r = 0.01 cm

t = 10.0 s ⇒ ∆t = 0.1 s

  
=   = +



L
Now, g Tl r
4 4 2222
ππ
(/)
tn

g nl r

= +
22

 
4


π
2
t


∴ Maximum percentage error in g will be  

 +  
  ⋅ = ++  

∆∆∆g∆lr

t
100 2 100 ⋅ g
lr t


 ⋅
0.1

23.2 1.32
0.1 0.01 2 100 10.0
+
= ++ ⋅

= 2.4 % Ans.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.3

 1. What is a second's pendulum ?
2. Why should the amplitude be small for a simple pendulum experiment ? 3. Does the
time period depend upon the mass, the size and the material of the bob ? 4. What type of
graph do you expect between (i) L and T and (ii) L and T2? 5. Why do the pendulum clocks
go slow in summer and fast in winter ?
6. Why do we use Invar material for the pendulum of good clocks ?
7. A simple pendulum has a bob which is a hollow sphere full of sand and oscillates with certain
period. If all that sand is drained out through a hole at its bottom, then its period (a) increases (b)
decreases
(c) remains same (d) is zero
8. The second's pendulum is taken from earth to moon, to keep the time period constant (a)
the length of the second's pendulum should be decreased
(b) the length of the second's pendulum should be increased
(c) the amplitude should increase
(d) the amplitude should decrease

44 ⚫ Mechanics - I

3.4 Young's Modulus by Searle's Method

Young's modulus of a wire can be determined by an ordinary experiment as discussed below. L

Load = = w Mg Fig. 3.13 Ml

A mass M is hanged from a wire of length L, cross sectional radius r and Young's modulus Y . Let
change in length in wire is l. Then,
F
/ 2
Stress = = = /π

A Strainor YMg r
Mg πr2
l
Strain = L

lL
and Young's modulus Y =Stress

L
⇒l rY

 
= Mg  

π2
L
or l r Y



 

=w

π2
 ⇒lw∝
Therefore, l versus wgraph is a straight line passing through origin with
L

πr Yθ

Slope = =
2tan

Elongation ( )l

Slope = tan θ

=L
πr Y2

θ
O
Load ( = ) w mg

Fig. 3.14

∴ YL

=
π θ 2(tan )...(i)
r

Thus, by measuring the slope (or tan θ) we can find Young's modulus Y from Eq. (i). 2

Note We can also take load along y-axis and elongation along x-axis. In that case, slope =πr Y L

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 45

Limitations of this Method

M
Fig. 3.15

1. For small loads, there may be some bends or kinks in the wire. So, it is better to start with some
initial weight, so that wire becomes straight.
2. There is slight difference in behaviour of wire under loading and unloading load.
Load Load

Loading
Unloading

Loading
Unloading
Elongation Elongation
Ideal situation Real situation
Fig. 3.16

Modification in Searle's Method

 To keep the experimental wire straight and kink free we start with some dead load (say 2 kg). Now, we
gradually increase the load and measure the extra elongation.
∆l

Slope = tan θ

Fig. 3.17
θ ∆w
L
= 2
πr Y

L
l rY



 

=w

π2

L
⇒∆∆l rY


 

=w

π2

⇒∆∆lw∝

or ∆l versus ∆wgraph is again a straight line passing through origin with same slope, L πr Y2

46 ⚫ Mechanics - I

To measure extra elongation, compared to initial loaded position, we use a reference wire also carrying
2 kg.

Reference wire Experiment wire

2 kg 2 kg

Fig. 3.18

Searle's Apparatus
Experimental

Reference
It consists of two metal frames P and Q hinged together, such that wire they can have only vertical relative motion.
A spirit level (S.L.) is supported at one end rests wire
on a rigid cross bar frame whose other end A B

on the tip of a micrometer screw C. If there is any relative motion horizontal and the bubble is displaced in the spirit level.
between the two frames, the spirit level no longer remains FFS

To bring the bubble back to its wires of the same material, from H1attached to the frame of the S
Q
original position, the screw has the same rigid horizontal support. P
to be moved up or down. The Wire B is the experimental wire
distance through which the screw and the wire A acts simply as a
has to be moved gives the reference wire. The frames are C

relative motion between the two provided with hooks H1and H2at
K
frames. The frames are their ends from which weights
suspended by two identical long are suspended. The hook P
Spirit level

reference wire carries a constant weight W to keep the wire taut. Method
To the hook H2of the experimental wire (i.e. wire B), is attached a Step 1 Measure the length of the experimental wire.
w
hanger over which slotted weights can be placed to apply the H1 H2 Mg
stretching force, Mg.
Fig. 3.19

Step 2 Measure the diameter of the experimental wire with the help of a screw gauge at about five
different places.
Step 3 Find pitch and least count of the micrometer and adjust it such that the bubble in spirit level is
exactly at the centre. Also note down the initial reading of micrometer.

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 47

Step 4 Gradually increase the load on the hanger H2in steps of 0.5 kg. Observe the reading on the
micrometer at each step after levelling the instrument with the help of spirit level. To avoid the backlash
error, all the final adjustments should be made by moving the screw in the upward direction only.
Step 5 Unload the wire by removing the weights in the same order and take the reading on the
micrometer screw each time. The readings during loading and unloading should agree closely.

Step 6 Plot ∆l versus ∆wgraph and from its slope determine the value of Y . We have seen above that,

Slope = = tan θ L 2
π r Y ∴ YL

=
( ) tan π θ 2
r

Observation

Initial reading l = 0.540 mm , Radius of the wire = 0.200 mm

Extra load Extra load Micrometer reading Mean Extra

During loading (p) During unloading (mm)
S.No. on hanger ∆ m (kg) ∆ w(N) (mm) (q) (mm) reading ( )/ p q + 2
elongation (mm)

1 0.5 5 0.555 0.561 0.558 0.018 2 1.0 10 0.565 0.571 0.568 0.028 3 1.5 15 0.576 0.580 0.578
 0.038 4 2.0 20 0.587 0.593 0.590 0.050 5 2.5 25 0.597 0.603 0.600 0.060 6 3.0 30 0.608 0.612
0.610 0.070 7 3.5 35 0.620 0.622 0.621 0.081 8 4.0 40 0.630 0.632 0.631 0.091 9 4.5 45 0.641
0.643 0.642 0.102 10 5.0 50 0.652 0.652 0.652 0.112

Extra 0.112 0.102 0.060

Elongation ∆l(mm) slope = tan =θBC AB
C

0.018 5 25 45 50 Fig. 3.20

A

slope =BC
Extra load
θ AB
B ∆w(N)

48 ⚫ Mechanics - I

V Example 3.9 The adjacent graph shows the extension ( ) ∆l of a wire of length 1 m
suspended from the top of a roof at one end and with a load w connected to the other
−
end. If the cross-sectional area of the wire is 10 6 2 m , calculate from the graph the
−4
Young’s modulus of the material of the wire. (JEE 2003) ∆l(×10 m)

4
3
2
1

20 40 60 80w (N)
Fig 3.21

l
Solution ∆l YA


  ⋅ ⇒ ∆l w ∝

=w

i.e. ∆l versus w graph is a straight line passing through origin (as shown in question also), the
l
slope of which is YA.
l
 
∴ Slope =  
YA

   
=    
l 1
∴YA
slope
  
=  −
10
.()
80 20
−−
−⋅
10 4 1 10 6 4 ( )

= ⋅ 2 0 1011 . /N m2 Ans.

V Example 3.10 In Searle’s experiment, which is used to find Young’s modulus of

elasticity, the diameter of experimental wire is D = 0.05 cm (measured by a scale of

least count 0.001 cm) and length is L = 110 cm (measured by a scale of least count

0.1 cm). A weight of 50 N causes an extension of l cm = 0.125 (measured by a

micrometer of least count 0.001 cm). Find maximum possible error in the values of
Young’s modulus. Screw gauge and meter scale are free from error. (JEE 2004) Solution
Young’s modulus of elasticity is given by

Y =stress
strain
FA
==
/ FL
FL
=
/ 
lL

lA 2
lπd   4

Substituting the values, we get 1.1

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 49
Y =⋅ ⋅
50 4

−−
⋅⋅⋅⋅
10 10 3 4 2
( ) ( ) 1.25 5.0 π

= ⋅ 2.24 N m2
1011 /

∆∆∆∆Y L ld
Now, Y Ll d

=++2

0.1 0.001 0.001

      
=   +   +  
110 0.125
2 = 0.0489 0.05

∆Y Y = (0.0489)

= ⋅ ⋅ ( ( ) / 0.0489) 2.24 N m2
1011
= ⋅ 1.09 N m2
1010 / Ans.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.4

1. A student performs an experiment to determine Young's modulus of a wire, exactly 2 m long by
Searle's method. In a particular reading the student measures the extension in the length of the
wire to be 0.8 mm with an uncertainty of ± 0.05 mm at a load of 1.0 kg . The student also measures

the diameter of the wire to be 0.4 mm with an uncertainty of ± 0.01 mm. Take g = 9.8 m/s2(exact).
Find Young's modulus of elasticity with limits of error.
2. Which of the following is wrong regarding Searle's apparatus method in finding Young's modulus of
a given wire ?
(a) Average elongation of wire will be determined with a particular load while increasing the load
and decreasing the load.
(b) Reference wire will be just taut and experimental wire will undergo for elongation. (c) Air bubble
in the spirit level will be disturbed from the central position due to relative displacement between
the wires due to elongation.
(d) Average elongation of the wires is to be determined by increasing the load attached to both the
wires.

3.5 Determination of Specific Heat

Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of a given Solid
Specific heat of a solid can be determined by the "Method of Mixture" using the concept of the "Law
of Heat Exchange" i.e.

Heat lost by hot body = Heat gained by cold body

The method of mixture is based on the fact that when a hot solid body is mixed with a cold body, the
hot body loses heat and the cold body absorbs heat until thermal equilibrium is attained. At equilibrium,
final temperature of mixture is measured. The specific heat of the solid is calculated with the help of the
law of heat exchange.
50 ⚫ Mechanics - I Specific heat of liquid = cl

Specific heat of the material of the calorimeter = cc Final

Let temperature of the mixture = T K
Mass of solid = mskg According to the law of heat exchange

Mass of liquid = ml kg

Mass of calorimeter = mc kg

Initial temperature of solid = TsK

Initial temperature of liquid = Tl K

Initial temperature of the calorimeter = TcK

Thermometer
Caloriemeter
Specific heat of solid = cs
Liquid
Solid substance Fig. 3.22

Q Q Q Lost by solid Gained by liquid Gained by calor = + imeter

m c T T m c T T m c T T ssslllccc( ) ( ) ( ) − = − + −

cm c T T m c T T

=− + −
()()
llccc
1
mTTs
()
−
ss

Which is the required value of specific heat of solid in J/kg-K.

Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of the given
Liquid by the Method of Mixtures
To determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid by the method of mixtures a solid of known specific
heat capacity is taken and the given liquid is taken in the calorimeter in place of water. Suppose a solid
of mass msand specific heat capacity csis heated to T2oCand then mixed with m1 mass of liquid of
specific heat capacity c1at temperature T1. The temperature of the mixture is T. Then,

Heat lost by the solid = − m c T T s s ( ) 2

Heat gained by the liquid plus calorimeter = + − ( ) ( ) m c m c T T 1 1 1 c c

By law of heat exchange,
Heat lost = Heat gained

∴ m c T T m c m c T T sscc( ) ( ) ( ) 2111− = + −
From this equation, we calculate the value of c1. However, the procedure remains exactly the same as
done previously.

Note Specific heat is also called specific heat capacity and may be denoted by S, similarly temperature by θ.

V Example 3.11 The mass, specific heat capacity and the temperature of a solid are
1
1000 g, 2cal g C / -° and 80°C respectively. The mass of the liquid and the calorimeter
are 900 g and 200 g. Initially, both are at room temperature 20°C. Both calorimeter
and the solid are made of same material. In the steady state,
temperature of mixture is 40°C, then find the specific heat capacity of the
unknown liquid.
Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 51

1
Solution m1 = mass of solid = 1000g, S1 = specific heat of solid = ° 2cal/g - C = S

2or specific heat of calorimeter

m2 = mass of calorimeter = 200g

m3 = mass of unknown liquid = 900g

S 3 = specific heat of unknown liquid

From law of heat exchange,
 Heat given by solid = Heat taken by calorimeter + Heat taken by unknown liquid ∴

m S m S m S 111222333| | | | | | ∆ ∆ ∆ θ θ θ = +

1 1
∴ 1000 280 40 200 2

⋅ ⋅ − = ⋅ − + ⋅ − 40 20 900 40 20 3
()()()S

Solving this equation we get, S 3 = ° 1cal/g- C Ans. Electrical Calorimeter

Figure shows an electrical calorimeter to Now, current i is passed through the heating Calorimeter
Fig. 3.23
determine specific heat capacity of an coil at a potential difference V for time t. Stirrer
unknown liquid. We take a known quantity Due to this heat, the temperature of
of liquid in an insulated calorimeter and heat calorimeter and unknown liquid increase
it by passing a known current (i) through a A
heating coil immersed within the liquid. V
First of all, mass of empty calorimeter is
measured and suppose it is m1. Then, the
unknown liquid is poured in it. Now, the
Heating
combined mass (of calorimeter and liquid) is coil
measured and let it be m2. So, the mass of
unknown liquid is ( ) m m 2 1 − . Initially, Unknown
liquid
both are at room temperature ( ) θ0.

simultaneously. Suppose the final temperature is θ f. If there is no heat loss to the surroundings, then

Heat supplied by the heating coil = heat absorbed by the liquid + heat absorbed by the calorimeter. ∴

Vit m m S m S = − − + − l f c f ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 1 0 1 0 θ θ θ θ

Here Sl = Specific heat of unknown liquid and

Sc = Specific heat of calorimeter





  −−


S
Solving this equation we get, m mVit
1
=c
lm S

−
1
θθ
210
 f

Note The sources of error in this experiment are errors due to improper connection of the heating coil and the
radiation losses.

52 ⚫ Mechanics - I

V Example 3.12 In electrical calorimeter experiment, voltage across the heater is 100.0
V and current is 10.0 A. Heater is switched on for t = 700.0 s. Room temperature is θ
0= ° 10.0 C and final temperature of calorimeter and unknown liquid is θ f = ° 73.0
C. Mass of empty calorimeter is m kg 1 = 1.0 and combined mass of calorimeter and
unknown liquid is m2 = 3.0 kg. Find the specific heat capacity of the unknown liquid
in proper significant figures. Specific heat of calorimeter = ⋅ ° 3.0 103 J kg C /

Solution Given , V = 100.0 V, i = 10.0 A, t = 700.0 s, θ0 = ° 10.0 C , θ f = ° 73.0 C , m1 =

1.0 kg and m2 = 3.0 kg
Substituting the values in the expression,





  −−
1

S
m mVit
lm S=c

−
1
θθ
210
f



 
1 ( )( )( ) 3
73.0 10.01.0 3.0 ( ) ( ⋅ 100.0 10.0 700.0 10 )


=
we have, S l − −−
3.0 1.0

= ⋅ ° 4.1 J/kg C 103 Ans.

(According to the rules of significant figures)

3.6 Speed of Sound using Resonance Tube

Apparatus
Figure shows a resonance tube. It consists of a long
vertical glass tubeT. A metre the upper end of the tube. The water level in the tube can be can be made with the help of
scale S (graduated in mm) is lower end of the tubeT is adjusted by the adjustable screws levelling screws. For fine
fixed adjacent to this tube. The connected to a reservoir R of attached with the reservoir. The adjustments of the water level in
zero of the scale coincides with water tube through a pipe P. The vertical adjustment of the tube the tube, the pinchcock is used.
 T P Rubber
Principle tubing
0
If a vibrating tuning fork (of S 10
known frequency) is held over 20 Pinch
30 cock
the open end of the resonance 40
50
tube T, then resonance is 60
obtained at some position as the B 70
80
Levelling
screw
level of water is 90
100
A R
Reservoir

lowered. If e is the end correction of the tube and l1is the length λ  
from the water level to the top of the tube, then
+ = =  
Fig. 3.24

1 v
le 4
1 f…(i) 4

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 53

Here, v is the speed of sound in air and f is the frequency of tuning fork (or air column). Now, the water
level is further lowered until a resonance is again obtained. If l2is the new length of air column, Then,
e
e
λ
4
l1
3 Fig. 3.25
λ
4 λ  
+ = =  
l2

3 Subtracting Eq. (i) from Eq. (ii), we get

le2 4 v
3
4 f…(ii)

  v
− =   or v f l l = − 2 2 1 ( ) …(iii) l l f

1
21 2
So, from Eq. (iii) we can find speed of sound v.
Note We have nothing to do with the end correction e, as far as v is concerned.

V Example 3.13 Corresponding to given observation calculate speed of sound.

Frequency of tuning fork = 340 Hz
 ResonanceLength from the water level (in cm)
During falling During rising
First 23.9 24.1
Second 73.9 74.1

Solution Mean length from the water level in first resonance is

=23.9 24.1 +
1
l 2

= 24.0 cm
Similarly, mean length from the water level in second resonance is

=73.9 74.1 +
2
l 2

= 74.0 cm

∴ Speed of sound,

v f l l = − 2 21( )

= ⋅ − 2 340 ( ) 0.740 0.240

= 340 m/s Ans.

54 ⚫ Mechanics - I

V Example 3.14 If a tuning fork of frequency ( %) 340 1 ± is used in the resonance

tube method and the first and second resonance lengths are 20.0 cm and 74.0 cm
respectively. Find the maximum possible percentage error in speed of sound.
Solution l1 = 20.0 cm

⇒ ∆l1 = 0.1 cm

⇒ l2 = 74.0 cm

⇒ ∆l2 = 0.1 cm

v f l l = − 2 22( )


 

∴∆v ∆ ∆ ∆

+
⋅=⋅+ −
f l l 12

100 100 100  ⋅ v

f

ll
21  
 0.1 0.1


+
=+ −

1 100 %
⋅
74.0 20.0

= + 1% % 0.37 = 1.37 % Ans.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.5

1. In the experiment for the determination of the speed of sound in air using the resonance column
method, the length of the air column that resonates in the fundamental mode, with a tuning fork is
0.1 m. When this length is changed to 0.35 m, the same tuning fork resonates with the first
overtone. Calculate the end correction. (JEE 2003) (a) 0.012 m (b) 0.025 m
(c) 0.05 m (d) 0.024 m
2. A student is performing the experiment of resonance column. The diameter of the column tube is 4
cm. The frequency of the tuning fork is 512 Hz. The air temperature is 38° C in which the speed of
sound is 336 m/s. The zero of the meter scale coincides with the top end of the resonance column
tube. When the first resonance occurs, the reading of the water level in the column is
(JEE 2012)
(a) 14.0 cm (b) 15.2 cm
(c) 6.4 cm (d) 17.6 cm

3.7 Verification of Ohm's Law using Voltmeter and Ammeter

Ohm’s law states that the electric current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference ( ) V across its ends provided that the physical conditions of the conductor (such as
temperature, dimensions, etc.) are kept constant. Mathematically,

V I ∝ or V IR =

Here, R is a constant known as resistance of the conductor and depends on the nature and dimensions of
the conductor.

+
Circuit Diagram The circuit diagram is as shown below. + – K
Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 55

–Rh
A
R

+–V

+
–
 Rheostat R –+ I (amp)
Procedure Battery
+–
Key
V
Ammeter
Voltmeter Fig. 3.26
By shifting the rheostat contact, readings of ammeter and voltmeter1. The connections should be clean and tight.
are noted down. At least six set of observations are taken. Then, a 2. Rheostat should be of low resistance.
graph is plotted between potential differenceV and current I. The
3. Thick copper wire should be used for connections.
graph comes to be a straight line as shown in figure.

Result
V
It is found from the graph that the ratio Iis constant. Hence,
current voltage relationship is established, i.e.V I ∝ .It means
V (volt)
Ohm’s law is established.
Fig. 3.27

Precautions

4. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance. 5. The
effect of finite resistance of the voltmeter can be over come by using a high resistance instrument or a
potentiometer.
6. The lengths of connecting wires should be minimised as much as possible.

56 ⚫ Mechanics - I

Error Analysis
The error in computing the ratio
V
R I
= is given by

∆∆∆R

=+V
R I
V I

where, ∆V and ∆I are the order of the least counts of the instruments used.

V Example 3.15 What result do you expect in above experiment, if by mistake,

voltmeter is connected in series with the resistance.
Solution Due to high resistance of voltmeter, current (and therefore reading of ammeter) in the
circuit will be very low.

V Example 3.16 What result do you expect in above experiment if by mistake,

ammeter is connected in parallel with voltmeter and resistance as shown in
figure?
+–K

+– V
A +–
Fig. 3.28
R
Rh

Solution As ammeter has very low resistance, therefore most of the current will pass through the
ammeter so reading of ammeter will be very large.

V Example 3.17 In the experiment of Ohm's law, when potential difference of 10.0 V
is applied, current measured is 1.00 A. If length of wire is found to be 10.0 cm
and diameter of wire 2.50 mm, then find maximum permissible percentage error
in resistivity.
ρ
...(i)
l V
Solution R A I
==

where, ρ = resistivity and

A = cross sectional area

Therefore, from Eq. (i)
2
dV
ρπ AV

= = lI 4...(ii) lI

2
where, Ad
=π
Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 57

4(d = diameter)

From Eq. (ii), we can see that maximum permissible percentage error in ρ will be

∆ρ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
d V lI
100 2 d V l I

 ⋅ 100

       
ρ⋅ =   +   +   +  


0.01 0.1 0.1 0.01
 
= ⋅ + + +   2 100 ⋅
2.50 10.0 10.0 1.00

= 3.8 % Ans.

V Example 3.18 Draw the circuit for experimental verification of Ohm’s law using a
source of variable DC voltage, a main resistance of 100 Ω, two galvanometers and
−
two resistances of values 106 Ω and 10 3 Ω respectively. Clearly show the positions of
the voltmeter and the ammeter. [JEE 2004]
Solution Variable DC voltage
−3 Fig. 3.29
Ammeter Voltmeter 10 Ω 106 Ω G2

G1 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.6

100 Ω

1. In an experiment, current measured is, I = 10.0 A, potential difference measured isV = 100.0 V,
length of the wire is 31.4 cm and the diameter of the wire is 2.00 mm (all in correct significant
figures). Find resistivity of the wire in correct significant figures. [Take π = 3.14, exact]
2. In the previous question, find the maximum permissible percentage error in resistivity and
resistance.
3. To verify Ohm’s law, a student is provided with a test resistor RT, a high resistance R1, a small
resistance R2, two identical galvanometers G1 and G2, and a variable voltage source V. The correct
circuit to carry out the experiment is

G1 G1 1 2 RTG2 R2
R G R2 RT
G1 G1R2
2 2
R G R1 RT G1R1
R1
RTG2 R1

V (a) V (b) Fig. 3.30 V (c) V (d)

58 ⚫ Mechanics - I

3.8 Meter Bridge Experiment

Meter bridge works on Wheat stone's bridge principle and is used to find the unknown resistance (X)
and its specific resistance (or resistivity).

Theory
As the metre bridge wire AC has uniform material density and area of cross-section, its resistance is
proportional to its length. Hence, AB and BC are the ratio arms and their resistances correspond to P and
Q respectively.
AB P l l
Thus, Resistance of λ

===
Resistance of BC Q
λ ( – ) 100 100 – l l

Here, λ is the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire.

Unknown resistance
 X
Resistance box
R D Galvanometer
D G RX
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 AC
B
PQGA C

l (100 – )l –
+ K
Fig. 3.31
E
PQB

Hence, according to Wheatstone’s bridge principle,

When current through galvanometer is zero or bridge is balanced, then
=
PQ RX

Q
or X P
=R

∴ Xl
100 –
…(i)

 

=R
l

So, by knowing R and l unknown resistance X can be determined.

Specific Resistance From resistance formula,
L
X A
=ρ

XA
or ρ = L

For a wire of radius r or diameter D r = 2 , 2π

2

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 59

ArD
==π
4

XD 2
= L
 or ρπ

4…(ii)
By knowing X , D and L we can find specific resistance of the given wire by Eq. (ii).
Precautions
1. The connections should be clean and tight.
2. Null point should be brought between 40 cm and 60 cm.
3. At one place, diameter of wire (D) should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions. 4.
The jockey should be moved gently over the bridge wire so that it does not rub the wire.

End Corrections
In meter bridge, some extra length (under the metallic strips) comes at points A and C. Therefore, some
additional length ( ) α β and should be included at the ends. Here, α and β are called the end
corrections. Hence in place of l we use l + α and in place of 100 − l we use100 − +l β. To find α and β,
use known resistors R1and R2in place of R and X and suppose we get null point length equal to l1. Then,
+
R
= −+
1 1
l
α β...(i)
R 2
100 1 l

Now, we interchange the positions of R1and R2and suppose the new null point length is l2. Then,
RR 2
l
=+
2
l β...(ii)
α
1 12
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
−
100 2 − + and β = −−

−
α=− RlRl
1122
RlRl RR
2112 12
RR 100

V Example 3.19 If resistance R1in resistance box is 300 Ω, then the balanced length is
found to be 75.0 cm from end A. The diameter of unknown wire is 1 mm and length
of the unknown wire is 31.4 cm. Find the specific resistance of the unknown wire.
R l
Solution X l
=
100 −

−

100
= −
 l

⇒ Xl   100 75

 
=R 75( ) 300 = 100 Ω ρ ρ
l
Now, X Al
== ( / ) π24 d

60 ⚫ Mechanics - I

∴ ρπ

=d X
4 l −
32

=
4
−
(/)()() =⋅
22 7 10 100 ( )( )
0.314
2.5 -m 10 4 Ω Ans.

V Example 3.20 In a meter bridge, null point is 20 cm, when the known resistance R
is shunted by 10 Ω resistance, null point is found to be shifted by 10 cm. Find the
unknown resistance X.
R l
Solution X l
=
100 −

−
100
∴ Xl


 

=R
l

or X R R = −
100 20

  =

204 ...(i)
When known resistance R is shunted, its net resistance will decrease. Therefore, resistance
parallel to this (i.e. P) should also decrease or its new null point length should also decrease.
 R l
∴ Xl

′
=′

100 − ′
20 10

=−
1

− −=
100 20 10
()9

or X R = ′ 9 ...(ii) From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have

R
RR R
4 9 9 10



 

=′=
+
10
Solving this equation, we get

50
R = 4Ω
Now, from Eq. (i), the unknown resistance
50
 
X R = =  

44
4

or X = 50 Ω Ans.

Note R′ is resultant of R and 10 Ω in parallel.

11
∴ 101

R R ′= +
10
R
or R R
′=
+
10

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 61
 V Example 3.21 If we use 100 Ω and 200 Ω in place of R and X we get null point
deflection, l = 33 cm. If we interchange the resistors, the null point length is found
to be 67 cm. Find end corrections α and β.

−
Solution α = −

−
RlRl

= −=
2112R R
12
( )( ) ( )( ) 200 33 100 67
100 2001cm Ans.

−
1122
RR
β = −− 12

RlRl 100

( )( ) ( ) ( ) 100 33 200 67
−
= −−

100 200100

= 1cm Ans.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.7

1. A resistance of 2 Ω is connected across one gap of a meter bridge (the length of the wire is 100 cm)
and an unknown resistance, greater than2 Ω, is connected across the other gap. When these
resistance are interchanged, the balance point shifts by 20 cm. Neglecting any corrections, the
unknown resistance is (JEE 2007) (a) 3 Ω (b) 4 Ω (c) 5 Ω (d) 6 Ω
2. A meter bridge is set-up as shown in figure, to determine an unknown resistance X using a standard
10 Ω resistor. The galvanometer shows null point when tapping-key is at 52 cm mark. The end-
corrections are 1 cm and 2 cm respectively for the ends AandB. The determined value of X is (JEE
2011)

X
10 Ω

AB

Fig. 3.32

(a) 10.2 Ω (b) 10.6 Ω (c) 10.8 Ω (d) 11.1 Ω 3. R R R 1 2 3 , , are different values ofR A B C . , and are
the null points obtained corresponding toR R1 2 , and R3respectively. For which resistor, the value of X
will be the most accurate and why? (JEE 2005)
X G
R

A B C Fig. 3.33

62 ⚫ Mechanics - I

3.9 Post Office Box

 Post office box also works on the principle of Wheatstone's bridge. A P B Q C
B X E
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100 R
PQ

G 1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D
R 1000 100 10 10 100 1000
AC X
Shunt K2 K1

G
Fig. 3.34
P R
In a Wheatstone's bridge circuit, if Q X
= then the bridge is balanced. So, unknown resistance

Q
X P
= R.

P and Q are set in arms AB and BC where we can have, 10Ω,100Ω or1000 Ω resistances to set any ratio
Q
P.
Q
These arms are called ratio arm, initially we take Q =10 Ω and P =10 Ω to set P=1. The unknown
resistance ( ) X is connected between C and D and battery is connected across A and C. Now, put
resistance in part A to D such that the bridge gets balanced. For this keep on increasing the resistance
with 1Ω interval, check the deflection in galvanometer by first pressing key K1then galvanometer key
K2.
Suppose at R = 4Ω, we get deflection towards left and at R = 5Ω, we get deflection towards right. Then,
we can say that for balanced condition R should lie between 4 Ω to 5 Ω.
Q
Now, X P 104 Ω to 5 Ω
10
====RRR


 
100


Q 1 P =
Two get closer value of X , in the second observation, let us choose P= 10i.e. Q = 10

Suppose, now at R = 42 . We get deflection towards left and at R = 43 deflection is towards right. So

R ∈( , ) 42 43 .
Q
Now, X P Q 1
P= 100
10, where R ∈( , ) 42 43 Ω . Now, to get further closer value take
10
1
===RRR
100
and so on.
The observation table is shown below.
Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 63

S.No. Resistance in the Ratio arm Direction of Q

Resistance in arm (AD (R) Unknown resistance X P
(ohm)
=⋅R AB (P) (ohm) BC (Q) (ohm)
(ohm) deflection

1 10 10 4 Left 4 to 5
5 Right
2 100 10 40 Left (large) ( ) 4.2 to 4.3 50 Right (large)
42 Left
43 Right
3 1000 10 420 Left 4.25
424 Left
425 No deflection
426 Right

So, the correct value of X is 4.25 Ω

V Example 3.22 To locate null point, deflection battery key ( ) K1is pressed before the
galvanometer key ( ). K2 Explain why?
Solution If galvanometer key K2is pressed first then just after closing the battery key K1 current
suddenly increases.
So, due to self induction, a large back emf is generated in the galvanometer, which may damage the
galvanometer.

V Example 3.23 What are the maximum and minimum values of unknown
resistance X, which can be determined using the post office box shown in the Fig.
3.34 ?
QR
Solution X P
=

∴ XQ R
maxmax max

=
P
min

=1000

10( ) 11110

= 1111kΩ Ans. XQ R

minmin min

=
P
max

=( ) ( ) 10 1
1000

= 0.01Ω Ans.

64 ⚫ Mechanics - I
 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 3.8
Q 1
1. In post office box experiment, if P= 10. InR if 142 Ω is used then we get deflection towards right
and if R = 143 Ω, then deflection is towards left. What is the range of unknown resistance? 2. What is
the change in experiment if battery is connected betweenB and C and galvanometer is connected
across A and C ?
3. For the post office box arrangement to determine the value of unknown resistance, the unknown
resistance should be connected between (JEE 2004) B C D

B1 Fig. 3.35 C1

(a) B and C (b) C and D (c) A and D (d) B1 and C1

3.10 Focal Length of a Concave Mirror using u-v

Method In this experiment, a knitting needle is used as an object O mounted in front of the
concave mirror.
M
Image

I Image Object
I′ P
O

needle Fig. 3.36

needle
uv

First of all, we make a rough estimation of f . For this, make a sharp image of a far away object (like
sun) on a filter paper. The image distance of the far object will be an approximate estimation of focal
length f .
Now, the object needle is kept beyond F, so that its real and inverted image I can be formed. You can
see this inverted image in the mirror by closing your one eye and keeping the other eye along the pole
of the mirror.
To locate the position of the image use a second needle and shift this needle such that its peak coincide
with the image. The second needle gives the distance of image v. This image is called image needle I.
Note the object distance u and image distance v from the mm scale on optical bench. Take some more
observations in similar manner.

Determining f from u-v Observation Use mirror formula 1 1 1

Method 1
Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 65

= + to find focal length from each u-v observation. Finally taking average f v u
of all we can find the focal length.
Method 2
 The relation between object distance u and the image v from the pole of the mirror is given by 1 1
1
+=⋅
vuf
where, f is the focal length of the mirror. The focal length of the concave mirror can be obtained from
1
vversus ugraph.
1

When the image is real (of course only upon then it can be obtained on screen), the object lies between
focus ( ) F and infinity. In such a situation, u, v and f all are negative. Hence, the mirror formula,
111 vuf
or1 1 1 = − +
+=
or again, 1 1 1
vuf 1—
v
A

1—
f
C
111
becomes, − − = −
1—
2f

+= 45°
B
vuf
vuf 1—
O u
1— 1—
Comparing with y mx c = + , the desired graph will be a straight 2f f
Fig. 3.37
1
line with slope −1and intercept equal to f.

1 1
The corresponding vversus ugraph is as shown in Fig. 3.37. The intercepts on the horizontal and
1 
vertical axes are equal. It is equal to f. A straight line OC at an angle 45° with the horizontal axis  

⋅The focal length of the mirror can


1
intersects line AB atC. The coordinates of point C are 21

f f 2,
be calculated by measuring the coordinates of either of the points A B, or C.
Method 3
From u-v curve
is
Relation between u and v 1 1 1
+ = ...(i)
vuf
After substituting u v, and f with sign (all negative) we get the same result.
66 ⚫ Mechanics - I

For an object kept beyond F, u-v graph is as shown in figure. If we draw a line u v = ...(ii)
then, it intersects the graph at point P f f ( , ) 2 2 .
v

vu=
2f 2f Fig. 3.38
P

From u-v data plot v versus u curve and draw a line bisecting the axis. Find the intersection point and
equate them to ( , ) 2 2 f f

By joining u v n n and : Mark u u u 1 2 3 , , …… unalong x-axis and v v v 1 2 3 , , …… vnalong y-axis. If we

join u1 with v1, u2 with v2, u3 with v3and so on then all lines intersects at a common point ( , ) f f .

v1 v2 v3 u u1u2 u3
v (,)ff

Explanation Fig. 3.39

General equation of a line joining two points P a( , )0 and Q b ( , ) 0 is

y
Q

y mx c = +

−
= x b +
b
⇒y a
b

Now, line joining u1and v1 will be x

x y a
⇒ a b O P Fig. 3.40

+ =1 x
y

+ =1 ...(iii) u
v 11

where, 1 1 1
+=
11u vf
f f
or u v 1 1
+ =1 ...(iv)

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 67

Similarly, line joining u v 2 2 and is

y
x
 + =1 ...(v) u
v 22
f f
where, u v 2 2
+ =1 ...(vi)

and line joining u v n n and is

y
x
+ =1 ...(vii) v
nnu
f f
where, u v n n
+ =1 ...(viii)

From Eq. (iv), (vi), (viii), we can say that x f = and y f = will satisfy all Eq. (iii), (v), (vii). So, point ( , )
f f will be the common intersection point of all the lines.
From u-v data, draw u u u 1 2 n , , KK along y-axis. Join u1 with v u 1 2 ,
, KK along x-axis and v v v 1 2 n
with v2, …… un with vn. Find common intersection point and equate it to ( , ) f f .
Index Error
In u v - method, we require the distance between object or image from the pole P of the mirror. This is
called actual distance. But practically, we measure the distance between the indices A and B. This is
called the observed distance. The difference between two is called the index error ( ). e This is constant
for every observation.

x
O P

TTA
B

y
A
A
Fig. 3.41

Index error = Observed distance − Actual distance

To determine index error, mirror and object needle are placed at arbitery position. Measure the distances
x and y as shown in figure.
So, index error is e = observed distance − Actual distance = −y x
once we get e, in every observation, we get

Actual distance = Observed distance (separation between the indices) − excess reading ( )e

68 ⚫ Mechanics - I

V Example 3.24 To find index error ( )e distance between object needle and pole of the
concave mirror is 20 cm. The separation between the indices of object needle and
mirror was observed to be 20.2 cm. In some observation, the observed image distance
 is 20.2 cm and the object distance is 30.2 cm. Find
(a) the index error e.
(b) focal length of the mirror f.

Solution (a) Index error e = observed distance − actual distance

= separation between indices − distance between object needle and pole of the mirror = − 20.2 20.0 =

0.2 cm Ans. (b) | | u = − = 30.2 0.2 cm 30

∴ u = − 30cm

| | v = − = 20.2 0.2 cm 20

∴ v = − 20cm
Using the mirror formula,
111 1 1
=+
=+ − −
fvu 20 30

or f = −12cm Ans. Note Since, it is a concave mirror, therefore focal length is negative.

V Example 3.25 In u-v method to find focal length of a concave mirror, if object
distance is found to be 10.0 cm and image distance was also found to be 10.0 cm,
then find maximum permissible error in f.
Solution Using the mirror formula,
111
+ = ...(i)
vuf
1 1
we have, 10 101
+=
− − f

⇒ f = − 5cm or | | f = 5cm
Now, differentiating Eq. (i).
−
we have, = − −
df du dv
f 222

u
v
This equation can be written as

|||| ∆∆
|| ∆ max ( ) fu
v



 
2
22

=+f
 u
v
Substituting the values we get,


  =
0.1 0.1
0.05 cm
2
||
()()
∆ f max = + ( ) 10 105

22

∴ | | ( ) f = ±5 0.05 cm Ans.

Chapter 3 Experiments ⚫ 69

V Example 3.26 A student performed the experiment of determination of focal length of

a concave mirror by u-v method using an optical bench of length 1.5 m. The focal
length of the mirror used is 24 cm. The maximum error in the location of the image
can be 0.2 cm. The 5 sets of( , ) u v values recorded by the student (in cm) are (42,
56), (48, 48), (60, 40), (66, 33), ( , ) 78 39 . The data set(s) that cannot come from
experiment and is (are) incorrectly recorded, is (are) (JEE 2009) (a) (42, 56) (b) (48, 48) (c)
(66, 33) (d) (78, 39)
Solution Values of options (c) and (d) do not match with the mirror formula,
111
+=
vuf

3.11 Focal Length of a Convex Lens using u-v Method

In this experiment, a convex lens is fixed in position L and a needle is used as an object mounted in
front of the convex lens.
B′

A LO Image of AB

2F F F 2F Object Image needle

needle AB u v Fig. 3.42 D
B AB

First of all, we make a rough estimation of f. For estimating f roughly make a sharp image of a far away
object (like sun) on a filter paper. The image distance of the far object will be an approximate
estimation of focal length.
Now, the object needle is kept beyond F, so that its real and inverted image can be formed. To locate the
position of the image, use a second needle and shift this needle such that its peak coincide with the
image. The second needle gives the distance of image ( ). v Note the object distance u and image
distance v from the mm scale on optical bench.
Take 4 to 5 more observations in similar manner.

Determining f from u-v Observations

Method 1
 Use lens formula 1 1 1
= − to find focal length corresponding to each u-v observation. Finally, take f v u
average of all.
Method 2
The relation between u v, and f for a convex lens is,
111
−=
vuf