Section Summary

 Definition of a Function.
 Domain, Codomain
 Image, Preimage
 Injection, Surjection, Bijection
 Inverse Function
 Function Composition
 Graphing Functions
 Floor, Ceiling, Factorial
 Partial Functions
Functions
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f
from A to B, denoted f: A → B is an assignment of each
element of A to exactly one element of B. We write
f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the
function f to the element a of A. Students Grades
A
 Functions are sometimes Ankit
B
called mappings or
Rahul
C
transformations.
Sounak D

F
Shrinika
Functions
 A function f: A → B can also be defined as a subset of
A×B (a relation). This subset is restricted to be a
relation where no two elements of the relation have
the same first element.

 Specifically, a function f from A to B contains one, and

only one ordered pair (a, b) for every element a∈ A.

and
Functions
Given a function f: A → B:
 We say f maps A to B or
f is a mapping from A to B.
 A is called the domain of f.
 B is called the codomain of f.
 If f(a) = b,
 then b is called the image of a under f.
 a is called the preimage of b.
 The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We
denote it by f(A).
 Two functions are equal when they have the same domain, the
same codomain and map elements of their common domain to
the same elements in their common codomain.
Representing Functions
 Functions may be specified in different ways:

 An explicit statement of the assignment.

Students and grades example.

 A formula.
f(x) = x + 1

 A computer program.
A C-language program that when given an integer n, produces
the nth Fibonacci Number.
 Questions on Functions
f(a) = ? z A B
a
The image of d is ? z x

b
The domain of f is ? A y
c
The codomain of f is ? B
d z
The preimage of y is ? b
f(A) = ? {y,z}
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ? {a,c,d}
Questions on Functions
Example 1: Let 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ and 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 . What is the
domain, codomain and range of 𝑓?

Solution: The domain and codomain is ℤ.

The range is {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, …}

Example 2: Let 𝑓 be the function that assign of last two

bits of a bit string of length 2 or greater to that string. Then
what is the domain, codomain and range of 𝑓?

Solution: The domain is the set of all bit strings of length

2 or greater.
The codomain and range are the set
*00, 01, 10, 11+.
Question on Functions and Sets
 If and S is a subset of A, then the image
of S under the function 𝑓 is the subset of 𝐵 that
consists of the images of the elements of S.
𝑓 𝑆 = *𝑡|∃𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 (𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑠 + A B
a
x
b
f {a,b,c,} is ? {y,z} y
c

f {c,d} is ? {z} d z
Injections
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one, or
injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b for
all a and b in the domain of f. A function is said to be
an injection if it is one-to-one.
A B
a x

v
b
y
c
z
d
w
Showing that f is one-to-one or not
Example 1: Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ and 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1. Is f an
one-to-one function?

Solution: 𝑥 + 1 ≠ 𝑦 + 1 when 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦. So, f is one-to-

one function.

Example 2: Let 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ and𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2. Is f an one-to-

one function?
Solution: 𝑓 1 = 𝑓 −1 = 1, but 1 ≠ −1. So, f is not
one-to-one function.
If the domain was changed to ℤ+, then f would be one-
to-one.
Surjections
Definition: A function f from A to B is called onto or
surjective, if and only if for every element
there is an element with . A
function f is called a surjection if it is onto.

A B
a x

b
y
c
z
d
Showing that f is onto or not
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c,d} to {1,2,3}
defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3. Is f an
onto function?
Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the
codomain are images of elements in the domain.

If the codomain was changed to {1,2,3,4}, f would not be

onto.
Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of integers
to the set of integers onto?
Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no integer x
with x2 = −1, for example.
Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one
correspondence, or a bijection, if it is both one-to-one
and onto (surjective and injective).

A B
a x

b
y
c
z
d
w
Examples of Different Types of Correspondences

One-to-one, Onto, One-to-one,

not onto not one-to-one and onto

Neither one-to-one Not a function

nor onto
Inverse Functions
Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the
inverse of f, denoted , is the function from B to A
defined as

No inverse exists unless f is a bijection. Why?

Inverse Functions
A f
B A B
a V V
a

b b
W W
c c

d X X
d

Y Y
Questions
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to {1,2,3}
such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = 1. Is f invertible
and if so what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a

one-to-one correspondence.

The inverse function f-1 reverses the correspondence

given by f, so f-1 (1) = c, f-1 (2) = a, and f-1 (3) = b.
Questions
Example 2: Let f: Z  Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a

one-to-one correspondence.

The inverse function f-1 reverses the correspondence

so f-1 (y) = y – 1.
Questions
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that . Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is not invertible because it

is not one-to-one.

𝑓 2 = 𝑓 −2 = 4, but 2 ≠ −2.

If we restrict the domain and codomain to a set of

nonnegative real numbers then what will happen?
Composition
 Definition: Let f: B → C, g: A → B. The composition of
f with g, denoted is the function from A to C
defined by
Note that f∘g
cannot be
defined unless
the range of g
is a subset of
the domain of
f.
Composition
g f
A B C A C
V a
a h h
b i b
W i
c
c
X j
d
d j
Y
Composition
Example 1: If and ,
then

and
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a,b,c} to itself
such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function
from the set {a,b,c} to the set {1,2,3} such that f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2,
and f(c) = 1.
What is the composition of f and g, and what is the composition
of g and f.
Solution: The composition f∘g is defined by
f∘g (a)= f(g(a)) = f(b) = 2.
f∘g (b)= f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1.
f∘g (c)= f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3.

Note that g∘f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of
the domain of g.
Composition Questions
Example 3: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers to the set of integers defined by f(x) = 2x + 3
and g(x) = 3x + 2.
What is the composition of f and g, and also the
composition of g and f ?

Solution:
f∘g (x)= f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g∘f (x)= g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11
Graphs of Functions
 Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The
graph of the function f is the set of ordered pairs
{(a,b) | a ∈A and f(a) = b}.

Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2

from Z to Z from Z to Z
Some Important Functions
 The floor function, denoted

is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

 The ceiling function, denoted

is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.

Example:
Floor and Ceiling Functions

Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions

Floor and Ceiling Functions
Proving Properties of Functions
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋

Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.

Case 1: ε < ½
 2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
 ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
 Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.

Case 2: ε≥½
 2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1,
since 0 ≤ 2 ε - 1< 1.
 ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since
0 ≤ ε – 1/2< 1.
 Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1.
Factorial Function
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the
product of the first n positive integers when n is a
nonnegative integer.
f(n) = 1 ∙ 2 ∙∙∙ (n – 1) ∙ n, f(0) = 0! = 1

Examples:
f(1) = 1! = 1
f(2) = 2! = 1 ∙ 2 = 2

f(6) = 6! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3∙ 4∙ 5 ∙ 6 = 720

f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.
Partial Functions
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is an
assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called the
domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
 The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively.
 We say that f is undefined for elements in A that are not in
the domain of definition of f.
 When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that f is a
total function.

Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial function

from Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of
nonnegative integers. Note that f is undefined for negative
integers.
Section Summary
 Sequences.
 Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic
Progression
 Recurrence Relations
 Example: Fibonacci Sequence
 Summations
Introduction
 Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….

 Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer

science, and in many other disciplines, ranging from
botany to music.

 We will introduce the terminology to represent

sequences and sums of the terms in the sequences.
Sequences
Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of
the integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …} or
{1, 2, 3, 4, …} ) to a set S.

 The notation an is used to denote the image of the

integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of f(n)
where f is a function from {0,1,2,…} to S. We call an a
term of the sequence.
Sequences
Example: Consider the sequence where
Geometric Progression
Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of the
form:
where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real
numbers.

Examples:
1. Let a = 1 and r = −1. Then:

2. Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then:

3. Let a = 6 and r = 1/3. Then:

Arithmetic Progression
Definition: A arithmetic progression is a sequence of the
form:
where the initial term a and the common difference d are
real numbers.
Examples:
1. Let a = −1 and d = 4:

2. Let a = 7 and d = −3:

3. Let a = 1 and d = 2:
Strings
Definition: A string is a finite sequence of characters
from a finite set (an alphabet).

 Sequences of characters or bits are important in

computer science.

 The empty string is represented by λ.

 The string abcde has length 5.

Recurrence Relations
Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an}
is an equation that expresses an in terms of one or
more of the previous terms of the sequence, namely,
a0, a1, …, an-1, for all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a
nonnegative integer.

 A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation

if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation.

 The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms

that precede the first term where the recurrence
relation takes effect.
Questions about Recurrence Relations
Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and
suppose that a0 = 2. What are a1 , a2 and a3?
[Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]

Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that

a 1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a3 = 8 + 3 = 11
Questions about Recurrence Relations
Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and
suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3?
[Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ]

Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that

a2 = a1 - a0 = 5 – 3 = 2
a3 = a2 – a1 = 2 – 5 = –3
Fibonacci Sequence
Definition: Define the Fibonacci sequence, f0 ,f1 ,f2,…, by:
 Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
 Recurrence Relation: fn = fn-1 + fn-2

Example: Find f2 ,f3 ,f4 , f5 and f6 .

Answer:
f 2 = f 1 + f 0 = 1 + 0 = 1,
f 3 = f 2 + f 1 = 1 + 1 = 2,
f 4 = f 3 + f 2 = 2 + 1 = 3,
f 5 = f 4 + f 3 = 3 + 2 = 5,
f 6 = f 5 + f 4 = 5 + 3 = 8.
Solving Recurrence Relations
 Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence
generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the
recurrence relation.

 Such a formula is called a closed formula.

 Here we illustrate by example the method of iteration

in which we need to guess the formula. The guess can
be proved correct by the method of induction (will be
discussed later).
Iterative Solution Example
Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution
Let {an } be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an = an-1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,… and suppose that a1 = 2.

a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 × 2
a4 = (2 + 3 × 2) + 3 = 2 + 3 × 3
.
.
.
an = an-1 + 3 = (2 + 3 × (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n – 1)
Iterative Solution Example
Method 2: Working downward, backward substitution
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an = an-1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,… and suppose that a1 = 2.

an = an-1 + 3
= (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 3 × 2
= (an-3 + 3 )+ 3 × 2 = an-3 + 3 × 3
.
.
.

= a2 + 3(n – 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n – 2) = 2 + 3(n – 1)

Financial Application
Example: Suppose that a person deposits Rs. 10,000.00
in a savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year
with interest compounded annually. How much will be
in the account after 30 years?

Let Pn denote the amount in the account after 30 years.

Pn satisfies the following recurrence relation:
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
Financial Application
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000

Solution: Forward Substitution

P1 = (1.11)P0
P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0
P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0
:
Pn = (1.11)Pn-1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000
Pn = (1.11)n 10,000
P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = Rs. 228,992.97