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CELLS AND BATTERIES

IN ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS, A CELL IS A UNIT SOURCE OF DC ENERGY. WHEN TWO OR MORE cells
are connected in series, the result is known as a battery There are many types of cells and batteries, and
new types are constantly being invented.

Electrochemical Energy

Early in the history of electrical science, laboratory physicists found that when metals came into contact
with certain chemical solutions, voltages appeared between the pieces of metal. These were the first
electrochemical cells.

A piece of lead and a piece of lead dioxide immersed in an acid solution (Fig. 1) acquire a persistent
potential difference. This can be detected by connecting a galvanometer between the pieces of metal. A
resistor of about 1000 Ω must be used in series with the galvanometer in experiments of this kind, because
connecting the galvanometer directly will cause too much current to flow, possibly damaging the
galvanometer and causing the acid to boil.

The chemicals and the metal have an inherent ability to produce a constant exchange of charge carriers.
If the galvanometer and resistor are left hooked up between the two pieces of metal for a long time, the
current will gradually decrease, and the electrodes will become coated. All the chemical energy in the acid
will have been turned into electrical energy as current in the wire and galvanometer. In turn, this current
will have heated the resistor (another form of kinetic energy), and escaped into the air and into space.

Primary and Secondary Cells

Some electrical cells, once their chemical energy has all been changed to electricity and used up, must be
thrown away. These are called primary cells. Other kinds of cells, such as the lead-and-acid type, can get
their chemical energy back again by means of recharging. Such a cell is a secondary cell.
Primary cells include the ones you usually put in a flashlight, in a transistor radio, and in various other
consumer devices. They use dry electrolyte pastes along with metal electrodes. They go by names such as
dry cell, zinc-carbon cell, or alkaline cell. Go into a department store and find a rack of batteries, and you'll
see various sizes and types of primary cells, such as AAA batteries, D batteries, camera batteries, and
watch batteries. (These are actually cells, not true batteries.) You'll also see 9-V transistor batteries and
large 6-V lantern batteries.

Secondary cells can also be found in consumer stores. Nickel-based cells are common. The most common
sizes are AA, C, and D. These cost several times as much as ordinary dry cells, and a charging unit also
costs a few dollars. But if you take care of them, these rechargeable cells can be used hundreds of times
and will pay for themselves several times over if you use a lot of batteries in everyday life. The battery in
your car is made from secondary cells connected in series, These cells recharge from the alternator or
from an outside charging unit. This battery has cells like the one in Fig. 1. It is dangerous to short-circuit
the terminals of such a battery, because the acid (sulfuric acid) ) can bubble up and erupt out of the battery
casing. Serious skin and eye injuries can result. In fact, it's a bad idea to short-circuit any cell or battery,
because it can get extremely hot and cause a fire, or rupture and damage surrounding materials, wiring,

EE 1: Basic Electrical Engineering 1 Cells and Batteries Week No. 8 Handout

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Fig. 1. Simplified drawing of the construction of a lead-acid electrochemical cell.

and components.

The Weston Standard Cell

Most electrochemical cells produce 1.2 to 1.8 V. Different types vary slightly. A mercury cell has a voltage
that is a little less than that of a zinc-carbon or alkaline cell. The voltage of a cell can also be affected by
variables in the manufacturing process. Most consumer-type dry cells can be assumed to produce 1.5 V.

There are certain cells whose voltages are predictable and exact. These are called standard cells.
A good example is the Weston cell, which produces 1.018 V at room temperature. It has a solution of
cadmium sulfate, a positive electrode made from mercury sulfate, and a negative electrode made from
mercury and cadmium. The device is set up in a container, as shown in Fig. 2.

Storage Capacity

Recall that the common electrical units of energy are the watt-hour (Wh) and the kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Any electrochemical cell or battery has a certain amount of electrical energy that can be obtained from
it, and this can be specified in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours. More often, though, it's given in ampere-
hours (Ah).

A battery with a rating of 2 Ah can provide 2 A for 1 h, or 1 A for 2 h, or 100 mA for 20 h. There are
infinitely many possibilities here, as long as the product of the current in amperes and the use time in
hours is equal to 2. The limitations are the shelf life at one extreme, and the maximum deliverable current
at the other. Shelf life is the length of time the battery will last if it is never used; this can be years. The
maximum deliverable current is the highest amount of current that the battery can provide before its
voltage drops because of its own internal resistance.

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There are infinitely many possibilities here, as long as the product of the current in amperes and the use
time in hours is equal to 2. The limitations are the shelf life at one extreme, and the maximum deliverable
current at the other. Shelf life is the length of time the battery will last if it is never used; this can be years.
The maximum deliverable current is the highest amount of current that the battery can provide before
its voltage drops because of its own internal resistance.

Small cells have storage capacity of a few milliampere-hours (mAh) up to 100 or 200 mAh. Medium-sized
cells can supply 500 mAh to 1 Ah. Large automotive or truck batteries can provide upward of 50 Ah. The
energy capacity in watt-hours is the ampere-hour capacity multiplied by the battery voltage.

Fig. 2. Simplified drawing of the construction of a Weston standard cell.

An ideal cell or ideal battery (a theoretically perfect cell or battery) delivers a constant current for a while,
and then the current starts to drop (Fig. 3). Some types of cells and batteries approach this level of
perfection, which is represented by a flat discharge curve. But many cells and batteries are far from
perfect; they deliver current that declines gradually, almost right from the start. When the current that
a battery can provide has tailed off to about half of its initial value, the cell or battery is said to be weak.

At this time, it should be replaced. If it's allowed to run all the way out, until the current actually goes to
zero, the cell or battery is dead. The area under the curve in Fig. 3 is a graphical representation the total
capacity of the cell or battery in ampere-hours.

Grocery Store Cells and Batteries

The cells you see in grocery stores, department stores, drugstores, and hardware stores provide 1.5 V,

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Fig. 3. A flat discharge curve. This is considered ideal.

and are available in sizes known as AAA (very small), AA (small), C (medium large), and D (large). Batteries
are widely available that deliver 6 or 9 V.

Zinc-Carbon Cells

Figure 4 is a translucent drawing of a zinc-carbon cell. The zinc forms the case and is the negative
electrode. A carbon rod serves as the positive electrode. The electrolyte is a paste of manganese dioxide
and carbon. Zinc-carbon cells are inexpensive and are good at moderate temperatures and in applications
where the current drain is moderate to high. They are not very good in extreme cold.

Alkaline Cells

The alkaline cell has granular zinc as the negative electrode, potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte, and
a device called a polarizer as the positive electrode. The construction is similar to that of the zinc-carbon
cell. An alkaline cell can work at lower temperatures than a zinc-carbon cell. It lasts longer in most
electronic devices, and is therefore preferred for use in transistor radios, calculators, and portable
cassette players. Its shelf life is much longer than that of a zinc-carbon cell. As you might expect, it costs
more.

Transistor Batteries

A transistor battery consists of six tiny zinc-carbon or alkaline cells in series. Each of the six cells supplies
1.5 V. Thus, the battery supplies 9 V. Even though these batteries have more voltage than individual cells,
the total energy available from them is less than that from a C cell or D cell. This is because the electrical
energy that can be obtained from a cell or battery is directly proportional to the amount of chemical
energy stored in it, and this, in turn, is a direct function of the volume (physical size) of the cell or the mass
(quantity of chemical matter) of the cell. Cells of size C or D have more volume and mass than a transistor

EE 1: Basic Electrical Engineering 1 Cells and Batteries Week No. 8 Handout

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Fig. 4 Simplified drawing of the construction of a zinc-carbon electrochemical cell.

battery, and therefore contain more stored energy for the same chemical composition.

Transistor batteries are used in low-current electronic devices such as remote-control garage-door
openers, television (TV) and hi-fi remote controls, and electronic calculators.

Lantern Batteries

The lantern battery has much greater mass than a common dry cell or transistor battery, and consequently
it lasts much longer and can deliver more current. Lantern batteries are usually rated at 6 V, and consist
of four good-size zinc-carbon or alkaline cells. Two lantern batteries connected in series make a 12-V
battery that can power a 5-W citizens band (CB) or ham radio transceiver for a while. They're also good
for scanner radio receivers in portable locations, for camping lamps, and for other medium-power needs.

Miniature Cells and Batteries

In recent years, cells and batteries—especially cells—have become available in many different sizes and
shapes besides the old cylindrical cells, transistor batteries, and lantern batteries. These are used in
wristwatches, small cameras, and various microminiature electronic devices.

Silver-Oxide Cells and Batteries

A silver-oxide cell is usually found in a buttonlike shape, and can fit inside a small wristwatch. These types
of cells come in various sizes and thicknesses, all with similar appearances. They supply 1.5 V, and offer
excellent energy storage for the weight. They also have a nearly flat discharge curve, like the one shown
in the graph of Fig. 3. Zinc-carbon and alkaline cells and batteries, in contrast, have current output that
declines more steadily with time, as shown in Fig. 5. This is known as a declining discharge curve.

Silver-oxide cells can be stacked to make batteries. Several of these miniature cells, one on top of the
other, can provide 6, 9, or even 12 V for a transistor radio or other light-duty electronic device.

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The resulting battery is about the size of an AAA cylindrical cell.

Mercury Cells and Batteries

A mercury cell, also called a mercuric-oxide cell, has properties similar to those of silver-oxide cells. They
are manufactured in the same general form. The main difference, often not of significance, is a somewhat
lower voltage per cell: 1.35 V. If six of these cells are stacked to make a battery, the resulting voltage will
be about 8.1 V rather than 9 V. One additional cell can be added to the stack, yielding about 9.45 V.

There has been a decline in the popularity of mercury cells and batteries in recent years, because of the
fact that mercury is toxic to humans and animals, even in trace amounts. When mercury cells and batteries
are dead, they must be discarded. Eventually the mercury or mercuric oxide leaks into the soil and
groundwater. Mercury pollution has become a significant concern throughout the world.

Fig. 5 A declining discharge curve.

Lithium Cells and Batteries

Lithium cells gained popularity in the early 1980s. There are several variations in the chemical makeup of
these cells; they all contain lithium, a light, highly reactive metal. Lithium cells can be made to supply 1.5
to 3.5 V, depending on the particular chemistry used. These cells, like silveroxide and mercury cells, can
be stacked to make batteries.

The first application of lithium batteries was in memory backup for electronic microcomputers. Lithium
cells and batteries have superior shelf life, and they can last for years in very-low-current applications such
as memory backup or the powering of a digital liquid crystal display (LCD) watch or clock. These cells also
provide high energy capacity per unit volume or mass.

Lead-Acid Batteries

You've seen the basic configuration for a lead-acid cell. This has a solution of sulfuric acid, along with a
lead electrode (negative) and a lead-dioxide electrode (positive). These cells are rechargeable.

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Automotive batteries are made from sets of lead-acid cells having a free-flowing liquid acid. You cannot
tip such a battery on its side, or turn it upside-down, without running the risk of having some of the acid
electrolyte spill out. Lead-acid batteries are also available in a construction that uses a semisolid
electrolyte. These batteries are sometimes used in consumer electronic devices that require a moderate
amount of current. The most common example is an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) that can keep a
desktop personal computer running for a few minutes if the utility power fails.

A large lead-acid battery, such as the kind in your car or truck, can store several tens of amperehours. The
smaller ones, like those in a UPS, have less capacity but more versatility. Their main attributes are that
they can be charged and recharged many times, and they are not particularly expensive.

Nickel-Based Cells and Batteries

Nickel-based cells include the nickel-cadmium (NICAD or NiCd) type and the nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
type. Nickel-based batteries are available in packs of cells. These packs can be plugged into equipment,
and sometimes form part of the case for a device such as a portable radio transceiver. All nickel-based
cells are rechargeable, and can be put through hundreds or even thousands of charge/discharge cycles if
they are properly cared for.

Configurations and Applications

Nickel-based cells are found in various sizes and shapes. Cylindrical cells look like ordinary dry cells. Button
cells are those little things you find in cameras, watches, memory backup applications, and other places
where miniaturization is important. Flooded cells are used in heavy-duty applications, and can have
storage capacity in excess of 1000 Ah. Spacecraft cells are made in packages that can withstand the rigors
of a deep-space environment.

Most orbiting satellites are in darkness half the time and in sunlight half the time. Solar panels can be used
while the satellite is in sunlight, but during the times that the earth eclipses the sun, batteries are needed
to power the electronic equipment on board the satellite. The solar panels can charge a nickel-based
battery, in addition to powering the satellite, for the daylight half of each orbit. The nickel-based battery
can provide the power during the dark half of each orbit.

Cautions

Never discharge nickel-based cells all the way until they totally die. This can cause the polarity of a cell, or
of one or more cells in a battery, to reverse. Once this happens, the cell or battery is ruined.

A phenomenon peculiar to nickel-based cells and batteries is known as memory or memory drain. If a
nickel-based unit is used over and over, and is discharged to the same extent every time, it might begin
to die at that point in its discharge cycle. Memory problems can usually be solved. Use the cell or battery
almost all the way up, and then fully recharge it. Repeat the process several times.

Nickel-based cells and batteries work best if used with charging units that take several hours to fully
replenish the charge. So-called high-rate or quick chargers are available, but these can sometimes force

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too much current through a cell or battery. It's best if the charger is made especially for the cell or battery
type being charged. An electronics dealer, such as the manager at a RadioShack store, should be able to
tell you which chargers are best for which cells and batteries.

In recent years, concern has grown about the toxic environmental effects of discarded heavy metals,
including cadmium. For this reason, NiMH cells and batteries have replaced NICAD types in many
applications. In most practical scenarios, a NICAD battery can be directly replaced with a NiMH battery of
the same voltage and current-delivering capacity, and the powered-up device will work satisfactorily.

Some vendors and dealers will call a nickel-based cell or battery a NICAD, even when it is actually a NiMH
cell or battery.

Photovoltaic Cells and Batteries

The photovoltaic (PV) cell is different from any electrochemical cell. It's also known as a solar cell. This
device converts visible light, infrared (IR), and/or ultraviolet (UV) directly into electric current.

Solar Panels

Several, or many, photovoltaic cells can be combined in series-parallel to make a solar panel. An example
is shown in Fig. 6. Although this shows a 3 X 3 series-parallel array, the matrix does not have to be
symmetrical. And it's often very large. It might consist of, say, 50 parallel sets of 20 series connected cells.
The series scheme boosts the voltage to the desired level, and the parallel scheme increases the current-
delivering ability of the panel. It's not unusual to see hundreds of solar cells combined in this way to make
a large panel.

Construction and Performance

The construction of a photovoltaic cell is shown in Fig. 7. The device is a flat semiconductor P-N junction,
and the assembly is made transparent so that light can fall directly on the P-type silicon. The metal ribbing,
forming the positive electrode, is interconnected by means of tiny wires. The negative electrode is a metal
backing or substrate, placed in contact with the N-type silicon.

Most solar cells provide about 0.5 V. If there is very low current demand, dim light will result in the full-
output voltage from a solar cell. As the current demand increases, brighter light is needed to produce the
full-output voltage. There is a maximum limit to the current that can be provided from a solar cell, no
matter how bright the light. This limit is increased by connecting solar cells in parallel.

Practical Applications

Solar cells have become cheaper and more efficient in recent years, as researchers have looked to them
as an alternative energy source. Solar panels are used in satellites. They can be used in conjunction with
rechargeable batteries, such as the lead-acid or nickel-cadmium types, to provide power independent of
the commercial utilities.

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A completely independent solar/battery power system is called a stand-alone system. It uses large solar
panels, large-capacity lead-acid batteries, power converters to convert the dc into ac, and a sophisticated
charging circuit. These systems are best suited to environments where there is sunshine a high percentage
of the time.

Fig. 6 Connection of cells in series-parallel.

Fig. 7 Construction of a silicon photovoltaic cell.

Solar cells, either alone or supplemented with rechargeable batteries, can be connected into a home
electric system in an interactive arrangement with the electric utilities. When the solar power system can't
provide for the needs of the household all by itself, the utility company can take up the slack. Conversely,
when the solar power system supplies more than enough for the needs of the home, the utility company
can buy the excess.

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Fuel Cells

In the late 1900s, a new type of electrochemical power device emerged that is believed by some scientists
and engineers to hold promise as an alternative energy source: the fuel cell.

Hydrogen Fuel

The most talked-about fuel cell during the early years of research and development became known as the
hydrogen fuel cell. As its name implies, it derives electricity from hydrogen. The hydrogen combines with
oxygen (that is, it oxidizes) to form energy and water. There is no pollution, and there are no toxic by-
products. When a hydrogen fuel cell "runs out of juice," all that is needed is a new supply of hydrogen,
because its oxygen is derived from the atmosphere.

Instead of combusting, the hydrogen in a fuel cell oxidizes in a more controlled fashion, and at a much
lower temperature. There are several schemes for making this happen. The proton exchange membrane
(PEM) fuel cell is one of the most widely used. A PEM hydrogen fuel cell generates approximately 0.7 V of
dc. In order to obtain higher voltages, individual cells are connected in series. A series-connected set of
fuel cells is technically a battery, but the term used more often is stack.

Fuel-cell stacks are available in various sizes. A stack about the size and weight of an airline suitcase filled
with books can power a subcompact electric car. Smaller cells, called micro fuel cells, can provide dc to
run devices that have historically operated from conventional cells and batteries. These include portable
radios, lanterns, and notebook computers.

Other Fuels

Hydrogen is not the only chemical that can be used to make a fuel cell. Almost anything that will combine
with oxygen to form energy has been considered.

Methanol, a form of alcohol, has the advantage of being easier to transport and store than hydrogen,
because it exists as a liquid at room temperature. Propane is another chemical that has been used for
powering fuel cells. This is the substance that is stored in liquid form in tanks for barbecue grills and some
rural home heating systems. Methane, also known as natural gas, has been used as well.

Some scientists and engineers object to the use of these fuels because they, especially propane and
methane, closely resemble fuels that are already commonplace, and on which society has developed the
sort of dependence that purists would like to get away from. In addition, they are derived from so-called
fossil fuel sources, the supplies of which, however great they might be today, are nevertheless finite.

A Promising Technology

As of this writing (2006), fuel cells have not yet replaced conventional electrochemical cells and batteries.
Cost is the main reason. Hydrogen is the most abundant and simplest chemical element in the universe,
and it does not produce any toxic by-products. This would at first seem to make it the ideal choice for use

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 STI Academic Center
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in fuel cells. But storage and transport of hydrogen has proven to be difficult and expensive. This is
especially true for fuel cells and stacks intended for systems that aren't fixed to permanent pipelines.

An interesting scenario, suggested by one of my physics teachers all the way back in the 1970s, is the
piping of hydrogen gas through the lines designed to carry methane. Some modification of existing lines
would be required in order to safely handle hydrogen, which escapes through small cracks and openings
more easily than methane. But hydrogen, if obtained at reasonable cost and in abundance, could be used
to power large fuel-cell stacks in common households and businesses. The dc from such a stack could be
converted to utility ac by power inverters similar to those used with PV energy systems. The entire home
power system would be about the size of a gas furnace.

EE 1: Basic Electrical Engineering 1 Cells and Batteries Week No. 8 Handout