Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

Siliguri Institute of Technology

B.Tech 2nd Year 3rd Sem & 4th Sem
Department of CSE/IT/ECE/EE/CIVIL

Paper Name : Physics II Laboratory

Paper Code : PH391 (for 3rd sem)
PH491 (for 4th sem)
Experiment No : PH391 - 10 (for 3rd sem)
PH491 - 10 (for 4th sem)
Experiment Name : Determination of Hall co-efficient
efficient of
Semiconductors.

Purpose of the experiment

experiment:
Using four probe method investigate the type of majority carrier and determine the Hall co-
efficient of the given semiconductor
semiconductor.

Basic Theory:
Lorentz Force: In physics (particularly in electromagnetism) the Lorentz force is the
combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.
fields A

particle of charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of an electric field E and a magnetic
field B experiences a force:       


Drift Velocity: The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron,
attains in a material due to an electric field
field.. It can also be referred to as axial drift velocity. In
general, an electron will propagate randomly in a conductor at the Fermi velocity.
velocity An applied
electric field will give this random motion a small net flow velocity in one direction.

Electromigration: Electromigration
Electromigration(Fig 1) is the transport of material caused by the gradual
movement of the ions in a conductor due to the momentum transfer between conducting
electrons and diffusing metal atoms
atoms.. The effect is important in applications where high direct
currentt densities are used, such as in microelectronics and related structures. As the structure size
in electronics such as integrated circuits (ICs) decreases, the practical significance of this effect
increases.

Fig 1: Electromigration

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Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

Semiconductors: Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical

characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance — higher than typical resistance materials,
but still of much lower resistance than insulators. Their resistance decreases as their temperature
increases, which is behaviour opposite to that of a metal. Finally, their conducting properties
may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction of impurities ("doping")
into the crystal structure, which lowers its resistance but also permits the creation of
semiconductor junctions between differently-doped regions of the extrinsic semiconductor
crystal. The behaviour of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these
junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics.

The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their
crystal lattice. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as
doping. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor varies its
level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. By adding impurity to
the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or
millions.

Four Probe Set-up: The four probe set-up (Fig:2) consists of four equally spaced tungsten metal
tips with finite radius. Each tips supported by springs on the end to minimize sample damage
during probing. The four metal tips are part of an auto-mechanical stage which travels up and
down during measuring. A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the
outer two probes. A voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner two port to determine the
sample resistivity .Typical probe spacing ~1mm.

Fig:2 Fig:3

These inner probes draw no current because of the high input impedance voltmeter in the circuit.
Thus unwanted voltage drop (IR drop) at point B and C caused by contact resistance between

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Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

probes and the sample is eliminated from the potential measurement. Since these contact
resistance are very sensitive to pressure & to surface condition (such as oxidation of either
surface),error with the conventional two electrode technique (in which potential measuring
contact passes a current) can be quite large.

The electric current carried through the two outer probes, sets up an electric field in the sample
In Fig:3 the electric lines are drawn solid and the equipotential lines are drawn broken. The two
inner probes measure the potential difference between point B & C.

Hall Effect: The Hall effect is the basic of solid-state physics and is an important diagnostic tool
for the characterization of semi-conductors. It provides a direct determination of both the sign of
the charge carriers, e.g. electron or holes and their density in a given sample. The basic setup is
shown in Fig:4. A thin strip (thickness δ) of the material to be studied is placed in a magnetic
field B oriented at right angles to the strip.

Fig: 4

We know that the static magnetic field has no effect on the charge unless they are in motion.
When charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a
mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this happens, electron & hole will be
separated by opposite forces . They will in turn produce an electric field EH which depends on
the cross product of the magnetic intensity, H and the current density, J . The situation is
demonstrated in Fig:4

       [where R is called the Hall coefficient.]

The Hall effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the
movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions (see Electromigration)
or all three. When a magnetic field is present, these charges experience a force, called the
Lorentz force. When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow approximately straight,
'line of sight' paths between collisions with impurities, phonons, etc. However, when a magnetic
field with a perpendicular component is applied, their paths between collisions are curved so that
moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges
exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an

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Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element, arising from a force that is
perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of
charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady
electrical potential is established for as long as the charge is flowing.
In classical electromagnetism electrons move in the opposite direction of the current I (by
convention "current" describes a theoretical "hole flow"). In some semiconductors it appears
"holes" are actually flowing because the direction of the voltage is opposite to the derivation
below.
For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons) the Hall voltage VH
can be derived by using the Lorentz force and seeing that in the steady-state condition charges
are not moving in the y-axis direction because the magnetic force on each electron in the y-axis
direction is cancelled by a y-axis electrical force due to the buildup of charges. The vx term is the
drift velocity of the current which is assumed at this point to be holes by convention. The vxBz
term is negative in the y-axis direction by the right hand rule.
      
Or, 0   −  
Where, Ey is assigned in direction of y-axis.
If electrons instead of holes are flowing, then  → −  and  → −.

Also,   "!.
Substituting these changes gives: #    $
The conventional "hole" current is in the negative direction of the electron current and the
negative of the electrical charge which gives %  &'$(−  )(−*), where n is charge carrier
density, tω is the cross-sectional area, and is the charge of each electron. Solving for and
+, -.
plugging into the above gives the Hall voltage: #  /01
If the charge build up had been positive (as it appears in some semiconductors), then the VH
assigned in the image would have been negative (positive charge would have built up on the left
side).

Fig:5 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor. CCG – Constant Current Generator,
JX–current density, ē–electron, B–applied magnetic field, t–thickness, w–width VH–Hall voltage

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Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

Hall Coefficient: Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the
product of the current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material
from which the conductor is made, since its value depends on the type, number, and properties of
the charge carriers that constitute the current.
23
The Hall coefficient is defined as:  
4 -
, .
where 5 is the current density of the carrier electrons,  the magnetic field and  is the induced
electric field.
23 0 6
In SI units, this becomes    ! −
4, -. +- /1
(The units of RH are usually expressed as m3/C, or Ω·cm/G, or other variants.) As a result, the
Hall effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the magnetic field.

Characteristics of Hall Effect: One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it
differentiates between positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in
the opposite. The Hall Effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in metals are
carried by moving electrons, not by protons. The Hall effect also showed that in some substances
(especially p-type semiconductors), it is more appropriate to think of the current as positive
"holes" moving rather than negative electrons. A common source of confusion with the Hall
Effect is that holes moving to the left are really electrons moving to the right, so one expects the
same sign of the Hall coefficient for both electrons and holes. This confusion, however, can only
be resolved by modern quantum mechanical theory of transport in solids.
The sample inhomogeneity might result in spurious sign of the Hall effect, even in ideal Van Der
Pauw configuration of electrodes. For example, positive Hall effect was observed in evidently n-
type semiconductors. Another source of artifact, in uniform materials, occurs when the sample's
aspect ratio is not long enough: the full Hall voltage only develops far away from the current-
introducing contacts, since at the contacts the transverse voltage is shorted out to zero.

Apparatus used:

• Gaussmeter
• Digital milivoltmeter
• Electromagnet
• Constant power supply
• Electric field sensor
• Hall effect set up
• Hall probe
• Crystal sample
• Holding stand

Procedure:

• Place the standard hall probe in the central region within the gap between pole pieces.
Turn on the current source and the Gaussmeter. Turn on the knob so that the current from

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Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

this source is zero. The standard Hall probe should read zero. Adjust the zero control knob
to make it zero.
• Apply magnetizing current.
• Increase the current in small steps of 0.2A (upto 2A) and note down the magnetic field.
• Remove the standard hall probe. Insert the semiconductor chip for which you want to
measure the hall coefficient .
• Fix the hall current in small value, I=1mA.
• Note down the initial hall voltage corresponding to zero magnetizing current.
• Apply magnetizing current.
• Vary the magnetizing current in the same small steps as before. Note the Hall voltage in
each case.
• Now again fix the hall current, I=2mA. Repeat the above step.
• Draw a graph of magnetizing current vs magnetic field.
• Use the calibration curve to find out the magnetic field corresponding to the hall voltage
data for the two fixed hall currents.
• Draw a graph of magnetic field vs. Hall voltage for the two hall currents.

Precautions:
• Place hall probe and gauss meter probe exactly in the middle of the magnetic field to
avoid wrong readings.
• Wire Connection should not be loose.
• Hall Probe (GE crystal) should be handled carefully.

Observation:

1) Thickness of the semiconductor t = ....................cm

2) Calibration curve data-

Magnetizing Current(amp) Magnetic field(H)

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

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 Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

3) Magnetic Field-Hall Voltage data

Magnetizin0g Magnetic Hall Current = 1 mA Hall Current = 2 mA

Current in Field H Initial Hall voltage= …… mV Initial Hall voltage= …… mV
Amp in Gauss Produced Actual Hall Produced Hall Actual Hall
Hall Voltage Voltage VH in Voltage VH in Voltage VH in
VH in mV mV mV mV
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

4) Calculation:
• Plot the calibration graph of magnetizing current vs magnetic field.
• Plot a graph of magnetic field vs. Hall voltage for the 1mA and 2mA values of hall
currents.
• Draw the best fitted line.
;( ! )
• Calculate the 789:*  ;()
of the two lines separately.
0
• Find the value of   (789:*) +
separately from the two lines.
• Find the mean value of Hall Coefficient.
• Calculate the percentage error.

5) Error:

(<=>?@>A@ B>CDE~ FGHEABE@ I>CDE)

Percentage error = <=>?@>A@ B>CDE
100%

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Physics II Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

Sample Questions & Answers

1) What is Hall effect?

• When a sheet of material (meta or semiconductor) carrying an electric current is placed
in a magnetic field, an electric field is developed inside the material sheet in a direction
which is normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This effect is known as Hall
effect. This effect was discovered by Edwin H. Hall in 1879.
2) Define Hall coefficient?
• Hall coefficient is the inverse of the density of charge (i.e., charge per unit volume) of
the charge carriers when Hall effect takes place in a material sample.
3) What is Hall voltage?
• It is the voltage developed across a material sample when Hall effect takes place in it.
4) What is Hall current?
• It is the rate of flow of charge with respect to time to develop Hall voltage in a material
sample.
5) What is a Hall probe?
• It is a Probe which is placed in the central region within the gap of the two pole pieces of
a magneto measure the magnetic field strength with the help of a gauss meter.
6) What is a gauss meter?
• It is an instrument which is used to measure the magnetic field strength at a point in a
magnetic field.
7) What is gauss?
• It is a unit of magnetic field strength. l gauss = 10-4tesla= 10-4 weber /m2
8) What is Lorentz force?
• lf charge 'q' moves in a magnetic and electric field 'B' &'E' respectively with velocity v
then force on it known as the Lorentz force is given by F  qE  v
 B
9) Explain effect of a static magnetic field on static and moving charges.
• A static magnetic field does not affect a static electric charge while a moving electric
charge is deflected by a static magnetic field. The deflecting force on the moving charge
is normal to both the velocity of the charge and the static magnetic field.
10) What is an electromagnet? How is it constructed?
• When a soft-iron rod is wrapped with a coil made of insulated metalic wire and current
is passed through the wire, the ironrod behaves as a temporary magnet. Such an iron rod
showing magnetic field is called an electromagnet. On withdrawal of the current the
soft-iron rod loses its magnetic field property.
11) What is the magnetizing current?
• The current which is passed through a coil to magnetize a soft-iron rod is called
magnetizing current.
12) What is the unit of the Hall co-efficient?
• Ohm-meter/Gauss.
13) Define Mobility.
• It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.

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14) How does Mobility Depend on Electrical Conductivity?

• It is Directly Proportional to Conductivity.
15) Why is Hall potential developed?
• When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field the magnetic
field exerts a deflecting force (Lorentz Force) in the direction perpendicular to both
magnetic field and drift velocity.This causes charges to shift from one surface to another
thus creating a potential difference.
16) What is Fleming’s Left Hand Rule?
• Stretch thumb, first finger, middle finger at right angles to each other such that fore
finger points in the direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction of current
then thumb will point in the direction of the force acting on it.
17) Define Hall angle.
• It is the angle made with the x direction by the drift velocity of charge carrier is known
as hall angle.
18) Which type of charge has greater mobility?
• In semiconductors, electron has greater mobility than holes.
19) What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers is decreased?
• Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of charge carriers per unit volume.
20) Name one of the practical use of hall effect.
• It is used to verify if a substance is a semiconductor, conductor or insulator. Also nature
of charge carriers can be measured.
21) What are the uses of Hall Effect?
• To determine the sign of charge carrier and charge carrier concentration.
22) Define Charge carrier concentration.
• No. of charge carriers per unit volume.
23) Why Hall voltage differ for different type of charge carrier?
• Because direction of Lorentz force is different for different type of charge carrier.
24) What is the unit of charge carrier concentration.
• Per Cubic-centimetre.
25) Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?
• Temporary.