Growth and Development
Growth and Development
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
In animals, carbon dioxide is a waste product of metabolism. If allowed to accumulate, it can
lead to a decrease in the rate of growth while in plants carbon dioxide is a raw material for
photosynthesis therefore increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of growth.
B. Internal factors
i) Hormones:
In animals, the presence of growth hormones and thyroxin in blood increases the rate of growth
while in plants the presence of auxins also increases the rate of growth.
ii) Hereditary factors:
Growth is under the control of genes which determines the particular size of an organism.
SEED GERMINATION
This is defined as the emergence and development of an embryo into a seedling capable of
existing as a new and independent plant under favorable conditions.
OR The growth and development of an embryo of a seed into a young plant or seedling under
favourable conditions.
The process of germination
During germination, a seed absorbs water from the soil by imbibition mainly through the
micropyle which makes the cotyledons swell and split the testa. The water enables the enzymes
in the cotyledons to hydrolyze the stored food into soluble products which are later used by the
germinating seed.
The enzymes involved in hydrolysis include diastase, protease and lipase. The soluble food
substances diffuse into the cell where it is required for the growing embryo. Simple sugars and
fats are oxidized to produce energy. Amino acids are used to make protoplasm of new cells.
Absorption of water from the soil results into increase in the size of the seed and growth of the
radicles and plumule which brings about rapturing of the seed coat and an embryo emerges.
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
TYPES OF GERMINATION
1. Epigeal germination:
In this type of germination, the cotyledons appear above the ground due to the rapid elongation
of the hypocotyl (i.e. the portion of the stem below the cotyledons) e.g. in tomatoes, beans,
cotton, lettuce.
During epigeal germination the seed absorbs water through the micropyle in a process called
imbibition. This softens the testa and makes the cotyledons to swell. The testa splits to allow the
radicle and plumule to emerge. The water hydrolyses the stored food reserves and the products
are passed from the cotyledons to the radicle and plumule where they are used for growth. The
radicle emerges first and the hypocotyls start to elongate pushing the cotyledons upwards. The
cotyledons may turn green in some plants and can carry out photosynthesis. The cotyledons open
to allow out the plumule. The leaves are formed and they start to photosynthesize.
Diagrammatic illustration of epigeal germination
2. Hypogeal germination:
In this type of germination, the cotyledon remains below the ground due to the rapid elongation
of the epicotyl (i.e. the portion of the stem above the cotyledons) e.g. in broad bean, peas and
maize.
During hypogeal germination, the seed absorbs water by imbibition. The radicle appears first
bursting its protective sheath called coleorhizae. The radicle produces fibrous roots, which
absorb water and anchor the plant. The protective plumule sheath (coleoptiles) opens to allow the
plumule out. The epicotyls elongate pushing the cotyledons below the ground.
Diagrammatic illustration of hypogeal germination
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
Water is needed for the development of cell vacuoles. Large cell vacuoles contribute to
increase in size of cells.
2. Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for the process of respiration, the oxidation of food to provide energy
required for growth.
3. Warmth
Suitable temperature is important for the enzyme controlled reactions in the cotyledon of the
germinating seed. At low temperatures, the enzymes are inactive and at high temperatures, they
are denatured hence no germination. Germination will require an optimum temperature which
varies from 10̊C-50̊C for most tropical seeds.
EXPERIMENTS ON GERMINATION
An experiment to demonstrate the conditions necessary for germination
Apparatus:
4 test tubes, Cotton wool, Seeds, Oil and Water.
Procedure:
a) Arrange four test tubes labeled 1-4
b) To test tube 1 add moist cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open.
c) To test tube 2 add dry cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open.
d) To test tube 3 add seeds, boiled cooled water and a layer of oil.
e) To 4 add seeds, moist cotton wool, ice and leave test tube open. Leave all test tubes for 3
days.
Setup:
Observations
Seeds germinated in only test tube 1 and those in 2, 3 and 4 did not germinate.
Conclusion:
Air, water and warmth are necessary for germination.
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
2 conical flasks, 2 corks, Water, Cotton wool, Seeds and Pyrogallic acid.
Procedure:
1. Pour some water in one conical flask and some alkaline pyrogallol in another conical flask.
Tie some seeds in wet cotton wool and suspend the cotton wool in the flasks using a thread.
Fix the threads using a cork.
Leave the set up for three days
Set up:
Observation:
After a few days the seeds in B germinated while those in A did not germinate.
Conclusion:
Oxygen is necessary for germination.
Explanation:
Alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from air in flask A thereby preventing germination.
MEASUREMENTS OF GROWTH
Measurement of growth involves the use of fresh weight and dry weight of a seedling.
1. Fresh weight/mass:
This is the total amount of organic matter and water in an organism.
Advantages of measuring growth by using the fresh weight of an organism
It does not involve the killing of the organism.
It is a very method of determining growth.
It is the most suitable method of determining growth of seedlings.
Disadvantages of measuring growth by measuring the fresh weight of an organism
It is less accurate since the biggest part of an organism is water.
It is not reliable because the mass keeps on fluctuating due to water loss by transpiration and
evaporation.
2. Dry weight/mass
This is the total amount of organic matter making up the body of an organism after removing
water. It involves heating of an organism in an oven to a constant weight.
Advantages
It is a more accurate method of determining growth.
It is reliable because constant results are obtained.
Disadvantages
It involves killing of an organism.
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
The volatile tissues may decompose before removing all the water.
GROWTH CURVE
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
This is a graph which shows the change of a given growth parameter with time. This graph is S-
shaped in most living organisms and it is called the sigmoid curve.
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
B-C period of rapid growth
C-D period of slow growth
SECONDARY GROWTH IN PLANTS
Secondary growth refers to increase in thickness (girth) of plant shoots and roots.
It occurs in all dicotyledonous plants except herbaceous dicotyledonous plants.
It also occurs in gymnosperms. However, monocotyledonous plants do not undergo secondary
growth.
Secondary growth results in formation of permanent tissues and is also termed as secondary
thickening.
Secondary growth is brought about by the cell division of the cambium ring (vascular
cambium) and cork cambium. When the vascular cambium divides, it forms secondary xylem on
the inside and secondary phloem on the outside. The cork cambium is responsible for the
formation of wood (bark) in dicots.
Importance of secondary growth
1. Helps in healing of wounds by forming callus tissue on shoots and roots.
2. It increases the girth of stems and roots to provide extra support for other plant parts
above.
3. It helps in regeneration of plants parts.
Transverse section of a dicotyledonous stem
SEED DORMANCY
This is a condition whereby viable seeds fail to germinate under certain conditions. It is
caused by several factors.
Procedure:
a) Take bean seedlings with straight radicles.
b) On each seedling mark the radicle every 2mm with lines in black ink.
c) Pin the seedlings to the other side of the cork with the radicles hanging down wards.
d) Insert the cork into the neck of the flask containing little water.
e) Put the flask in the dark cup board for 3-4 days.
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567
B.M.S
Observation:
Some lines on the radicle are 2mm apart while others are more than 2mm apart.
Results of experiment
Conclusion:
The region where the lines are further apart is the zone of elongation (region of growth).
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Author:Mwebesa Derrick 0773267253/0702238567