PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

DEPARTMENT : CIVIL ENGINEERING

YEAR & SEM : IV B.TECH I SEM

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO SUBJECT DEMO DEMO – II
: TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 1

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
B. Tech IV-I Sem. (C.E) LTPC3
1 03
15A01702 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING – II

Course Objective:
This subject deals with different components of Transportation Engineering like Railway, Airport
Engineering, Ports & harbours. Sound knowledge can be acquired on components of airports, railways,
docks and harbours after completion of course
Unit – I:
Railway Engineering:
Introduction – Permanent Way Components – Cross Section Of Permanent Way – Functions And
Requirements Of Rails, Sleepers And Ballast – Types Of Gauges – Creep Of Rails – Theories
PDF-XChange
Related To CreepEditor
– Coning Of PDF-XChange Editor
Wheels – Adzing Of Sleepers PDF-XChange Editor
– Rail Fastenings.
Unit – II:
DEMOGeometric Design Of RailwayDEMO Track: DEMO
Gradients – Grade Compensation – Cant And Negative Super Elevation – Cant Deficiency –
Degree Of Curves – Safe Speed On Railway Track – Points And Crossings – Layout And
Functioning Of Left Hand Turn Out And Right Hand Turn Outs – Station Yards – Signaling And
Interlocking.
Unit –III:
Airport Engineering:
Airport Site Selection – Factors Affecting Site Selection And Surveys- Runway Orientation –
Wind Rose Diagram – Basic Runway Length – Correction For Runway Length – Terminal Area –
Layout And Functions – Concepts Of Terminal Building – Simple Building , Linear Concept, Pier
Concept And Satellite Concept – Typical Layouts
.
Unit – IV:
Geometric Design Of Runways And Taxiways:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Aircraft Characteristics – Influence Of Characteristics On Airport Planning And Design –
DEMOGeometric Design Elements Of DEMO
Runway – Standards And Specifications
Taxiways – Taxiway Geometric Design – Geometric Elements And
DEMOAs Per - Functions Of

Standard Specifications – Runway And Taxiway Lighting

Unit – V:
Ports and Harbours:
Requirements Of Ports And Harbours – Types Of Ports – Classification Of Harbours – Docks And
Types Of Docks – Dry Docks, Wharves And Jetties – Breakwaters: Layouts Of Different Types Of
Harbours And Docks – Dredging Operations – Navigation Aids.

Text Books:
1. A Text Book of Railway Engineering-S.C.Saxena and S.Arora, Dhanpatrai and Sons, New
Delhi.
2. Transportation Engineering:Railways,Airports,Docks and Harbours, Bridges and Tunnels, by
C.Venkataramaiah, Universities Press, Hyderabad (2016)
PDF-XChange Editor
3. Airport Planning and Design-PDF-XChange Editor
S.K. Khanna and M.G Arora, NemchandPDF-XChange
Bros. Editor
DEMOReferences: DEMO DEMO
1. Highway, Railway, Airport and Harbour Engineering – K.P. Subramanian, Scitech pubilishers.
2. Harbour, Dock and Tunnel Engineering – R. Srinivasan, Charotar Publishing House Pvt.
Limited, 2009
3. A Text book of Transportation Engineering – S.P.Chandola – S.Chand & Co. Ltd. – (2001).
4. Dock and Harbour Engineering – Hasmukh P Oza, Gutam H Oza, Chartor Publishers pvt ltd.
VEMU Institute of Technology Page 2
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
UNIT 1

History of Indian Railways

Introduction In the year 1832 the first Railway running on steam engine, was
launched in England. Thereafter on 1st of August, 1849 the Great Indian
Peninsular Railways Company was established in India. On 17th of August
1849, a contract was signed between the Great Indian Peninsular Railways
Company and East India Company. As a result of the contract an experiment
was made by laying a railway track between Bombay and Thane (56 Kms).
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
 On 16th April, 1853, the first train service was started from Bombay to
DEMO Thane. DEMO DEMO
 On 15th August, 1854, the 2nd train service commenced between Howrah
and Hubli.
 On the 1st July, 1856, the 3rd train service in India and first in South
India commenced between Vyasarpadi and Walajah Road and on the
same day the section between Vyasarpadi and Royapuram by Madras
Railway Company was also opened.
Subsequently construction of this efficient transport system began
simultaneously in different parts of the Country. By the end of 19th Century
24752 Kms. of rail track was laid for traffic. At this juncture the power, capital,
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
revenue rested with the British. Revenue started flowing through passenger as
DEMO well as through goods traffic.
DEMO DEMO
Organizational structure

Railway zones

Indian Railways is divided into several zones, which are further sub-divided
into divisions. The number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to
eight in 1951, nine in 1952 and sixteen in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up
of a certain number of divisions, each having a divisional headquarters. There
are a total of sixty-eight divisions. Each of the sixteen zones is headed by a
PDF-XChange Editor
general manager PDF-XChange
who reports directly to theEditor PDF-XChange
Railway Board. The zones are Editor
further divided into divisions under the control of divisional railway managers
DEMO (DRM). DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 3

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Component parts of railway track

The Typical components are – Rails, – Sleepers (or ties), – Fasteners, – Ballast (or slab
track), – Subgrade

GAUGE The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the
PDF-XChange Editor
two rails forming PDF-XChange
a track is Editor
known as Gauge. Indian PDF-XChange
railway followed this practice. In Editor
European countries, the gauge is measured between the inner faces of two rails at a point
DEMO 14 mm below the top of theDEMO
rail.
DEMO

GAUGES ON WORLD RAILWAYS Various gauges have been adopted by different

railways in the world due to historical and other considerations. Initially British Railways
had adopted a gauge of 1525 mm (5 feet), but the wheel flanges at that time were on the
outside of the rails. Subsequently, in order to guide the wheels better, the flanges were
made inside the rails. The gauge then became 1435 mm (4'8.5"), as at that time the width
of the rail at the top was 45 mm (1.75 "). The 1435 mm gauge became the standard on
most European Railways.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 4

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

DIFFERENT GAUGES ON INDIAN RAILWAYS

The East India Company intended to adopt the standard gauge of 1435 mm in India also.
This proposal was, however, challenged by W. Simms, Consulting Engineer to the
Government of India, who recommended a wider gauge of 1676 mm (5 '6 "). The Court of
Directors of the East India Company decided to adopt Simms's recommendation and 5'6 "
finally became the Indian standard gauge. In 1871, the Government of India wanted to
construct cheaper railways for the development of the country and 1000 mm metre
gauge was introduced. In due course of time, two more gauges of widths 762 mm (2 '6 ")
PDF-XChange
and 610 mm Editor
(2 '0 ") were PDF-XChange Editor
introduced for thinly populated PDF-XChange
areas, mountain railways, and Editor
other miscellaneous purposes.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Broad Gauge: -
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a
track is 1676mm the gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G) This gauge is also known as
standard gauge of India and is the broadest gauge of the world. The Other countries using
the Broad Gauge are Pakistan, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Brazil, Argentine, etc.50% India‗s
railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.

Suitability: -
Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions:- (i) When sufficient funds are
available for the railway project. (ii) When the prospects of revenue are very bright. This
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in plain areas which are densely populated i.e. for
DEMO routes of maximum traffic,DEMO DEMO
intensities and at places which are centers of industry and
commerce.

2. Metre Gauge: -
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a
track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre Gauge (M.G) The other countries using
Metre gauge are France, Switzerland, Argentine, etc. 40% of India‗s railway tracks have
been laid to this gauge. Suitability:- Metre Gauge is suitable under the following
conditions:- (i) When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate. (ii)
When the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used for
tracks in under-developed areas and in interior areas, where traffic intensity is small and
PDF-XChange
prospects for Editor PDF-XChange
future development are not very bright. Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO 3. Narrow Gauge:- DEMO DEMO
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a
track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as Narrow gauge (N.G) The other
countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India‗s railway tracks

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 5

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
have been laid to this gauge. Suitability: - Narrow gauge is suitable under the following
conditions:- (i) When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to
the provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels etc. (ii) When
the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used in hilly and
very thinly populated areas. The feeder gauge is commonly used for feeding raw
materials to big government manufacturing concerns as well as to private factories such
as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc.

CHOICE OF GAUGE
The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge and all new
PDF-XChange
railway lines Editor PDF-XChange
are constructed Editor
to adhere to the standard PDF-XChange
gauge. However, the following Editor
DEMO factors theoretically influence the choice of the gauge:
DEMO DEMO
Cost considerations
There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider gauge is adopted. In
this connection, the following points are important

(a) There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land, earthwork, rails,
sleepers, ballast, and other track items when constructing a wider gauge.

(b) The cost of building bridges, culverts, and runnels increases only marginally due to a
wider gauge.

(c) The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters, level crossings,
PDF-XChange EditorwithPDF-XChange
signals, etc., associated Editor
the railway network is more or less thePDF-XChange
same for all gauges. Editor
DEMO (d) The cost of rolling stockDEMO
is independent of the gauge of the trackDEMO
for carrying the same
volume of traffic.

Traffic considerations
The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and the speed and hauling
capacity of the train. Thus, the following points need to be considered.

(a) As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can theoretically carry more
traffic.

(b) A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed is a function of
the diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the width of the gauge. As a thumb
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
rule, diameter of the wheel is kept 75 per cent of gauge width.
Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(c) The type of traction and signalling equipment required are independent of the gauge.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 6

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
UNIT 3

PROBLEMS OF MULTI GAUGE SYSTEM

Introduction

The need for uniformity of gauge has been recognized by all the advanced countries of
the world. A number of problems have cropped up in the operation of the Indian Railways
because of the multi-gauge system (use of three gauges). The ill effects of change of
gauge (more popularly known as break of gauge) are numerous; some of these are
enumerated here.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Inconvenience to passengers
DEMO Due to change of gauge, passengers
DEMOhave to change trains mid-journey
DEMO along with their
luggage, which causes inconvenience such as the following:

(a) Climbing stairs and crossing bridges

(b) Getting seats in the compartments of the later trains

(c) Missing connections with the later trains in case the earlier train is late

(d) Harassment caused by porters

(e) Transporting luggage from one platform to another.

PDF-XChange
Difficulty in Editor PDF-XChange
trans-shipment of goods Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Goods have to be trans-shipped
DEMO DEMO
at the point where the change of gauge takes place. This
causes the following problems:

(a) Damage to goods during trans-shipment

(b) Considerable delay in receipt of goods at the destination

(c) Theft or misplacement of goods during trans-shipment and the subsequent claims

(d) Non-availability of adequate and specialized trans-shipment labour and staff,

particularly during strikes

Inefficient use of rolling stock

PDF-XChange
As wagons haveEditor PDF-XChange
to move empty Editor
in the direction of the PDF-XChange
trans-shipment point, they are not Editor

DEMO fully utilized. Similarly, idle wagons or engines of one gauge cannot be moved on another
DEMO DEMO
gauge. Hindrance to fast movement of goods and passenger traffic Due to change in the
gauge, traffic cannot move fast which becomes a major problem particularly during
emergencies such as war, floods, and accidents.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 7

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Additional facilities at stations and yards

Costly sheds and additional facilities need to be provided for handling the large volume of
goods at trans-shipment points. Further, duplicate equipment and facilities such as yards
and platforms need to be provided for both gauges at trans-shipment points.

Difficulties in balanced economic growth

The difference in gauge also leads to unbalanced economic growth. This happens because
industries set up near MG/NG stations cannot send their goods economically and
efficiently to areas being served by BG stations.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Difficulties in future gauge conversion projects
DEMO Gauge conversion is quiteDEMO DEMO
difficult, as it requires enormous effort to widen existing
tracks. Widening the gauge involves heavy civil engineering work such as widening of
the embankment, bridges and tunnels, as well as tracks; additionally, a wider rolling stock
is also required. During the gauge conversion period, there are operational problems as
well, since the traffic has to be slowed down and even suspended for a certain period in
order to execute the work.

UNI-GAUGE POLICY OF INDIAN RAILWAYS

The problems caused by a multi-gauge system in a country have been discussed in the
previous section. The multi-gauge system is not only costly and cumbersome but also
causes serious bottlenecks in the operation of the Railways and hinders the balanced
PDF-XChange
development Editor
of the country.PDF-XChange Editor
Indian Railways therefore PDF-XChange
took the bold decision in 1992 of Editor
DEMO getting rid of the multi- gauge
DEMOsystem and following the uni-gaugeDEMO
policy of adopting the
broad gauge (1676 mm) uniformly.

Benefits of Adopting BG (1676 mm) as the Uniform Gauge

The uni-gauge system will be highly beneficial to rail users, the railway administration, as
well as to the nation. Following are the advantages of a uni-system: No transport
bottlenecks There will be no transport bottlenecks after a uniform gauge is adopted and
this will lead to improved operational efficiency resulting in fast movement of goods and
passengers. No trans-shipment hazards.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 8

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
There will be no hazards of trans-shipment and as such no delays, no damage to goods, no
inconvenience to passengers of transfer from one train to another train.

Provisions of alternate routes

Through a uni-gauge policy, alternate routes will be available for free movement of traffic
and there will be less pressure on the existing BG network. This is expected to result in
long-haul road traffic reverting to the railways.

Better turnaround
There will be a better turnaround of wagons and locomotives, and their usage will
PDF-XChange Editorratio PDF-XChange
improve the operating of the railway system as aEditor PDF-XChange
whole. As a result the community Editor
DEMO will be benefited immensely.DEMO DEMO
Improved utilization of track There will be improved utilization of tracks and reduction in
the operating expenses of the railway.

Balanced economic growth The areas currently served by the MG will receive an
additional fillip, leading to the removal of regional disparities and balancing economic
growth. No multiple tracking works

The uni-gauge project will eliminate the need for certain traffic facilities and multiple
tracking works, which will offset the cost of gauge conversions to a certain extent

Better transport infrastructure Some of the areas served by the MG have the potential of
PDF-XChange Editor
becoming highly PDF-XChange
industrialized; Editor
skilled manpower is also available PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO
The uni-gauge policy will help in providing these areas a DEMO
better transportation
infrastructure.

Boosting investor's confidence With the liberalization of the economic policy, the uni-
gauge projects of Indian Railways have come to play a significant role. will help in
boosting the investors' confidence that their goods will be distributed throughout the
country in time and without any hindrance.

This will also help in setting up industries in areas not yet exploited because of the lack of
infrastructure facilities.

Planning of Uni-gauge Projects The gauge-conversion programme has been accelerated

on Indian Railways since 1992. In the eighth Plan (1993-97) itself, the progress achieved
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
in gauge-conversion projects in five years was more than the total progress made in the
Editor
DEMO past 45 years. DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 9

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

WHEEL AND AXIS ARRANGEMENTS AND CONING OF WHEELS

Introduction

Wheels and axles we have the different types of the locomotives under wagons which are
used for the hauling of the passengers and freight. All these wagons and locomotives have
different specifications depending on the gauges for which they have been used. If you
look at the various locomotives from the very starting of our history, we have been using
steam locomotives and then they have been replaced by diesel locomotives and finally by
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
the electric locomotives. Editor
DEMO DEMOthe wheels and axles are classified
In the case of the steam locomotives, DEMO by on the basis of
Whyte system. Traditionally, steam locomotives have been classified using either their
wheel arrangements or sometimes they are also been classified on the basis of axle
arrangements. In the case of the wheel arrangements classification, they are being
classified on the basis of Whyte system and other system locomotives have three different
types of wheel basis. They have the wheel basis which are either coupled or which are
having the driving conditions or detective power attached to them or the wheel basis on
which no attractive power is attached.

In Indian practice, the Indian practice has been taken from the United Kingdom because
British were the persons who introduced the Indian railways in our country and in this
system we count wheels and we do not count the axles as far as the steam locomotives are
PDF-XChange
concerned. InEditor PDF-XChange
the case of steam Editor
locomotives, one examples is beenPDF-XChange
taken here where it is Editor
DEMO been shown as 2-4-2. NowDEMO this 2-4-2 has the significance in terms of the wheel basis as
DEMO
been defined earlier. The first 2 is the front wheels or the 2 number of wheels have been
placed or what we can say is that there is one axle which is being placed in the front
condition. Then the 4 part is to the 4 number of wheels which have been placed in the
central condition where they are the powered wheels or the driving wheels and therefore
they transforms into the 2 axles condition and then there are trailing wheels where we
have 2 wheels at the back and again, if it transform them into the actual condition, it will
be working to one axle.

The compound locomotive is a condition where there is a more attractive power which is
required to haul the passenger or the freight. The heavy amount of the freight which is to
be transported and the trailing conditions governs the conditions where we require to
PDF-XChange
provide two Editor
locomotives PDF-XChange
together so as to haul Editor
them. Here, PDF-XChange
this is an example of Editor
DEMO compound locomotive where two locomotive of condition 2-8-2 or 2-8-4 have been
DEMO DEMO
joined together so as to haul the traffic or the passengers or the freight. Again, if we go by
the Whyte condition, Whyte system of classification of the locomotives of the wheel
configuration then 2-8-2 means they have 2 front wheels, 8 medium or central wheels and
2 trailer wheels, in case of the first locomotives whereas in the case of the second

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 10

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
locomotives we have 2 front wheels, 8 central condition wheels which are electrically
driven, which are driven for the movement of the locomotives and then in this case we
have 4 trailing wheels.

Coning wheels has the following disadvantages:

1. In order to minimize the above below disadvantages the tilting of rails is done. i.e. the
rails are not laid flat but tilted inwards by using inclined base plates sloped at 1 in 20
which is also the slope of coned surface of wheels.

2. The pressure of the horizontal component near the inner edge of the rail has a tendency
PDF-XChange Editor
to wear the rail quickly. PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO
3. The horizontal components DEMO
tend to turn the rail outwardly and hence the gauge is
widened sometimes.

4. If no base plates are provided, sleepers under the outer edge of the rails are damaged.

5. In order to minimize the above mentioned disadvantages the tilting of rails is done. i.e.
the rails are not laid flat but tilted inwards by using inclined base plates sloped at 1 in 20
which is also the slope of coned surface of wheels.

Advantages of Tilting of Rails

1. It maintains the gauge properly.

2. The wear at the head of rail is uniform.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
3. It increases the life of sleepers and the rails
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 11

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

VARIOUS RESISTANCES AND THEIR EVALUATION

Introduction

Various forces offer resistance to the movement of a train on the track. These resistances
may be the result of movement of the various parts of the locomotives as well as the
friction between them, the irregularities in the track profile, or the atmospheric resistance
to a train moving at great speed. The tractive power of a locomotive should be adequate
enough to overcome these resistances and haul the train at a specified speed.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
RESISTANCE DUE TO FRICTION
DEMO Resistance due to friction DEMO DEMO
is the resistance offered by the friction between the internal
parts of locomotives and wagons as well as between the metal surface of the rail and the
wheel to a train moving at a constant speed. This resistance is independent of speed and
can be further broken down into the following parts.

Journal friction

This is dependent on the type of bearing, the lubricant used, the temperature and
condition of the bearing, etc. In the case of roll bearings, it varies from 0.5 to 1.0 kg per
tonne.

Internal resistance
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
This resistance is consequential to the movement of the various parts of the locomotive
DEMO and wagons. DEMO DEMO
Rolling resistance

This occurs due to rail-wheel interaction on account of the movement of steel wheels on
a steel rail. The total frictional resistance is given by the empirical formula

R1= 0.0016 W

Where R1 is the frictional resistance independent of speed and W is the weight of the
train in tonnes.

RESISTANCE DUE TO WAVE ACTION

PDF-XChange
When a trainEditor PDF-XChange
moves with speed Editor
a certain resistance develops PDF-XChange
due to the wave action in Editor
DEMO the rail. Similarly, track irregularities
DEMO such as longitudinal unevenness DEMO and differences in
cross levels also offer resistance to a moving train. Such resistances are different for
different speeds. There is no

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 12

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
method for the precise calculation of these resistances but the following formula has been
evolved based on experience: R2 = 0.00008 WV Where R2 is the resistance (in tonnes)
due to wave action and track irregularities on account of the speed of the train, W is the
weight of the train in tonnes, and V is the speed of the train in kmph.

RESISTANCE DUE TO WIND

When a vehicle moves with speed, a certain resistance develops, as the vehicle has to
move forward against the wind. Wind resistance consists of side resistance, head
resistance, and tail resistance, but its exact magnitude depends upon the size and shape of
the vehicle, its speed, and the wind direction as well as its velocity. Wind resistance
PDF-XChange
depends uponEditor PDF-XChange
the exposed area of the vehicle and theEditor PDF-XChange
velocity and direction of the wind. In Editor
DEMO Fig. below, V is the velocity of wind at an angle θ. The horizontal component of wind, V
DEMO DEMO
cosθ, opposes the movement of the train. Wind normally exerts maximum pressure
when it acts at an angle of 60° to the direction of movement of the train. Wind resistance
can be obtained by the following formula: R3 =0.000017AV2 Where A is the exposed
area of vehicle (m2) and V is the velocity of wind (kmph).

R3 = 0.0000006 W V2

Where R3 is the wind resistance in tonnes,

Vis the velocity of the train in km per hour, and

W is the weight of the train in tonnes.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
RESISTANCE DUE TO GRADIENT
DEMO When a train moves on a rising
DEMO gradient, it requires extra effort inDEMO
order to move against
gravity as shown in Fig. below. Assuming that a wheel of weight W is moving on a rising
gradient OA, the following forces act on the wheel.

(a) Weight of the wheel (W), which acts downward

(b) Normal pressure N on the rail, which acts perpendicular to OA

(c) Resistance due to rising gradient (R4), which acts parallel to OA

These three forces meet at a common point Q and the triangle QCD can be taken as a
triangle of forces. It can also be geometrically proved that the two triangles QCD and
AOB are similar.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 13

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
RESISTANCE DUE TO CURVATURE

When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to overcome the
resistance offered by the curvature of the track. Curve resistance is caused basically
because of the following reasons

(a) The vehicle cannot adapt itself to a curved track because of its rigid wheel base. This is
why the frame takes up a tangential position as the vehicle tries to move in a
longitudinal direction along the curve as shown in Fig. below. On account of this, the
flange of the outer wheel of the leading axle rubs against the inner face of the outer rail,
giving rise to resistance to the movement of the train.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(b) Curve resistance can sometimes be the result of longitudinal slip, which causes the
DEMO forward motion of the wheels
DEMO
on a curved track. The outer wheelDEMO
flange of the trailing
axle remains clear and tends to derail. The position worsens further if the wheel base is
long and the curve is sharp.

(c) Curve resistance is caused when a transverse slip occurs, which increases the friction
between the wheel flanges and the rails.

(d) Poor track maintenance, particularly bad alignment, worn-out rails, and improper
levels, also increase resistance.

(e) Inadequate superelevation increases the pressure on the outer rail and, similarly,
excess superelevation puts greater pressure on the inner rails, and this also contributes to
PDF-XChange
an increase inEditor
resistance. PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO
The value of curve resistance DEMO
can be determined by the following equation:

Curve resistance = C x (FG/R)

where F is the force of sliding friction,

G is the gauge of the track,

R is the mean radius of the curve, and

C is the constant, which is dependent on various factors.

This equation indicates that

PDF-XChange Editor
(a) curve resistance PDF-XChange
increases Editor
with increase in gauge width and PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO (b) resistance is inversely proportional
DEMO to the radius, i.e., it increasesDEMO
with an increase in
the degree of the curve.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 14

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Empirical formulae have been worked out for curve resistance, which are as follows:
Curve resistance for BG (R5) = 0.0004 WD

Curve resistance for MG (R5) = 0.0003 WD

Curve resistance for NG (R5) = 0.0002 WD

Compensated gradient for curvature

Curve resistance is quite often compensated or offset by a reduction in the gradient. In

this way, the effect of curve resistance is translated in terms of resistance due to gradient.
The compensation is 0.04 per cent on BG, 0.03 per cent on MG, and 0.02 per cent on NG
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
lines for every 1° of the curve. This will be clear through the solved example given
Editor
DEMO below. DEMO DEMO
RESISTANCE DUE TO STARTING AND ACCELERATING

Trains face these resistances at stations when they start, accelerate, and decelerate. The
values of these resistances are as follows:

Resistance on starting, R6 = 0.15 W1 + 0.005 W2

Resistance due to acceleration, R7 = 0.028 aW

where W 1 is the weight of the locomotive in tonnes,

W2 is the weight of the trailing vehicles in tonnes,

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
W is the total weight of the locomotive and vehicle in tonnes. i.e. W1 + W2, and a is the
DEMO acceleration, which can beDEMOcalculated by finding the increase in DEMO
velocity per unit time,
i.e., (V2 – V1)/t, where V2 is the final velocity. V1 is the initial velocity, and t is the time
taken.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 15

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
.

HAULING CAPACITY AND TRACTIVE EFFORT

Introduction

The tractive effort of a locomotive is the force that the locomotive can generate for
hauling the load. The tractive effort of a locomotive should be enough for it to haul a train
at the maximum permissible speed. There are various tractive effort. Curves available for
different locomotives for different speeds, which enable the computation of the value of
tractive effort. Tractive effort is generally equal to or a little greater than the hauling
PDF-XChange Editor
capacity of the locomotive.PDF-XChange Editor
If the tractive effort:-much PDF-XChange
greater than what is required to Editor
haul the train, the wheels of the locomotive may slip. A rough assessment of the tractive
DEMO effort of different types of locomotive.-provided
DEMO DEMO
in the following sections.

Steam Locomotive
The tractive effort of a steam locomotive can be calculated by equating the total power
generated by the steam engine to the work done by the driving wheels.

Assume P to be the difference in steam pressure between the two sides of the infer, A the
area of the piston of the engine, a' the diameter of the piston of the ;iF, L the length of the
stroke of the engine, D the diameter of the wheel of locomotive, and Te the mean tractate
effort of the locomotive. Work done by /o-cylinder steam engine

= 2 X difference in steam pressure X area of the piston x 2 X length of the stroke

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
= 2P x A x 2L
DEMO DEMO DEMO
= 2P x (πd2/4)x 2L

= πd2L

work done in one revolution of the driving wheel of the locomotive: = tractive effort x
circumference of the wheel = Tc π D
squaring above two equations, πd2L = Tc π D Tc = d2L/D
is clear from above Equation that tractive effort increases with an increase in n pressure
difference and the diameter and length of the piston, but decreases an increase in the
diameter of the driving wheel of the locomotive.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 16

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Diesel Locomotive

Tractive effort of a diesel-elective locomotive can be assessed by the following empirical

formula.

Te = (308 x RHP) / V

where Te is the tractive effort of a diesel-electric locomotive,

RHP is the rated horsepower of the engine, and

V is the velocity in km per hour.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Electric Locomotive
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Tractive effort of an electric locomotive varies inversely with the power of speed. The
empirical formulae for calculating the approximate value of tractive effort are as follows

For an dc electric locomotive: Te = a / V3

For an ac electric locomotive: Te = a / V5

where a is a constant depending upon the various characteristics of the locomotive.

.HAULING POWER OF A LOCOMOTIVE

Hauling power of a locomotive depends upon the weight exerted on the driving s and the
friction between
PDF-XChange the drivingPDF-XChange
Editor wheel and the rail. TheEditor
coefficient ofPDF-XChange
friction depends upon Editor
the speed of the locomotive and the condition of the rail surface. The higher the speed of
DEMO the locomotive, the lower will DEMObe the coefficient of friction, whichDEMO
is about 0.1 for high
speeds and 0.2 for low speeds. The condition of the rail surface, whether wet or dry,
smooth or rough, etc., also plays an important role in deciding the value of the coefficient
of function. If the surface is very smooth, the coefficient of friction will be very low.

Hauling power = number of pairs of driving wheels x weight exerted on each driving axle

X coefficient of friction

Thus, for a locomotive with three pairs of driving wheels, an axle load of 20 tonnes, and a
coefficient of friction equal to 0.2, the hauling power will be equal to 3 x 20 x 0.2 tonne,
i.e., 12 tonnes.
PDF-XChange
Example : Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Calculate the maximum permissible
DEMOload that a BG locomotive withDEMO
three pairs of driving
wheels bearing an axle load of 22 tonnes each can pull on a straight level track at a speed
of 80 km/h. Also calculate the reduction in speed if the train has to run on a rising
gradient of 1 in 200. What would be the further reduction in speed if the train has to
negotiate a 4° curve on the rising gradient? Assume the coefficient of friction to be 0.2.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 17

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

RAIL

Introduction

Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an unchanging,
continuous, and level surface for the movement of trains. To be able to withstand stresses,
they are made of high-carbon steel. Standard rail sections, their specifications, and
various types of rail defects are discussed in this section.

FUNCTION OF RAILS
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Rails are similar to steel girders. They perform the following functions in a track:
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(a) Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.

(b) They provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The friction
between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the friction between the
pneumatic tyre and a metalled road.

(c) They serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.

(d) They bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through
axles and wheels of rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.

(e) They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the formation
PDF-XChange Editor
through sleepers PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
and the ballast. Editor
DEMO TYPES OF RAILS DEMO DEMO
DOUBLE HEADED RAIL

BULL HEADED RAIL

FLAT-FOOTED RAIL

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 18

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL SECTION

The requirements of an ideal rail section are as follows:

(a) The rail should have the most economical section consistent with strength, stiffness,
and durability.

(b) The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to the mid-
height of the rail so that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.

(c) A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and there should be an
economical and balanced distribution of metal in its various components so that each of
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
them can fulfill its requirements properly.
Editor
DEMO The requirements, as well asDEMO
the main considerations, for the designDEMO
of these rail
components are as follows:

Head
The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow for vertical wear. The rail head
should also be sufficiently wide so that not only is a wider running surface available, but
also the rail has the desired lateral stiffness. Web The web should be sufficiently thick so
as to withstand the stresses arising due to the loads bore by it, after allowing for normal
corrosion.

Foot
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to withstand vertical and horizontal
DEMO forces after allowing for lossDEMO DEMO
due to corrosion. The foot should be wide enough for
stability against overturning. The design of the foot should be such that it can be
economically and efficiently rolled.

Fishing angles
These must ensure proper transmission of loads from the rails to the fish plates. The
fishing angles should be such that the tightening of the plate does not produce any
excessive stress on the web of the rail.

Height of the rail

The height should be adequate so that the rail has sufficient vertical stiffness and strength
PDF-XChange
as a beam. Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Weight of rails DEMO DEMO
Though the weights of a rail and its section depend upon various considerations, the
heaviest axle load that the rail has to carrv olavs the most important role.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 19

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Length of rails

Theoretically, the longer is the rail, the lesser would be the number of joints and fittings
required and the lesser the cost of construction and maintenance. Longer rails are
economical and provide smooth and comfortable rides.

The length of a rail is, however, restricted due to the following factors:

(a) Lack of facilities for transport of longer rails, particularly on curves

(b) Difficulties in manufacturing very long rails

PDF-XChange
(c) DifficultiesEditor
in acquiring PDF-XChange Editor
bigger expansion joints for long rails PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO (d) Heavy internal thermal stresses

DEMO in long rails DEMO
Taking the above factors into consideration, Indian Railways has standardized a rail
length of 13 m (previously 42 ft) for broad gauge and 12 m (previously 39 ft) for MG and
NG tracks. Indian Railways is also planning to use 39 m, and even longer rails in its track
system. Now 65 m/78 m long rails are being produced at SAIL, Bhilai and it is planned to
manufacture 130 m long rails.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 20

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
UNIT 2

SLEEPERS

Introduction

Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. They have an important
role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast. Several types
of sleepers are used on Indian Railways. The characteristics of these sleepers and their
suitability with respect to load conditions are described in this section.

FUNCTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS OF SLEEPERS

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The main functions of sleepers are as follows:
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(a) Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment

(b) Giving a firm and even support to the rails

(c) Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast

(d) Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads

e) Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way

(f) Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life
PDF-XChange Editor these
Apart from performing PDF-XChange
functions the ideal Editor
sleeper shouldPDF-XChange
normally fulfill the Editor
DEMO following requirements. DEMO DEMO
a) The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.

b) The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.

c) The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix
and remove the rails easily.

d) The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not
crushed.

e) The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge
properly
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
f) The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
DEMO damaged during packing. DEMO DEMO
g) The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 21

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
h) The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the passage
of fast moving trains.

SLEEPER DENSITY AND SPACING OF SLEEPERS

Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as (M + x) or (N +

x), where M or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that varies
according to factors such as

(a) axle load and speed,

(b) type and section of rails,

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(c) type and strength of the sleepers,
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(d) type of ballast and depth of ballast cushion, and

(e) nature of formation.

If the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it
implies that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail length of the track on that route.
The number of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating the number of
sleepers per kilometre of the track, for example, 1540 sleepers/km. This specification
becomes more relevant particularly in cases where rails are welded and the length of the
rail does not have much bearing on the number of sleepers required. This system of
specifying the number of sleepers per kilometre exists in many foreign countries and is
PDF-XChange Editor
now being adopted PDF-XChange
on Indian Railways as well. Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The spacing of sleepers is DEMO DEMO
fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing is not kept
uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer near the joints because of the weakness of
the joints and impact of moving loads on them. There is, however, a limitation to the
close spacing of the sleepers, as enough space is required for working the beaters that are
used to pack the joint sleepers.

TYPES OF SLEEPERS The sleepers mostly used on Indian Railways are

(i)
wooden sleepers,
(ii)
cast iron (CI) sleepers,
(iii)
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
steel sleepers, and Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(iv)
DEMO DEMO
Concrete sleepers. DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 22

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

BALLAST AND BALLAST REQUIREMENTS

Introduction
Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, rnoorum, or any other granular material placed
and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the
PDF-XChange
formation. It Editor PDF-XChange
provides drainage Editor
as well as longitudinal and lateralPDF-XChange
stability to the track. Editor
Different types of ballast materials and their specifications are discussed in this chapter.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST
The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.

• It provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.

• It holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.

• It transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.

• It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.

• It provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• It provides effective drainage to the track.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• It provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.

TYPES OF BALLAST
The different types of ballast used on Indian Railways are described here.

Sand ballast
Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. It is also used with wooden ir.d
steel trough sleepers in areas where traffic densitv is verv low. Coarse sand is preferred in
comparison to fine sand. It has good drainage properties, but has the drawback of blowing
off because of being light. It also causes excessive wear of the rail top and the moving
PDF-XChange Editor
parts of the rolling stock. PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Moorum ballast DEMO DEMO
The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum. It is red, and sometimes
yellow, in colour. The moorum ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in new

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 23

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
constructions and also as sub-ballast. As it prevents water from percolating into the
formation, it is also used as a blanketing material for black cotton soil.

Coal ash or cinder

This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as the initial ballast in new
constructions since it is very cheap and easily available. It is harmful for steel sleepers
and fittings because of its corrosive action.

Broken stone ballast

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. Good stone ballast is generally
DEMO procured from hard stones DEMO DEMO
such as granite, quartzite, and hard trap. The quality of stone
should be such that neither it should be porous nor it flake off due to the weathering.
Good quality hard stone is normally used for high-speed tracks. This type of ballast works
out to be economical in the long run.

Other types of ballast

There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat ballast, gravel ballast, kankar
stone ballast, and even earth ballast. These types of ballast are used only in special
circumstances. The comparative advantages, disadvantages, and suitability of different
types of ballast are given in Table below.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

SIZES OF BALLAST

DEMO Previously, 50 mm (2") ballasts

DEMO DEMO
were specified for flat-bottom sleepers such as concrete
and wooden sleepers, and 40 mm (1.5") ballasts for metal sleepers such as CST-9 and
trough sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50 mm (2") ballasts have been adopted
universally for all types of sleepers.

Points and crossings are subjected to heavy blows of moving loads and hence are
maintained to a higher degree of precision. A small sized, 25 mm (1") ballast: s. therefore,
preferable because of its fineness for slight adjustments, better compaction, and increased
frictional area of the ballast. For uniformity sake, the Indian Railways has adopted the
same standard size of ballast for the main line as well as for points and crossings.

This standard size of ballast should be as per Indian Railways specification. The
PDF-XChange
specification Editor PDF-XChange
provides grading Editor
of ballast from 25 mm to 65 mm,PDF-XChange
maximum quantity of Editor
ballast being in the range of 40 mm to 50 mm size.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 24

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BALLAST

Ballast material should possess the following properties,

a) It should be tough and wear resistant.

b) It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the moving loads,
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
c) It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
d) It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.

e) It should resist both attrition and abrasion.

f) It should be durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under adverse
weather conditions

(g) It should allow for good drainage of water,

(h) It should be cheap and economical.

DESIGN OF BALLAST SECTION

PDF-XChange Editor
The design of PDF-XChange
the ballast section Editorof the
includes the determination PDF-XChange
depth of the ballast Editor
DEMO cushion below the sleeperDEMO and its profile. These aspects are DEMO
discussed as follows.
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion The load on the sleeper is transferred through the
medium of the ballast to the formation. The pressure distribution in the ballast section
depends upon the size and shape of the ballast and the degree of consolidation. Though
the lines of equal pressure are in the shape of a bulb as discussed in, yet for simplicity, the
dispersion of load can be assumed to be roughly 45° to the vertical. In order to ensure that
the load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of the ballast should be such that
the dispersion lines do not overlap each other. For the even distribution of load on the
formation, the depth of the ballast is determined by the following formula: Sleeper
spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 x depth of ballast.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 25

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

FORMATION

Introduction

Subgrade is the naturally occuring soil which is prepared to receive the ballast. The
prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast, along with sleeps and rails, is
PDF-XChange Editor
called the formation. PDF-XChange
The formation Editor of PDF-XChange
is an important constituent the track, as it supports Editor
the entire track structure.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
It has the following functions:

(a) It provides a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track.

(b) It bears the load transmitted to it from the moving load through the balla

(c) It facilitates drainage.

(d) It provides stability to the track.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORMATION

The formation can be in the shape of an embankment or a cutting. When formation is in
PDF-XChange
the shape ofEditor PDF-XChange
a raised bank Editor
constructed above the PDF-XChange
natural ground, it is called an Editor
DEMO embankment. The formationDEMO DEMO
at a level below the natural ground is called a cutting.
Normally, a cutting or an excavation is made through a hilly or natural ground for
providing the railway line at the required level below the ground level. The formation is
prepared either by providing additional earthwork over the existing ground to make an
embankment or by excavating the existing ground surface to make a cutting. The
formation can thus be in the shape of either an embankment or a cutting. The height of the
formation depends upon the ground contours and the gradients adopted. The side slope of
the embankment depends upon the shearing strength of the soil and its angle of repose.
The width of the formation depends upon the number of tracks to be laid, the gauge, and
such other factors.

Slopes of Formation
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The side slopes of both the embankment and the cutting depend upon the shearing
DEMO strength of the soil and its
DEMOangle of repose. The stability of DEMO
the slope is generally
determined by the slip circle method. In actual practice, average soil such as sand or clay
may require a slope of 2:1 (horizontal: vertical) for an embankment and 1:1 or 0.5:1 or
even steeper particularly when rock is available for cutting.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 26

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
To prevent erosion of the side slopes due to rain water, etc., the side slopes are turfed. A
thin layer of cohesive soil is used for this purpose. Alternatively, the slopes are turfed
with a suitable type of grass. Sometimes the bank also gets eroded due to standing water in
the adjoining land. A toe and pitching are provided in such cases.

Permanent way is the generic term for the track (rails, sleepers and ballast) on which
railway trains run. Although the configuration of the track today would be recognized by
engineers of the 19th century, it has developed significantly over the years as
technological improvements became available, and as the demands of train operation
increased.
PDF-XChange
RequirementEditor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
of Good Track
DEMO A permanent way or trackDEMO
should provide comfortable and safeDEMO
ride at the maximum
permissible speed with minimum maintenance cost. To achieve these objectives, a sound
permanet way should have the following characteristics:

super elevation to take into account the centrifugal force.

transition should be provided between the straight track and the curve.

nt
PDF-XChange Editor
should be followed PDF-XChange
by a proper Editor
vertical curve to provide PDF-XChange Editor
a smooth ride.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
running trains.

the track is not

effected by water logging.

variations in temperature and other such factors.

e various track
components.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

maintenance cost is minimum.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 27

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PERMANENT WAY

The following are the principal requirements of an ideal permanent way or of a good
railway track :-

i.
PDF-XChange The
Editor PDF-XChange
gauge of the permanent way should Editor PDF-XChange
be uniform, correct and it should not getEditor
altered.
DEMO ii. DEMO DEMO
ii. Both the rails should be at the same level on tangent (straight) portion of
the track.
iii.
Proper amount of superelevation should be provided to the outer rail above the inner
rail on curved portion of the track.
iv.
The permanent way should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.
v.
The curves, provided in the track, should be properly designed
vi.
An even and uniform gradient should be provided through out the length of the track.

PDF-XChange
vii. Editor
The PDF-XChange
tractive resistance of the track shouldEditor
be minimumPDF-XChange Editor

DEMO viii. The design ofDEMO the permanent way should be suchDEMO that the load of the train is
uniformly distributed on both the rails so as to prevent unequal settlement of the
track.

ix. It Should provide adequate elasticity in order to prevent the harshness of

impacts between the rails and the moving wheel loads of a train.

x. It should be free from excessive rail joints and all the joining should be
properly designed and constructed.

xi. xi. All the components parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures and
fastenings, etc. should satisfy the design requirements.

PDF-XChange
xii. Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
xii. All the fixtures and fastenings such as chairs, bearing plates, fish plates, fish
DEMO DEMO
bolts, spikes etc. DEMO
should be strong enough to withstand the stresses occurring in
the track.

xiii.
xiii. All the *points and crossings, laid in the permanent way, should be
properly designed and carefully constructed.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 28

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
xiv. xiv. It should be provided with fence near level crossings and also in urban areas.

xv. It should be provided with proper drainage facilities so as to drain off the rain
xv. water quickly away from the track.

xvi. It should be provided with safe and strong bridges coming in the
xvi. alignment of the track.

xvii. It should be provided with safe and strong bridges coming in the
xvii. alignment of the track.

xviii. It should be so constructed that repairs and renewals of any of its portion can be
PDF-XChange
xviii.
Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
carried out without any difficulty.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

WEAR AND FAILURE IN RAILS

RAIL WEAR

Due to the passage of moving loads and friction between the rail and the wheel, the rail
head gets worn out in the course of service. The impact of moving loads, the effect of the
forces of acceleration, deceleration, and braking of wheels, the abrasion due to rail-wheel
interaction, the effects of weather conditions such as changes in temperature, snow, and
PDF-XChange Editor
rains, the presence PDF-XChange
of materials Editor
such as sand, the standard PDF-XChange
of maintenance of the track, Editor
and such allied factors cause considerable wear and tear of the vertical and lateral planes of
DEMO the rail head. Lateral wear DEMO DEMO
occurs more on curves because of the lateral thrust exerted on
the outer rail by centrifugal force. A lot of the metal of the rail head gets worn out,
causing the weight of the rail to decrease. This loss of weight of the rail section should
not be such that the stresses exceed their permissible values. When such a stage is
reached, rail renewal is called for. In addition, the rail head should not wear to such an
extent that there is the possibility of a worn flange of the wheel hitting the fish plate.

Types of Wear on Rails

A rail may face wear and tear in the following positions:

(a) On top of the rail head (vertical wear)

PDF-XChange Editor
(b) On the sides PDF-XChange
of the rail head (lateral wear) Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO (c) On the ends of the rail (battering
DEMO DEMO
of rail ends) Wear is more prominent at some special
locations of the track.

These locations are normally the following:

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 29

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(a) On sharp curves, due to centrifugal forces

(b) On steep gradients, due to the extra force applied by the engine

(c) On approaches to railway stations, possibly due to acceleration and deceleration

(d) In tunnels and coastal areas, due to humidity and weather effects

Measurement of Wear Wear on rails can be measured using any of the following
methods:

(a) By weighing the rail

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(b) By profiling the rail section with the help of lead strips
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(c) By profiling the rail section with the help of needles

Methods to Reduce Wear Based on field experience,

some of the methods adopted to reduce vertical wear and lateral wear on straight paths
and curves are as follows-

(a) Better maintenance of the track to ensure good packing as well as proper alignment
and use of the correct gauge

(b) Reduction in the number of joints by welding

(c) Use of heavier and higher UTS rails, which are more wear resistant
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(d) Use of bearing plates and proper adzing in case of wooden sleepers
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(e) Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail in case of curves

(f) Providing check rails in the case of sharp curves

(g) Interchanging the inner and outer rails

(h) Changing the rail by carrying out track renewal

Rail End Batter

The hammering action of moving loads on rail joints batters the rail ends in due course of
time. Due to the impact of the blows, the contact surfaces between the rails and sleepers
PDF-XChange
also get wornEditor PDF-XChange
out, the ballast Editor
at places where the sleepers PDF-XChange
are joined gets shaken up, the Editor
fish bolts become loose, and all these factors further worsen the situation, thereby
DEMO increasing rail end batter. Rail
DEMO DEMO
end batter is measured as the difference between the height
of the rail at the end and at a point 30 cm away from the end. If the batter is up to 2 mm, it
is classified 'average', and if it is between 2 and 3 mm, it is classified as 'severe'. When

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 30

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
rail end batter is excessive and the rail is otherwise alright, the ends can be cropped and
the rail reused.

OTHER DEFECTS IN RAILS

Rail wear and battering of rail ends are the two major defects in rails. However some
other types of defects may also develop in a rail and necessitate its removal in extreme
cases. These are as follows:

Hogging of rails
Rail ends get hogged due to poor maintenance of the rail joint, yielding format, loose and
PDF-XChange Editor
faulty fastenings, and other PDF-XChange
such reasons. Hogging ofEditor PDF-XChange
rails causes the quality of the track to Editor
DEMO deteriorate. This defect can DEMO
be remedied by measured she packing. DEMO

Scabbing of rails
The scabbing of rails occurs due to the falling of patches or chunks of metal from the rail
table. Scabbing is generally seen in the shape of an elliptical depression; whose surface
reveals a progressive fracture with numerous cracks around it.

Wheel burns
PDF-XChange
Wheel burns Editor
are caused byPDF-XChange Editor
the slipping of the driving wheel of PDF-XChange
locomotives on the rail Editor
DEMO surface. As a consequence, extra heat is generated and the surface of the rail gets affected,
DEMO DEMO
resulting n a depression on the rail table. Wheel burns are generally noticed on steep
gradients or where there are heavy incidences of braking or near water columns.

Shelling and black spots

Shelling is the progressive horizontal separation of metal that occurs on the gauge side,
generally at the upper gauge corner. It is primarily caused by heavy bearing pressure on a
small area of contact, which produces heavy internal shear stress.

Corrugation of rail:

Corrugation consists of minute depressions on the surface of rails, varying in shape and
PDF-XChange Editor
size and occurring PDF-XChange
it irregular Editor
intervals. The exact cause PDF-XChange
of corrugation is not yet known, Editor
though many theories have been put forward. The factors which help in the formation of
DEMO rail corrugation, however, are
DEMObriefly enumerated here, DEMO
a) Metallurgy and age of rails

(i) High nitrogen content of the rails

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 31

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(ii) Effect of oscillation at the time of rolling and straightening of rails

(b) Physical and environment conditions of track

(i) Steep gradients

(ii) Yielding formation

(iii) Long tunnels

(iv) Electrified sections

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

(c) Train operations

(i)
High speeds and high axle loads
(ii)
Starting locations of trains
(iii)
Locations where brakes are applied to stop the train

(d) Atmospheric effects

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(i) High moisture content in the air particularly in coastal areas
DEMO (ii) Presence of sand. DEMO DEMO
RAIL FAILURE
A rail is said to have failed if it is considered necessary to remove it immediately from the
track on account of the defects noticed on it. The majority of rail failures originate from
the fatigue cracks caused due to alternating stresses created in the rail section on account
of the passage of loads. A rail section is normally designed to take a certain minimum
GMT of traffic, but sometimes due to reasons such as an inherent defect in the metal, the
section becomes weak at a particular point and leads to premature failure of the rail.

(b) Physical and environment conditions of track

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(i) Steep gradients
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(ii) Yielding formation

(iii)
Long tunnels
(iv)
Electrified sections

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 32

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(c) Train operations

(i)
High speeds and high axle loads
(ii)
Starting locations of trains
(iii)
Locations where brakes are applied to stop the train

(d) Atmospheric effects

(i) High moisture content in the air particularly in coastal areas

PDF-XChange
(ii) Presence Editor PDF-XChange
of sand The corrugation of rails is quite Editor
an undesirablePDF-XChange
feature. Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO
When vehicles pass over corrugated rails, a roaring sound is produced, possibly due to the
locking of air in the corrugation. This phenomenon is sometimes called 'Roaring of rails'.
This unpleasant and excessive noise causes great inconvenience to the passengers.
Corrugation also results in the rapid oscillation of rails, which in turn loosens the keys,
causes excessive wear to fittings, and disturbs the packing.

Causes of Rail Failures

The main causes of failure of rails are as follows:

PDF-XChange Editor
Inherent defects in the railPDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO These are due to manufacturing defects in the rail, such as faulty chemical composition,
DEMO DEMO
harmful segregation, piping, seams, laps, and guide marks. Defects due to fault of the
rolling stock and abnormal traffic effects Flat soots in tvres, engine burns, skidding of
wheels, severe braking, etc.

Excessive corrosion of rails

This generally takes place due to weather conditions, the presence of corrosive salts such
as chlorides and constant exposure of the rails to moisture and humidity in locations near
water columns, ashpits, tunnels, etc. Corrosion normally leads to the development of
cracks in regions with a high concentration of stresses.

Badly maintained joints

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Poor maintenance of joints such as improper packing of joint sleepers and loose fittings.
DEMO Defects in welding of jointsDEMO DEMO
These defects arise either because of improper composition of
the thermit weld metal or because of a defective welding technique. Improper
maintenance of track Ineffective or careless maintenance of the track or delayed renewal of
the track. Derailments The rails are damaged during derailment.

Classification of Rail Failures

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 33

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The classification of rail failures on Indian Railways has been codified for easy
processing of statistical data. The code is made up of two portions—the first portion
consisting of three code letters and the second portion consisting of three or four code
digits. First portion of the code

The three code letters make up the first portion and denote the following.

(i)
Type of rail being used (O for plain rail and X for points and crossing rails)
(ii)
Reasons for withdrawal of rail (F for fractured, C for cracked, and D for
defective
PDF-XChange
(iii) Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Probable cause failure (S for fault of rolling stock, C for excessive corrosion, D for
DEMO DEMO DEMO
derailment, and O for others) Second portion of code

within fish plate limits and 2 for other portions on the rail),

(ii) Second digit indicate the position in the rail section from where the failure started (0
for unknown, 1 for within rail head, 2 for surface of rail head, 3 for web, and 4 for foot).

(iii) Third digit indicate the direction of crack or fracture (0 to 9).

(iv)
Any other information about the fracture, where it is necessary to provide further
subdivision. No specific system is recommended for this code. Metallurgical
PDF-XChange Investigation
Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(v)
DEMO The followingDEMO
types of defective rails should normallyDEMO
be sent for
metallurgical investigation,
(vi)
Rails that have been removed from the track as a result of visual or ultrasonic detection

(vii) (ii) Rail failures falling in categories in which cracks or surface defects develop
at specified locations

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 34

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

CREEP OF RAIL

Introduction

Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers.
Rails have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic. Creep is
common to all railway tracks, but its magnitude varies considerably from place to place;
the rail may move by several centimeters in a month at few places, while at other
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
locations the movement may be almost negligible.
Editor
DEMO DEMO
THEORIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREEP
DEMO
Various theories have been put forward to explain the phenomenon of creep and its
causes, but none of them have proved to be satisfactory. The important theories are
briefly discussed in the following subsections.

Wave Motion Theory

According to wave motion theory, wave motion is set up in the resilient track because of
moving loads, causing a deflection in the rail under the load. The portion of the rail
immediately under the wheel gets slightly depressed due to the wheel load. Therefore, the
rails generally have a wavy formation.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Percussion Theory
DEMO DEMO DEMO
According to percussion theory, creep is developed due to the impact of wheels at the rail
end ahead of a joint. As the wheels of the moving train leave the trailing rail at the joint,
the rail gets pushed forward causing it to move longitudinally in the direction of traffic,
and that is how creep develops. Though the impact of a single wheel may be nominal, the

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 35

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
continuous movement of several wheels passing over the joint pushes the facing or
landing rail forward, thereby causing creep.

Drag Theory

According to drag theory, the backward thrust of the driving wheels of a locomotive has
the tendency to push the rail backwards, while the thrust of the other wheels of the
locomotive and trailing wagons pushes the rail in the direction in which the locomotive is
moving. This results in the longitudinal movement of the rail in the direction of traffic,
thereby causing creep.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

CAUSES OF CREEP
The main factors responsible for the development of creep are as follows.

Ironing effect of the wheel The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves formed in
the rail tends to cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting in creep.
Starting and stopping operations When a train starts or accelerates, the backward thrust
of its wheels tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly, when the train slows down or
comes to a halt, the effect of the applied brakes tends to push the rail forward. This in turn
PDF-XChange Editor
causes creep in one directionPDF-XChange
or the other. Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Changes in temperature DEMO DEMO
Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature
resulting in the expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot
weather conditions.

Unbalanced traffic In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e., each
track is unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a single-
line section, even though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of traffic in each
direction is normally variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of predominant
traffic. Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to

poor maintenance of the track, also contribute to the development of creep. as

follows: These are
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• Improper securing of rails to sleepers
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the movement
of sleepers

• Improper expansion gaps

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 36

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Badly maintained rail joints

• Rail seat wear in metal sleeper

• Rails too light for the traffic carried on them

• Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels

• Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing, uneven spacing
of sleepers

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

EFFECTS OF CREEP
The following are the common effects of creep.

Sleepers out of square The sleepers move out of their position as a result of creep and
become out of square. This in turn affects the gauge and alignment of the track, which
finally results in unpleasant rides

Expansion in gaps get disturbed Due to creep, the expansion gaps widen at some
PDF-XChange Editor
places and close at others. PDF-XChange
This results in the jointsEditor PDF-XChange
getting jammed. Undue stresses are Editor
DEMO created in the fish plates DEMO
and bolts, which affect the smooth working of the switch
DEMO
expansion joints in the case of long welded rails.

Distortion of points and crossings Due to excessive creep, it becomes difficult to

maintain the correct gauge and alignment of the rails at points and crossings. Difficulty in
changing rails If, due to operational reasons, it is required that the rail be changed, the
same becomes difficult as the new rail is found to be either too short or too long because of
creep.

Effect on interlocking The interlocking mechanism of the points and crossings pets
disturbed bv creep. Possible buckling of track If the creep is excessive and there is
negligence in the maintenance of the track, the possibility of buckling of the track cannot
be ruled out. Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Other effects There are other miscellaneous effects of creep such asDEMO
DEMO breaking of bolts and
kinks in the alignment, which occur in various situations.

MEASUREMENT OF CREEP

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 37

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Creep can be measured with the help of a device called creep indicator. It consists of two
creep posts, which are generally rail pieces that are driven at 1 km intervals on either side
of the track. For the purpose of easy measurement, their top level is generally at the same
level as the rail. Using a chisel, a mark is made at the side of the bottom flange of the rail
on either side of the track. A fishing string is then stretched between the two creep posts
and the distance between the chisel mark and the string is taken as the amount of creep.
According to the prescribed stipulations, creep should be measured at intervals of about
three months and noted in a prescribed register, which is to be maintained by the
permanent way inspector (PWI). Creep in excess of 150 mm (6 in.) should not be
permitted on any track and not more than six consecutive rails should be found jammed in a
PDF-XChange Editor
single-rail track PDF-XChange
at one location. There should be noEditor PDF-XChange
creep in approaches to points and Editor
crossings.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

ADJUSTMENT OF CREEP

When creep is in excess of 150 mm resulting in maintenance problems, the same should be
adjusted by pulling the rails back. This work is carried out after the required
engineering signals have been put up and the necessary caution orders given.

The various steps involved in the adjustment of creep are as follows:

PDF-XChange
(i) Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
A careful survey of the expansion gaps and of the current position of rail joints
DEMO is carried out. DEMO DEMO
(ii)
The total creep that has been proposed to be adjusted and the correct
expansion gap that is to be kept are decided in advance.
(iii)
(iii) The fish plates at one end are loosened and those at the other end are
removed. Sleeper fittings, i.e., spikes or keys, are also loosened or removed.
(iv)
The rails are then pulled back one by one with the help of a rope attached to a hook.

The pulling back should be regulated in such a way that the rail joints remain central and
suspended on the joint sleepers. The pulling back of rails is a slow process since only one
rail is dealt with at a time and can be done only for short isolated lengths of a track.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
Normally, about 40-50 men are required per kilometre for adjusting creep. When creep is
Editor
DEMO required to be adjusted forDEMO longer lengths, five rail lengths are DEMO
tackled at a time. The
procedure is almost the same as the preceding steps except that instead of pulling the rails
with i rope, a blow is given to them using a cut rail piece of a length of about 5 m.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 38

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
CREEP ADJUSTER

A creep adjuster is normally used when extensive work is involved. The creep adjuster is
set at the centre of the length of the track, to be tackled, with the wide joints behind it and
the jammed joints ahead of it.

The following steps are adopted while using a creep adjuster: (i) Expansion liners of the
correct size are put in all the expansion gaps, (ii) All the keys on the side (with wide
joints) of the creep adjuster are removed and all fish bolts loosened, (iii) The creep
adjuster is then used to close up the gaps to the required extent by pushing the rails
forward. A gap of a few inches is left between the rail ends opposite the adjuster, (iv)
PDF-XChange
The correctedEditor
rails are then PDF-XChange Editor
fastened with keys. After PDF-XChange
that, the rails on the other side of Editor
DEMO the adjuster are tackled, (v) The operation leaves some of the expansion gaps too wide
DEMO DEMO
which are tackled by the creep adjuster when it is set in the next position, (vi) The
corrected rails are then fastened and the adjuster is shifted to the new position, (vii) The
whole process is repeated again and again till the requisite attention has been paid to the
entire length of the rail. In the end it may be necessary to use a rail with the correct size of
closure (bigger or smaller) to complete the work.

RAIL JOINTS

Introduction

PDF-XChange Editor
Although a rail PDF-XChange
joint has always been an integral partEditor PDF-XChange
of the railway track, it is looked Editor
upon as a necessary evil because of the various problems that it presents. Earlier, rails
DEMO were rolled in short lengthsDEMO DEMO
due to difficulties in rolling and the problem of transportation.
With increase in temperature, rails expand and this expansion needs to be considered at
the joints. It was, therefore, felt that the longer the rail, the larger the required expansion
gap, and this too limited the length of the rail. A rail joint is thus an inevitable feature of
railway tracks, even though it presents a lot of problems in the maintenance of the
permanent way. This chapter discusses the various types of rail joints and their suitability
on a railway track.

ILL EFFECTS OF A RAIL JOINT

A rail joint is the weakest link in the track. At a joint, there is a break in the continuity of
the rail in both the horizontal and the vertical planes because of the presence of the
PDF-XChange
expansion gap Editor PDF-XChange
and imperfection in the levels ofEditor
rail heads. PDF-XChange
A severe jolt is also Editor
DEMO experienced at the rail jointDEMOwhen the wheels of vehicles negotiate the expansion gap.
DEMO
This jolt loosens the ballast under the sleeper bed, making the maintenance of the joint
difficult. The fittings at the joint also become loose, causing heavy wear and tear of the
track material. Some of the problems associated with the rail joint are as follows.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 39

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Maintenance effort
Due to the impact of moving loads on the joint, the packing under the sleeper loosens and
the geometry of the track gets distorted very quickly because of which the joint requires
frequent attention. It is generally seen that about 30 per cent extra labour is required for
maintenance of a joint.

Bonded main line 6-bolt rail joint on a segment of 76.9 kg/m rail. Note how bolts are
oppositely oriented to prevent complete separation of the joint in the event of being struck
by a wheel during a derailment.

PDF-XChange
Lifespan Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The life of rails, sleepers, and fastenings gets adversely affected due to the extra stresses
DEMO DEMO
created by the impact of moving loads on the rail joint. The rail ends particularly get
battered and hogged and chances of rail fracture at joints are considerably high due to
fatigue stresses in the rail ends.

Noise effect
A lot of noise pollution is created due to rail joints, making rail travel uncomfortable.

Sabotage chances
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Wherever there is a rail joint, there is a potential danger of the removal of fish plates and
DEMO rails by miscreants and greater
DEMOsusceptibility to sabotage.
DEMO
Impact on quality
The quality of the track suffers because of excessive wear and tear of track components
and rolling stock caused by rail joints.

Fuel consumption
The presence of rail joints results in increased fuel consumption because of the extra
effort required by the locomotive to haul the train over these joints.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL JOINT

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
An ideal rail joint provides the same strength and stiffness as the parent rail. The
DEMO characteristics of an ideal railDEMO
joint are briefly summarized here. DEMO

Holding the rail ends: An ideal rail joint should hold both the rail ends in their precise
location in the horizontal as well as the vertical planes to provide as much continuity in

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 40

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
the track as possible. This helps in avoiding wheel jumping or the deviation of the wheel
from its normal path of movement.

Strength: An ideal rail joint should have the same strength and stiffness as the parent
rails it joins.

Expansion gap: The joint should provide an adequate expansion

expansion and contraction of rails caused by changes in temperature gap for the free

Flexibility It should provide

required. Provision for flexibility for the easy replacement of rails, whenever
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
wear: It should provide for the wear of the rail ends, which is likely to occur under
DEMO normal operating conditions.DEMO DEMO
Elasticity: It should provide adequate elasticity as well as resistance to longitudinal
forces so as to ensure a trouble-free track.

Cost: The initial as well as maintenance costs of an ideal rail joint should be minimal.

TYPES OF RAIL JOINTS

The nomenclature of rail joints depends upon the position of the sleepers or the joints.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Classification According to Position of Sleepers Three types of rail joints come under
DEMO this category. DEMO DEMO
Supported joint In this type of joint, the ends of the rails are supported directly on the
sleeper. It was expected that supporting the joint would reduce the wear and tear of the
rails, as there would be no cantilever action. In practice, however, the support tends to
slightly raise the height of the rail ends. As such, the run on a supported joint is normally
hard. There is also wear and tear of the sleeper supporting the joint and its maintenance
presents quite a problem.

Suspended joint
In this type of joint, the ends of the rails are suspended between two sleepers and some
PDF-XChange
portion of theEditor PDF-XChange
rail is cantilevered Editor
at the joint. As a result PDF-XChange
of cantilever action, the packing Editor
under the sleepers of the joint becomes loose particularly due to the hammering action of
DEMO the moving train loads. Suspended
DEMO joints are the most common type DEMO
of joints adopted by
railway systems worldwide, including India

Bridge joints

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 41

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The bridge joint is similar to the suspended joint except that the two sleepers on either
side of a bridge joint are connected by means of a metal flat [Fig. (a)] or a corrugated
plate known as a bridge plate [Fig. 16.3(b)]. This type of joint is generally not used on
Indian Railways.

Staggered joint In this case, the joints in one rail are somewhat staggered and are not
opposite the joints in the other rail. Staggered joints are normally preferred on curved
tracks because they hinder the centrifugal force that pushes the track outward.

WELDING A RAIL JOINT

PDF-XChange
The purpose Editor PDF-XChange
of welding is to Editor
join rail ends together by PDF-XChange
the application of heat and thus Editor
eliminate the evil effects of rail joints.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
There are four welding methods used in railways.

a) Gas pressure welding

b) Electric arc or metal arc welding

c) Flash butt welding

d) Thermit welding

BEARING PLATES, ANTI-CREEP DEVICES

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
ADJUSTMENT OF CREEP
DEMO DEMO DEMO
When creep is in excess of 150 mm resulting in maintenance problems, the same should be
adjusted by pulling the rails back. This work is carried out after the required
engineering signals have been put up and the necessary caution orders given.

The various steps involved in the adjustment of creep are as follows:

(v) A careful survey of the expansion gaps and of the current position of rail joints
is carried out.

(vi) The total creep that has been proposed to be adjusted and the correct
expansion gap that is to be kept are decided in advance.

PDF-XChange
(vii) Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The fish plates at one end are loosened and those at the other end are
DEMO DEMO
removed. Sleeper fittings, i.e., spikes or keys, are also DEMO
loosened or removed.
(viii)
The rails are then pulled back one by one with the help of a rope attached to a hook.
The pulling back should be regulated in such a way that the rail joints remain
central and suspended on the joint sleepers. The pulling back of rails is a slow
process since only one rail is dealt with at a time and can be done

VEMU Institute of Technology

Page 42
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
only for short isolated lengths of a track. Normally, about 40-50 men are
required per kilometre for adjusting creep. When creep is required to be
adjusted for longer lengths, five rail lengths are tackled at a time. The
procedure is almost the same as the preceding steps except that instead of
pulling the rails with i rope, a blow is given to them using a cut rail piece of a
length of about 5 m.

CREEP ADJUSTER
A creep adjuster is normally used when extensive work is involved. The creep adjuster is
set at the centre of the length of the track, to be tackled, with the wide joints behind it and
PDF-XChange
the jammed Editor PDF-XChange
joints ahead of it. The following steps Editor
are adoptedPDF-XChange
while using a creep Editor
adjuster:
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(ix)
Expansion liners of the correct size are put in all the expansion gaps,
(x)
All the keys on the side (with wide joints) of the creep adjuster are removed and all
fish bolts loosened
(xi)
The creep adjuster is then used to close up the gaps to the required extent by pushing
the rails forward. A gap of a few inches is left between the rail ends opposite the
adjuster,
(xii)
(xi) The corrected rails are then fastened with keys. After that, the rails on the other
PDF-XChange side of the adjuster
Editor are tackled,
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(xiii)
DEMO (xii) The operation
DEMO leaves some of the expansion gapsDEMOtoo wide which are tackled
by the creep adjuster when it is set in the next position,

(xiv)
(xiii) The corrected rails are then fastened and new the adjuster is shifted to the
position,

(xv)
(xiv) The whole process is repeated again and again till the requisite attention has been
paid to the entire length of the rail. In the end it may be necessary to use a rail with
the correct size of closure (bigger or smaller) to complete the work.

PORTIONS OF TRACK SUSCEPTIBLE TO CREEP

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The following locations of a track are normally more susceptible to creep
DEMO DEMO DEMO
. • The point where a steel sleeper track or CST-9 sleeper track meets a wooden sleeper
track

• Dips in stretches with long gradients

• Approaches to major girder bridges or other stable structures

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 43

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Approaches to level crossings and points and crossings

• Steep gradients and sharp curves

MEASURES TO REDUCE CREEP

To reduce creep in a track, it should be ensured that the rails are held firmly to the
sleepers and that adequate ballast resistance is available. All spikes, screws, and keys
should be driven home. The toe load of fastenings should always be slightly more than
the ballast resistance. Creep anchors can effectively reduce the creep in a track. At least
eight of these creep anchors must be provided per panel. Out of the large number of creep
PDF-XChange
anchors tried Editor PDF-XChange
on Indian Railways, Editor
the 'fair T' and 'fair V anchors, PDF-XChange
have been standardized Editor
for use. The fair 'V anchor, which is more popular, is shown in Fig. below. The creep
DEMO anchor should fit snugly against
DEMO DEMO
the sleeper for it to be full;- effective.

The following measures are also helpful in reducing creep,

(a) The track should be well maintained—sleepers should be properly packed and the
crib and shoulder ballast should be well compacted.

(b) (b) A careful lookout should be kept for jammed joints that exist in series. In the
case of a fish- plated track, more than six consecutive continuously jammed joints
should not be permitted. In the case of SWR tracks, more than two consecutive
jammed joints should not be permitted at rail temperatures lower than the
maximum daily temperature (Tm) in the case of zones I and II and lower than
PDF-XChange(Tm - Editor PDF-XChange
5°C) in the case of zones III and IV. Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 44

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

UNIT 3

NECESSITYEditor
PDF-XChange FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the following
considerations:
DEMO DEMO
(a) To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains

(b) To achieve maximum speeds

(c) To carry heavy axle loads

(d) To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way

(e) To ensure that the track requires least maintenance

(f) For good aesthetics

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DETAILS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRACK
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The geometric design of the track deals with alignment of railway track and Curves
Details regarding curves and their various aspects.

GRADIENTS
Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway track. A
rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of movement of traffic and in
a down or falling gradient the track loses elevation the direction of movement of
traffic.

A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit.
Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if there is a rise of
PDF-XChange
1 m in 400 m,Editor
the gradient isPDF-XChange
1 in 400 or 0.25 per cent.Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO
Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives: DEMO
(a) To reach various stations at different elevations

(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 45

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork

The following types of gradients are used on the railways:

(a) Ruling gradient

(b) Pusher or helper gradient

(c) Momentum gradient

(d) Gradients in station yards

Ruling Gradient
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the
DEMO maximum load that can beDEMO DEMO
hauled by a locomotive on that section. While deciding the
ruling gradient of a section, it is not only the severity of the gradient, but also its length as
well as its position with respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into
consideration. The power of the locomotive to be put into service on the track also plays
an important role in taking this decision, as the locomotive should have adequate power to
haul the entire load over the ruling gradient at the maximum permissible speed.

In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250

In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

Once a ruling gradient has been specified for a section, all other gradients provided in
PDF-XChange Editor
that section should be flatterPDF-XChange Editor
than the ruling gradient after PDF-XChange
making due compensation for Editor
curvature.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Pusher or Helper Gradient
In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when trying to reduce
the length of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes, gradients steeper than the ruling
gradient are provided to reduce the overall cost. In such situations, one locomotive is not
adequate to pull the entire load, and an extra locomotive is required.

When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra
engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient.

. Momentum Gradient
PDF-XChange
The momentumEditor
gradient is PDF-XChange Editor
also steeper than the ruling gradient andPDF-XChange
can be overcome by a Editor
DEMO train because of the momentum
DEMO it gathers while running on theDEMOsection. In valleys, a
falling gradient is sometimes followed by a rising gradient. In such a situation, a train
coming down a falling gradient acquires good speed and momentum, which gives
additional kinetic energy to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients steeper than the

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 46

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
ruling gradient. In sections with momentum gradients there are no obstacles provided in
the form of signals, etc., which may bring the train to a critical juncture.

Gradients in Station Yards

The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons: (a) It prevents
standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the combined effect
of gravity and strong winds. (b) It reduces the additional resistive forces required to start a
locomotive to the extent possible. It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not
levelled completely and certain flat gradients are provided in order to ensure good
drainage. The maximum gradient prescribed in station yards on Indian Railways is 1 in
PDF-XChange
400, while theEditor
recommended PDF-XChange
gradient is 1 in 1000. Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO
GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES DEMO
Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result, gradients are
compensated to the following extent on curves

: (a) On BG tracks, 0.04 per cent per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum

(b) On MG tracks, 0.03 per cent per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum

(c) On NG tracks, 0.02 per cent per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum

where R is the radius of the curve in metres. The gradient of a curved portion of the
section should be flatter than the ruling gradient because of the extra resistance offered by
PDF-XChange
the curve. Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 47

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

SUPERELEVATION

DEMO The following terms are frequently

DEMO used in the design of horizontal curves.
DEMO
Superelevation or cant (Ca)
It is the difference in height between the outer and the inner rail on a curve. It is provided
by gradually raising the outer rail above the level of the inner rail. The inner rail, also
known as the gradient rail, is taken as the reference rail and is normally maintained at its
original level.

The main functions of superelevation are the following:

(a) To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails

(b) To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(c) To neutralize the effect of lateral forces
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(d) To provide comfort to passengers

Equilibrium speed
When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track is such that the resultant force of
the weight of the vehicle and of radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the
rails, the vehicle is not subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said to be in
equilibrium. This particular speed is called the equilibrium speed.

Maximum permissible speed

This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into consideration the
PDF-XChange Editor
radius of curvature, PDF-XChange
actual cant, cant deficiency, cantEditor PDF-XChange
excess, and the length of transition. Editor
DEMO On curves where the maximum DEMO permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional
DEMO
speed of the section of the line, permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.

Cant deficiency (Cd)

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 48

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed.
It is the difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the
actual cant provided.

Cant excess (Ce)

It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium speed.
It is the difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for
such a low speed.

PDF-XChange Editor
Cant gradient PDF-XChange
and cant deficiency gradient Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO These indicate the increaseDEMO DEMO
or decrease in the cant or the deficiency of cant in a given
length of transition. A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a cant or a deficiency of cant of 1
mm is attained or lost in every 1000 mm of transition length.

Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency

This is the rate at which cant deficiency increases while passing over the transition curve,
e.g., a rate of 35 mm per second means that a vehicle will experience a change in cant or a
cant deficiency of 35 mm in each second of travel over the transition when travelling at
the maximum permissible speed.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 49

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange EditorAND
CANT DEFICIENCY PDF-XChange
NEGATIVE SUPERELEVATIONEditor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Cant deficiency is the difference
DEMO between the equilibrium cant that is necessary for the
DEMO
maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided.

Cant deficiency is limited due to two considerations:

1. Higher cant deficiency causes greater discomfort to passengers

2. Higher cant deficiency leads to greater unbalanced centrifugal force, which in turn
leads to the requirement of stronger tracks and fastenings to withstand the resultant
greater lateral forces.

The maximum values of cant deficiency prescribed on Indian Railways are given in Table
below.
PDF-XChange Editor
Table Allowable PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
cant deficiency:
DEMO DEMO
GAUGE GROUP
DEMO
NORMAL CANT

DEFICIENCY
BG A &B 75

BG C,D AND E 75

MG ALL 50
ROUTS
NG 40

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO The limiting values of cant excess
DEMO have also been prescribed. DEMO

Cant excess should not be more than 75 mm on BG and 65 mm on MG for all types of
rolling stock.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 50

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 Cant excess should be worked out taking into consideration the booked speed of the trains
running on a particular section.

 In the case of a section that carries predominantly goods traffic, cant excess should be
kept low to minimize wear on the inner rail.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

NEGATIVE SUPERELEVATION
When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a
branch line, the super elevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the
main line curve cannot be provided.

In Fig. below, AB, which is the outer rail of the main line curve, must he higher than CD.
PDF-XChange
For the branchEditor PDF-XChange
line, however Editor
CF should be higher than PDF-XChange
AE or point C should be higher Editor
than point A. These two contradictory conditions cannot be met within one layout. In
DEMO such cases, the branch line DEMO DEMO
curve has a negative super elevation and, therefore, speeds on
both tracks must be restricted, particularly on the branch line.

A
F
P
BRANCH LINE
C
MAIN LINE
PDF-XChange
B Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO D DEMO DEMO
Fig: Negative super elevation
The provision of negative super elevation for the branch line and the reduction in speed
over the main line can be calculated as follows:

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 51

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(i) The equilibrium super elevation for the branch line curve is first calculated using
the formula e = GV2 / 127R

(ii) The equilibrium super elevation e is reduced by the permissible cant

deficiency Cd and the resultant super elevation to be provided is x = e - Cd where
x is the super elevation, e is the equilibrium super elevation, and Cd is 75 mm for BG
and 50 mm for MG. The value of Cd is generally higher than that of e, and,
therefore, x is normally negative. The branch line thus has a negative super
elevation of x.

(iii) The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a super elevation of x, is
PDF-XChange then
Editor
calculatedPDF-XChange
by adding the allowable Editor
cant deficiencyPDF-XChange (x + Cd). Editor
DEMO The safe speed DEMO
is also calculated and the smaller of theDEMO
two values is taken as the
maximum permissible speed on the main line curve.

SAFE SPEED ON CURVES

For all practical purposes safe speed refers to a speed which protects a carriage from the
danger of overturning and derailment and provides a certain margin of safety. Earlier it
was calculated empirically by applying Martin's formula:

For BG and MG Transitioned curves

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO V = 3.65(R -6)1/2 DEMO DEMO
where V is the speed in km per hour and R is the radius in metres.

Non-transitioned curves
Safe speed = four-fifths of the speed calculated using Eqn. above .

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 52

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

New Formula for Determining Maximum Permissible Speed on Transitioned Curves

Earlier, Martin's formula was used to work out the maximum permissible speed or safe
speed on curves. This empirical formula has been changed by applying a formula based
on theoretical considerations as per the recommendations of the committee of directors,
chief engineers, and the ACRS. The maximum speed for transitioned curves is now
determined as per the revised formulae given below:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
For BG
DEMO V = ((Ca + Cd) x R/ 13.76)1/2
DEMO DEMO
= 0.27((Ca + Cd) x R)1/2

where V is the maximum speed in km per hour,

Ca is the actual cant in millimetres,

Cd is the permitted cant deficiency in millimetres,

R is the radius in millimetres.

This equation is derived from Eqn for equilibrium super elevation and is based on the
PDF-XChange Editor
assumption that G = 1 750PDF-XChange Editor distance
mm, which is the centre-to-centre PDF-XChange
between the rail Editor
heads of a BG track with 52 g rails.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
For MG
V = 0.347((Ca + Cd) x R)1/2

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 53

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
This is based on the assumption that the centre-to-centre (c/c) distance between the rail
heads of an MG track is 1058 mm.

For NG (762 mm.)

V = 3.65(R – 6 )1/2 (subject to a maximum of 50 kmph)

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

(i) Maximum sanctioned speed of the section

This is the maximum permissible speed authorized by the commissioner of railway
safety. This is determined after an analysis of the condition of the track, the standard of
interlocking, the type of locomotive and rolling stock used, and other such factors.

(ii) Maximum speed of the section based on cant deficiency

This is the speed calculated using the formula given in Table above. First, the equilibrium
PDF-XChange Editor
speed is decided PDF-XChange
after taking various factors intoEditor PDF-XChange
consideration and the equilibrium Editor
DEMO superelevation (Ca) calculated.
DEMO The cant deficiency (Cd) is then added
DEMO to the equilibrium
superelevation and the maximum speed is calculated as per this increased superelevation
(Ca + Cd).

(iii) Maximum speed taking into consideration speed of goods train and cant

excess Cant (Ca) is calculated based on the speed of slow moving traffic, i.e., goods train.
This speed is decided for each section after taking various factors into account, but
generally its value is 65 km per hour for BG and 50 km per hour for MG. The maximum
value of cant excess (Ce) is added to this cant and it should be ensured that the cant for
the maximum speed does not exceed the value of the sum of the actual cant + and the cant
excess (Ca + Ce).
PDF-XChange
(iv)
Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Speed corresponding to the length of the transition curves
DEMO This is the least value ofDEMO DEMO
speed calculated after considering the various lengths of
transition curves given by the formulae listed in Table below.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 54

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO UNIT 4 DEMO DEMO
POINT AND CROSSING-II

Introduction
A tongue rail may be either straight or curved. Straight tongue rails have the advantage
that they are easily manufactured and can be used for right-hand as well as left-hand
turnouts. However, trains get jolted while negotiating with tongue rail turnouts because of
the abrupt change in the alignment. Straight rails are normally used for l-in-8.5 and l-in-
12 turnouts on Indian Railways. Curved tongue rails are shaped according to the
curvature of the turnout ft the toe to the heel of the switch. Curved tongue rails allow for
smooth trains, but can only be used for the specific curvature for which they are Curved
PDF-XChange
switches are Editor
normally usedPDF-XChange
for 1-in-16 and 1-in-20Editor
IRS (IndianPDF-XChange
Standard) turnouts on Editor
DEMO Indian Railways. Recently Indian Railways has also laying 1-in- 8.5 and 1-in-12 turnouts
DEMO
with curved switches on important li
DEMO

Length of Tongue
Rails The length of a tongue rail from heel to toe varies with the gauge and the switch.
The longer the length of the tongue rail, the smoother the entry to the switch because of
the smaller angle the switch rail would make with the fixed heel divergence. The longer
length of the tongue rail, however, occupies too much layout space in station yards where
a number of turnouts have to be laid in space. The length of the tongue rail should be
more than the rigid wheel a four-wheeled wagon to preclude the possibility of derailment
in case the move from their position when a train is running on the switch.
PDF-XChange
CROSSING Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO A crossing or frog is a device
DEMO DEMO
introduced at the point where two gauge faces across each
other to permit the flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one tract to another (Fig.
below). To achieve this objective, a gap is provided from the throw to the nose of the
crossing, over which the flanged wheel glides or jumps. In order to ensure that this

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 55

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
flanged wheel negotiates the gap properly and does not strike the nose, the other wheel is
guided with the help of check rails.

(a) Two rails, point rail and splice rail, which are machined to form a nose. Tic point rail
ends at the nose, whereas the splice rail joins it a little behind the nose. Theoretically, the
point rail should end in a point and be made as thin as possible, but such a knife edge of
the point rail would break off under the movement of traffic. The point rail, therefore, has
its fine end slightly cut off form a blunt nose, with a thickness of 6 mm (1/4"). The toe of
the blunt nose is called the actual nose of crossing (ANC) and the theoretical point where
the gauge faces from both sides intersect is called the theoretical nose of crossing (TNC).
The 'V rail is planed to a depth of 6 mm (1/4") at the nose and runs out in 89 mm to stop a
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
wheel running in the facing direction from hitting the nose.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(b) Two wing rails consisting of a right-hand and a left-hand wing rail that converge to
form a throat and diverge again on either side of the nose. Wing rails are flared at the
ends to facilitate the entry and exit of the flanged wheel in the gap.

(c) A pair of check rails to guide the wheel flanges and provide a path for them, thereby
preventing them from moving sideways, which would otherwise may result in the wheel
hitting the nose of the crossing as it moves in the facing direction.

Types of Crossings
A crossing may be of the following types.

PDF-XChange Editor
(a) An acute angle crossing PDF-XChange
or 'V crossing Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO (b) An obtuse or diamond crossing.
DEMO DEMO
(c) A square crossing

For manufacturing purposes, crossings can also be classified as follows.


Built-up crossing

Cast steel crossing

Combined rail and cast crossing
NUMBER AND ANGLE OF CROSSING
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
A crossing is designated either by the angle the gauge faces make with each other or,
DEMO more commonly, by the number
DEMO DEMO
of the crossing, represented by N. There are three
methods of measuring the number of a crossing, and the value of N also depends upon the
method adopted. All these methods are illustrated below.

Centre line method

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 56

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
This method is used in Britain and the US. In this method, N is measured along the centre
line of the crossing.

1m

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

Right angle method

This method is used on Indian Railways. In this method, N is measured along the base of
a right- angled triangle. This method is also called Coles method.

Cot α/2 – N = N /1/2 or N = 1/2 Cot α/2

PDF-XChange
1m Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

Cot α = N /1 or N = Cot α

Isosceles triangle method

In this method, N is taken as one of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO 1m DEMO DEMO

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 57

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Sin α/2 = ½ /N or N = 1/2N

Cosec α/2 = 2N

N = ½ Cosec α/2

The right angle method used on Indian Railways, in which TV is the cotangent of the
angle formed by two gauge faces, gives the smallest angle for the same value of N.

To determine the number of a crossing-on site, the point where the offset gauge face of
the turnout track is 1 m is marked. The distance of this point (in metres) from the
theoretical nose of crossing gives N
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

TURNOUTS

Introduction

The simplest arrangement of points and crossing can be found on a turnout taking off
from a straight track. There are two standard methods prevalent for designing a turnout.
These are the (a) Coles method and (b) IRS method.

These methods are described in detail in the following sections. The important terms used
in describing the design of turnouts are defined as follows:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Curve lead (CL) This is the distance from the tangent point (T) to the theoretical nose of
DEMO crossing (TNC) measured along
DEMO the length of .the main track. DEMO
Switch lead (SL) This is the distance from the tangent point (T) to the heel of the switch
(TL) measured along the length of the main track.

Lead of crossing (L) This is the distance measured along the length of the main track as
follows: Lead of crossing (L) = curve lead (CL) - switch lead (SL)

Gauge (G) This is the gauge of the track.

Heel divergence (d) This is the distance between the main line and the turnout side at the
heel.
PDF-XChange Editor
Angle of crossing (a) ThisPDF-XChange Editor
is the angle between the PDF-XChange
main line and the tangent of the Editor

DEMO turnout line. DEMO DEMO

Radius of turnout (R) This is the radius of the turnout. It may be clarified that the radius
of the turnout is equal to the radius of the centre line of the turnout (/?,) plus half the
gauge width.

VEMU Institute of Technology Page 58

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
R = R}+ 0.5,G

As the radius of a curve is quite large, for practical purposes, R may be taken to be equal
to .ft,.

Special fittings with turnouts

Some of the special fittings required for use with turnouts are enumerated as follows:
Distance blocks Special types of distance blocks with fishing fit surfaces are provided at
the nose of the crossing to prevent any vertical movement between the wing rail and the
nose of the crossing.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Flat bearing plates As turnouts do not have any cant, flat bearing plates are provided
DEMO under the sleepers DEMO DEMO

Spherical washers These are special types of washers and consist of two pieces with a
spherical point of contact between them. This permits the two surfaces to lie at any angle
to each other.These washers are used for connecting two surfaces that are not parallel to
one another. Normally, tapered washers are necessary for connecting such surfaces.
Spherical washers can adjust to the uneven bearings of the head or nut of a bolt and so are
used on all bolts in the heel and the distance blocks behind the heel on the left-hand side of
the track.

PDF-XChange Editor
Slide chairs These PDF-XChange
are provided under tongue rails toEditor
allow them toPDF-XChange
move laterally. These Editor
are different for ordinary switches and overriding switches.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Grade off chairs These are special chairs provided behind the heel of the switches to
give a suitable ramp to the tongue rail, which is raised by 6 mm at the heel.

Gauge tie plates These are provided over the sleepers directly under the toe of the
switches, and under the nose of the crossing to ensure proper gauge at these locations.

Stretcher bars These are provided to maintain the two tongue rails at an exact distance.

Coles method
This is a method used for designing a turnout taking off from a straight track (Fig. 14.11).
The curvature begins from a point on the straight main track ahead of the toe of the
PDF-XChange
switch at the Editor
theoretical toePDF-XChange
of switch (TTS) and endsEditor PDF-XChange
at the theoretical nose of crossing Editor
DEMO (TNC). The heel of the switch is located at the point where the offset of the curve is equal
DEMO DEMO
to the heel divergence. Theoretically, there would be no kinks in this layout, had the
tongue rail been curved as also the wing rail up to the TNC. Since tongue rails and wing
rails are not curved generally, there are the following three kinks in this layout.

A C E BANGALORE Page 58
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Tangent points

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

On Indian Railways, normally 1-in-8.5 turnouts are used for goods trains while 1-in-12
and 1-in- 16 turnouts are used for passenger trains. Recently 1-in-20 and 1 -in-24 turnouts
have also been designed by the RDSO, to be used to permit higher speeds for fast trains on
the turnout side. The maximum speeds permitted on these turnouts are given in Table
below.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Table: Permissible speeds on turnouts
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Gauge Type of Switch Permissible speed (kmph)
turnout angle

BG 1 in 8.5 1°34'27" 10* for straight switch and 15 for curved

switch for 52/60 kg rails on PSC sleepers

BG 1 in 8.5 Symmetrical 30 for curved switch as well as SS with

split (SS) 52/60 kg on PSC sleepers; 15* for curved
0°27'35" switch for 52/60 kg on PSC sleepers*

PDF-XChange
BG Editor PDF-XChange
l-in-16 1°8'0" 50 or 601Editor PDF-XChange Editor
0°24'27"
DEMO DEMO DEMO
MG 1 in 8.5 1°35'30" 10 for straight as well as curved switch
0°29'14"

A C E BANGALORE Page 59
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
MG l-in-12 1°09'38" 1 5 for straight switch and 1 5 for partly
0°24'27" curved switch
MG l-in-16 0°24'27" 30

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO
DESIGN OF TURNOUTS
A turnout, after branching off from the main track, may run into various directions of
which running parallel to the original track is most common. The design calculation of
various turnout are based on following three factors:

(i)
Method of calculating various leads
(ii)
Method employed for crossing angle
(iii)
Type of tongue rail used
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Notation used in design calculation
DEMO Following notation have been
DEMO DEMO
used in various methods for design of turnouts:

CL = Curve lead

= Distance between theoretical nose of the crossing (T.N.C.) and the tangent point

A C E BANGALORE Page 60
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
T measured along the length of main track.

SL = Switch lead

= Distance between tangent point T and the heel of the switch (H.S.) measured along
the length of the track

L = Lead or crossing lead

= Distance between T.N.C. and the heel of the switch (H.S.) measured along the length

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

of the track

DEMO Lead rails, being curved rails,

DEMO DEMO
are not measured along their curve length, long their
projected length along the straight rail.

Therefore, CL, SL and L, it is clear that

CL = SL + L or L = CL – SL
β = Angle of the switch, i.e. the angle between the gauge faces of switch rail and stock

rail

α = Angle of the crossing

d = Heel divergence or clearance

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
R0 = Radius of the outer turnout
DEMO R = Radius of centre line ofDEMO
the turnout
DEMO
G = Gauge of the track

N = Number of the crossing

D = Distance between T.N.C. and tangent point of crossing curve

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 61
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

UNIT 5

AIRPORT SCENARIO IN INDIA

Introduction
Since its beginning in the early twentieth century, civil aviation has become one of the
most fascinating, important, and complex industries in the world. The civil aviation
system, particularly its airports, has come to be the backbone of world transport and a
necessity to twenty-first-century trade and commerce. In 2008, the commercial service
PDF-XChange Editor
segment of civil PDF-XChange
aviation, consisting Editor
of more than 900 airlines andPDF-XChange
22,000 aircraft, carried Editor
DEMO more than 2 billion passengers
DEMO and 85 million tons of cargo onDEMO
more than 74 million
flights to more than 1700 airports in more than 180 countries worldwide. Millions more
private, corporate, and charter ―general aviation‖ operations were conducted at
thousands of commercial and general aviation airports throughout the world. In many
parts of the world, commercial service and general aviation serve as the primary, if not
the only method of transportation between communities. The magnitude of the impact of
the commercial air transportation industry on the world economy is tremendous,
contributing more than $2.6 trillion in economic activity, equivalent to 8 percent of the
world gross domestic product, and supporting 29 million jobs.

Air transport scenario in India

PDF-XChange Editor
The first commercial flightPDF-XChange Editor
in India was made on February PDF-XChange
18, 1911 by Henri Piquet, a Editor
frenchman. The flight was planned from Allahabad to Naini junction which is a distance of
DEMO 7 km L5 miles). Same year DEMO DEMOof air flying
Sir George Loyd undertook the rganization
between Bombay and Karachi. Air xvice between these cities were considered as purely
mporary and was taken as a government venture.

A C E BANGALORE Page 62
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
In 1927 British government established Civil Aviation epartmenl and (his organization
helped in building up of a w aerodromes and bringing up of some flying clubs. A gular
weekly service commenced between Karachi and elhi in 1929 under Imperial Airways
Service. In 1939 Tata \rways Limited started internal air services between Allahabad,
Calcutta and Colombo. Later, Indian Trans-Continental Airways mited was formed for
the foreign flights in 1933. The second world War helped this country for having large
tmber of technical personnel. Air Transport Licensing Board came into being in 1946.
Tata airlines changed its name as Air India Limited in July 1946 here were about eleven
operating units by 1947. The nigbt rvic.escommenced in 1949. For external air services,
the Jvernment of India entered in agreement in November 1947, th a new formed
PDF-XChange
organization, Editor
named as AitPDF-XChange
India International mited.Editor PDF-XChange
It inaugurated its first international Editor
service to London June 8, 1948 via Cairo and Geneva with a fleet of three constellation-
DEMO 749 aircraft. The initial frequency
DEMO DEMO
of one flight a week was gradually stepped up to seven
Super-Constellation services a week with alternate stops at Paris, Prague, Duesseidorf,
Zurich, Geneva, - Rome, Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Master Committee 1952
recommended the formation of Civil Aviation Board as a statutary body. Air Transport
Corporation Bill was passed on May 14, 1953. Under this bill two corporations were
established, one for operating international services and the other for domestic services.
The domestic operations were taken over by the Indian Airlines Corporation. Similarly,
Air India. International Limited was renamed as Air India International Corporation. On
August 1, 1953 airlines were nationalised. In April 1960, Air India celebrated entry into
the jet age by starting Boeing 707 services to London and later in May to New York—
thus becoming the first Asian carrier to operate over the Atlantic. In July 1967, the
PDF-XChange
Government, Editor
of India set upPDF-XChange Editor
the International Airports Committee PDF-XChange
under the chairmanship Editor
DEMO of Mr. J. R. D Tata to advise DEMO the Government regarding the improvement which are
DEMO
required in the existing international airports it India in view of the continuous growth of
air traffic and the likely introduction of very large subsonic and supersonic aircrafts in
near future. The interim report of the committee was submitted to the Government in
April, 1968. On January 2, 1971, Indian Airlines inaugurated the daily Boeing 737
service on the Bombay- Calcutta and Delhi-Bombay sectors. The country for domestic
flights is divided in to four flight information regions with centres at Delhi, Bombay
Madras and Calcutta. International Airport Authority of India (IAAI) was set u in April
1972 for the operation, management, planning an development of the four international
airports. The first commercial flight in India was made on February 18, 1911, when a
French pilot Monseigneur Piguet flew airmails from Allahabad to Naini, covering a
distance of about 10 km in as many minutes. Tata Services became Tata Airlines and then
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
Air-India and spread its wings as Air-India International. The domestic aviation scene,
Editor
DEMO however, was chaotic. WhenDEMO the American Tenth Air Force in India DEMO
disposed of its planes
at throwaway prices, 11 domestic airlines sprang up, scrambling for traffic that could
sustain only two or three. In 1953, the government nationalized the airlines, merged them,
and created Indian Airlines. For the next 25 years JRD Tata remained the chairman of
Air-India and a director on the board of Indian Airlines. After JRD left, voracious unions

A C E BANGALORE Page 63
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
mushroomed, spawned on the pork barrel jobs created by politicians. In 1999, A-I had
700 employees per plane; today it has 474 whereas other airlines have 350. For many
years in India air travel was perceived to be an elitist activity. This view arose from the
―Maharajah‖ syndrome where, due to the prohibitive cost of air travel, the only people
who could afford it were the rich and powerful. In recent years, however, this image of
Civil Aviation has undergone a change and aviation is now viewed in a different light - as
an essential link not only for international travel and trade but also for providing
connectivity to different parts of the country. Aviation is, by its very nature, a critical part
of the infrastructure of the country and has important ramifications for the development
of tourism and trade, the opening up of inaccessible areas of the country and for providing
PDF-XChange Editoractivity
stimulus to business PDF-XChange
and economic growth. Editor
Until less PDF-XChange
than a decade ago, all Editor
aspects of aviation were firmly controlled by the Government. In the early fifties, all
DEMO airlines operating in the country
DEMO DEMO
were merged into either Indian Airlines or AirIndia and,
by virtue of the Air Corporations Act, 1953; this monopoly was perpetuated for the next
forty years. The Directorate General of Civil Aviation controlled every aspect of flying
including granting flying licenses, pilots, certifying aircrafts for flight and issuing all rules
and procedures governing Indian airports and airspace. Finally, the Airports Authority of
India was entrusted with the responsibility of managing all national and international air
ports and administering every aspect of air transport operation through the Air Traffic
Control. With the opening up of the Indian economy in the early Nineties, aviation saw
some important changes. Most importantly, the Air Corporation Act was repealed to end
the monopoly of the public sector and private airlines were reintroduced.

PDF-XChange
Objectives of Editor
Civil AviationPDF-XChange
Ministry Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO a) DEMO DEMO
To ensure aviation safety, security
b)
Effective regulation of air transport in the country in the liberalized environment
c)
Safe, efficient, reliable and widespread quality air transport services are provided at

reasonable prices
d)
Flexibility to adapt to changing needs and circumstances
e)
To provide all players a level-playing field
f)
Encourage Private participation
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
g) Editor
Encourage Trade, tourism and overall economic activity and growth
DEMO h) DEMO DEMO
Security of civil aviation operations is ensured through appropriate systems,

policies, and practices

A C E BANGALORE Page 64
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

An airport system plan is a representation of the aviation facilities required to meet the
immediate and future needs of a metropolitan area, region, state, or country. The system
PDF-XChange
plan presentsEditor PDF-XChange
the recommendations for the generalEditor
location andPDF-XChange
characteristics of new Editor
DEMO airports and heliports and theDEMOnature of expansion for existing ones to meet forecasts of
DEMO
aggregate demand. It identifies the aviation role of existing and recommended new
airports and facilities. It includes the timing and estimated costs of development and
relates airport system planning to the policy and objectives of the relevant jurisdiction. Its
overall purpose is to determine the extent, type, nature, location, and timing of airport
development needed to establish a viable, balanced, and integrated system of airports. It
also provides the basis for detailed airport planning such as that contained in the airport
master plan.

The airport system plan provides both broad and specific policies, plans, and programs
required to establish a viable and integrated system of airports to meet the needs of the
region. The objectives of the system plan include:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
1. The orderly and timely development of a system of airports adequate to meet present
DEMO and future aviation needs and
DEMO DEMO
to promote the desired pattern of regional growth relative to
industrial, employment, social, environmental, and recreational goals.

A C E BANGALORE Page 65
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
2. The development of aviation to meet its role in a balanced and multimodal
transportation system to foster the overall goals of the area as reflected in the
transportation system plan and comprehensive development plan.

3. The protection and enhancement of the environment through the location and
expansion of aviation facilities in a manner which avoids ecological and environmental
impairment.

4. The provision of the framework within which specific airport programs may be
developed consistent with the short- and long-range airport system requirements.

PDF-XChange Editorof land-use

5. The implementation PDF-XChange
and airspace plansEditor PDF-XChange
which optimize these resources in an Editor
often constrained environment.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
6. The development of long-range fiscal plans and the establishment of priorities for
airport financing within the governmental budgeting process.

7. The establishment of the mechanism for the implementation of the system plan through
the normal political framework, including the necessary coordination between
governmental agencies, the involvement of both public and private aviation and
nonaviation interests, and compatibility with the content, standards, and criteria of
existing legislation. The airport system planning process must be consistent with state,
regional, or national goals for transportation, land use, and the environment.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The elements in a typical airport
DEMO DEMO
system planning process include the following:

1. Exploration of issues that impact aviation in the study area

2. Inventory of the current system

3. Identification of air transportation needs

4. Forecast of system demand

5. Consideration of alternative airport systems

6. Definition of airport roles and policy strategies

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
7. Recommendation of system changes, funding strategies, and airport development
DEMO 8. Preparation of an implementation
DEMO plan Although the process DEMO involves many varied
elements, the final product will result in the identification, preservation, and enhancement
of the aviation system to meet current and future demand. The ultimate result of the
process will be the establishment of a viable, balanced, and integrated system of airports.

A C E BANGALORE Page 66
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Airport Classification

Airports are presently classified in the following manner:

1. International Airports

2. Custom Airports

3. Model Airports

4. Other Domestic Airports

5. Civil Enclaves in Defence Airport

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

SITE SELECTION

PDF-XChange
IntroductionEditor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO The emphasis in airport planning

DEMOis normally on the expansionDEMO
and improvement of
existing airports. However if an existing airport cannot be expanded to meet the future
demand or the need for a new airport is identified in an airport system plan, a process to
select a new airport site may be required.

ii

iii

iv

v
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO vi DEMO DEMO
vii

viii -wide planning

A C E BANGALORE Page 67
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
ix

THE AIRPORT MASTER PLAN

An airport master plan is a concept of the ultimate development of a specific airport. The
term development includes the entire airport area, both for aviation and nonaviation uses,
and the use of land adjacent to the airport. It presents the development concept
graphically and contains the data and rationale upon which the plan is based. Master plans
are prepared to support expansion and modernization of existing airports and guide the
development of new airports. The overall objective of the airport master plan is to provide
guidelines for future development which will satisfy aviation demand in a financially
PDF-XChange Editor
feasible manner PDF-XChange
and be compatible Editor
with the environment, PDF-XChange
community development, and Editor
other modes of transportation.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
More specifically it is a guide for

1. Developing the physical facilities of an airport

2. Developing land on and adjacent to the airport

3. Determining the environmental effects of airport construction and operations

4. Establishing access requirements

5. Establishing the technical, economic and financial feasibility of proposed

developments through a thorough investigation of alternative concepts
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
6. Establishing a schedule of priorities and phasing for the improvements proposed in the
DEMO plan DEMO DEMO
7. Establishing an achievable financial plan to support the implementation schedule

8. Establishing a continuing planning process which will monitor conditions and adjust
plan recommendations as circumstances warrant

Guidelines for completing an airport master plan are described by ICAO and in United
States by. A master plan report is typically organized as follows: the

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

Preferred development plan

A C E BANGALORE Page 68
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

OBSTRUCTION AND ZONING LAWS

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO IMAGINARY SURFACESDEMO DEMO
In order to determine whether an object is an obstruction to air navigation, several
imaginary surfaces are established with relation to the airport and to each end of a
runway. The size of the imaginary surfaces depends on the category of each runway (e.g.,
utility or transport) and on the type of approach planned for that end of the runway (e.g.,
visual, nonprecision instrument, or precision instrument).

They are described as follows:

1. Primary surface. The primary surface is a surface longitudinally centered on a

runway. When the runway is paved, the primary surface extends 200 ft beyond each end of
the runway. When the runway is unpaved, the primary surface coincides with each end of
PDF-XChange Editor
the runway. The elevationPDF-XChange
of the primary surface Editor PDF-XChange
is the same as the elevation of the Editor
nearest point on the runway centerline.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
2. Horizontal surface. The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane 150 ft above the
established airport elevation, the perimeter of which is constructed by swinging arcs of

A C E BANGALORE Page 69
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
specified radii from the center of each end of the primary surface of each runway and
connecting each arcs by lines tangent to those arcs.

3. Conical surface. The conical surface is a surface extending outward and upward from
the periphery of the horizontal surface at a slope of 20 horizontal to 1 vertical for a
horizontal distance of 4000 ft.

4. Approach surface. The approach surface is a surface longitudinally centered on the

extended runway centerline and extending outward and upward from each end of a
runway at a designated slope based upon the type of available or planned approach to the
runway.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
5. Transitional surface. Transitional surfaces extend outward and upward at right angles
DEMO to the runway centerline plus
DEMO DEMO
the runway centerline extended at a slope of 7 to 1 from the
sides of the primary surface up to the horizontal surface and from the sides of the
approach surfaces. The width of the transitional surface provided from each edge of the
approach surface is 5000 ft.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
DEMO DEMO
Introduction
One of the great challenges for airport planning and design is creating facilities that
accommodate a very wide variety of aircraft. Aircraft vary widely in terms of their
physical dimensions and performance characteristics, whether they be operated for
commercial air service, cargo, or general aviation activities.

There are a large number of specifications for which aircraft may be categorized.
Depending on the portion of the area of the airport, certain aircraft specifications become
more critical. For example, aircraft weight is important for determining the thickness and
PDF-XChange
strengths of Editor PDF-XChange
the runway, taxiway, Editor
and apron pavements, PDF-XChange
and affects the takeoff and Editor
landing runway length requirements at an airport, which in turn to a large extent
DEMO influences planning of the entire
DEMO airport property. The wingspan andDEMOthe fuselage length
influence the size of parking aprons, which in turn influences the configuration of the
terminal buildings. Wingspan and turning radii dictate width of runways and taxiways,
the distances between these traffic ways, and affects the required turning radius on

A C E BANGALORE Page 70
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
pavement curves. An aircraft‗s passenger capacity has an important bearing on facilities
within and adjacent to the terminal building.

Since the initial success of the Wright Flyer in 1903, fixed-wing aircraft have gone
through more than 100 years of design enhancements, resulting in vastly improved
performance, including the ability to fly at greater speeds and higher altitudes over larger
ranges with more revenue generating carrying capacity (known as payload) at greater
operating efficiencies. These improvements are primarily the results of the
implementation of new technologies into aircraft specifications, ranging from materials
from which the airframes are built, to the engines that power the aircraft. Of great
challenge to airport planning and design, historically has been to adapt the airport
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
environment to accommodate changes in aircraft physical and performance specifications.
DEMO For example: DEMO DEMO
• The introduction of ―cabin-class‖ aircraft, such as the Douglas DC-3, in the mid-1930s
resulted in the need for airports to construct longer, paved runways from the shorter grass
strips that previously existed.

• The introduction of aircraft equipped with turbofan and turbojet engines in the late
1950s added requirements for longer and stronger runways, facilities to mitigate jet-blast,
and policies to reduce the impact of aircraft noise at and around the airport.

• The introduction of ―jumbo-jet‖ or ―heavy‖ aircraft, such as the Boeing-747, in the

late 1960s added new requirements for runway specifications, as well as terminal area
design requirements for accommodating large volumes of passengers and cargo.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO • The proliferation of regional
DEMO jet aircraft, introduced because of more efficient engine
DEMO
technologies, resulted in the need for airports to modify many terminal areas that had
accommodated larger jets or smaller turbo-prop aircraft.

Most recently, the introduction of the world‗s largest passenger aircraft, the Airbus A-
380, as well as the smallest of certified general aviation jet aircraft, continues to affect
design specifications of airport airfield and terminal areas.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 71
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

UNIT 6

Introduction

A runway is a rectangular area on the airport surface prepared for the takeoff and landing
of aircraft. An airport may have one runway or several runways which are sited, oriented,
and configured in a manner to provide for the safe and efficient use of the airport under a
variety of conditions. Several of the factors which affect the location, orientation, and
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
number of runways at an airport include local weather conditions, particularly wind
Editor
DEMO distribution and visibility, DEMO DEMOarea, the type
the topography of the airport and surrounding
and amount of air traffic to be serviced at the airport, aircraft performance requirements,
and aircraft noise.

Runway Configurations

The term ―runway configuration‖ refers to the number and relative orientations of one or
more runways on an airfield. Many runway configurations exist. Most configurations are
combinations of several basic configurations. The basic configurations are

(1) single runways,

(2) parallel runways,

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
(3) intersecting runways, and
DEMO DEMO DEMO
(4) open-V runways.

Single Runway It has been estimated that the hourly capacity of a single runway in VFR
(visual flight rules) conditions is somewhere between 50 and 100 operations per hour,

A C E BANGALORE Page 72
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
while in IFR (instrument flight rules ) conditions this capacity is reduced to 50 to 70
operations per hour, depending on the composition of the aircraft mix and navigational
aids available.

Parallel Runways The capacities of parallel runway systems depend on the number of
runways and on the spacing between the runways. Two, three, and four parallel runways
are common. The spacing between parallel runways varies widely. For the purpose of this
discussion, the spacing is classified as close, intermediate, and far, depending on the
centreline separation between two parallel runways. Close parallel runways are spaced
from a minimum of 700 ft (for air carrier airports) to less than 2500 ft. In IFR conditions
an operation of one runway is dependent on the operation of other runway. Intermediate
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
parallel runways are spaced between 2500 ft to less than 4300 ft. In IFR conditions an
DEMO arrival on one runway is independent
DEMO of a departure on the other DEMO
runway. Far parallel
runways are spaced at least 4300 ft apart. If the terminal buildings are placed between
parallel runways, runways are always spaced far enough apart to allow room for the
buildings, the adjoining apron, and the appropriate taxiways. When there are four parallel
runways, each pair is spaced close, but the pairs are spaced far apart to provide space for
terminal buildings. In VFR conditions, close parallel runways allow simultaneous arrivals
and departures, that is, arrivals may occur on one runway while departures are occurring
on the other runway. Aircraft operating on the runways must have wingspans less than
171 ft for centerline spacing at the minimum of 700 ft. The hourly capacity of a pair of
parallel runways in VFR conditions varies greatly from 60 to 200 operations per hour
depending on the aircraft mix and the manner in which arrivals and departures are
PDF-XChange
processed on Editor
these runways. PDF-XChange Editor
Similarly, in IFR conditions PDF-XChange
the hourly capacity of a pair of Editor
closely spaced parallel runways ranges from 50 to 60 operations per hour, of a pair of
DEMO intermediate parallel runways DEMOfrom 60 to 75 operations per hour, DEMO
and for a pair of far
parallel runways from 100 to 125 operations per hour.

Intersecting Runways

Many airports have two or more runways in different directions crossing each other.
These are referred to as intersecting runways. Intersecting runways are necessary when
relatively strong winds occur from more than one direction, resulting in excessive
crosswinds when only one runway is provided. When the winds are strong, only one
runway of a pair of intersecting runways can be used, reducing the capacity of the airfield
substantially. If the winds are relatively light, both runways can be used simultaneously.
The capacity of two intersecting runways depends on the location of the intersection (i.e.,
PDF-XChange
midway or nearEditor PDF-XChange
the ends), the Editor
manner in which the runways PDF-XChange
are operated for takeoffs and Editor
DEMO landings, referred to as theDEMOrunway use strategy, and the aircraft mix. The farther the
DEMO
intersection is from the takeoff end of the runway and the landing threshold, the lower is
the capacity. The highest capacity is achieved when the intersection is close to the takeoff
and landing threshold.

A C E BANGALORE Page 73
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Open-V Runways
Runways in different directions which do not intersect are referred to as open-V
runways. Like intersecting runways, open-V runways revert to a single runway when
winds are strong from one direction. When the winds are light, both runways may be used
simultaneously. The strategy which yields the highest capacity is when operations are
away from the V and this is referred to as a diverging pattern. In VFR the hourly capacity
for this strategy ranges from 60 to 180 operations per hour, and in IFR the corresponding
capacity is from 50 to 80 operations per hour. When operations are toward the V it is
referred to as a converging pattern and the capacity is reduced to 50 to 100 operations per
hour in VFR and to between 50 and 60 operations per hour in IFR.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Combinations of Runway Configurations
DEMO DEMO
From the standpoint of capacity and air traffic control, a single-direction runway
configuration is most desirable. All other things being equal, this configuration will yield
the highest capacity compared with other configurations. For air traffic control the routing
of aircraft in a single direction is less complex than routing in multiple directions.
Comparing the divergent configurations, the open-V runway pattern is more desirable
than an intersecting runway configuration. In the open-V configuration an operating
strategy that routes aircraft away from the V will yield higher capacities than if the
operations are reversed. If intersecting runways cannot be avoided, every effort should be
made to place the intersections of both runways as close as possible to their thresholds
and to operate the aircraft away from the intersection rather than toward the intersection.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 74
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

ORIENTATION AND CONFIGURATION

Introduction

The orientation of a runway is defined by the direction, relative to magnetic north, of the
operations performed by aircraft on the runway. Typically, but not always, runways are
oriented in such a manner that they may be used in either direction. It is less preferred to
orient a runway
PDF-XChange in such a way
Editor that operating in one direction
PDF-XChange Editor is precluded, normally due to
PDF-XChange Editor
nearby obstacles. In addition to obstacle clearance considerations, which will be
DEMO discussed later in this chapter,
DEMO runways are typically oriented basedDEMOon the area‗s wind
conditions. As such, an analysis of wind is essential for planning runways. As a general
rule, the primary runway at an airport should be oriented as closely as practicable in the
direction of the prevailing winds. When landing and taking off, aircraft are able to
maneuver on a runway as long as the wind component at right angles to the direction of
travel, the crosswind component, is not excessive.

The FAA recommends that runways should be oriented so that aircraft may be landed at
least 95 percent of the time with allowable crosswind components not exceeding specified
limits based upon the airport reference code associated with the critical aircraft that has
the shortest wingspan or slowest approach speed. When the wind coverage is less than 95
percent a crosswind runway is recommended.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The allowable crosswind is 10.5 kn (12 mi/h) for Airport Reference Codes A-I and B-I,
DEMO 13 kn (15 mi/h) for AirportDEMO DEMO
Reference Codes A-II and B-II, 16 kn (18.5 mi/h) for Airport
Reference Codes A-III, B-III, C-I, C-II, C-III and C-IV, and 20 knots (23 mph) for
Airport Reference Codes A-IV through D-VI [5].

A C E BANGALORE Page 75
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
ICAO also specifies that runways should be oriented so that aircraft may be landed at
least 95 percent of the time with crosswind components of 20 kn (23 mph) for runway
lengths of 1500 m more, 13 kn (15 mi/h) for runway lengths between 1200 and 1500 m,
and 10 kn (11.5 mi/h) for runway lengths less than 1200 m.

Once the maximum permissible crosswind component is selected, the most desirable
direction of runways for wind coverage can be determined by examination of the average
wind characteristics at the airport under the following conditions:

1. The entire wind coverage regardless of visibility or cloud ceiling

PDF-XChange Editor
2. Wind conditions when thePDF-XChange
ceiling is at least 1000 ftEditor PDF-XChange
and the visibility is at least 3 mi Editor
3. Wind conditions when ceiling is between 200 and 1000 ft and/or the visibility is
DEMO DEMO DEMO
between . and 3 mi.

The first condition represents the entire range of visibility, from excellent to very poor,
and is termed the all weather condition. The next condition represents the range of good
visibility conditions not requiring the use of instruments for landing, termed visual
meteorological condition (VMC). The last condition represents various degrees of poor
visibility requiring the use of instruments for landing, termed instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC). The 95 percent criterion suggested by the FAA and ICAO is applicable
to all conditions of weather; nevertheless it is still useful to examine the data in parts
whenever this is possible.

PDF-XChange
In the UnitedEditor PDF-XChange
States, weather Editor
records can be obtained PDF-XChange
from the Environmental Data and Editor
Information Service of the National Climatic Center at the National Oceanic and
DEMO Atmospheric AdministrationDEMO DEMO
located in Ashville, N.C., or from various locations found on
the Internet. Weather data are collected from weather stations throughout the United
States on an hourly basis and recorded for analysis.

The data collected include ceiling, visibility, wind speed, wind direction, storms,
barometric pressure, the amount and type of liquid and frozen precipitation, temperature,
and relative humidity. A report illustrating the tabulation and representation of some of
the data of use in airport studies was prepared for the FAA. The weather records contain
the percentage of time certain combinations of ceiling and visibility occur (e.g., ceiling,
500 to 900 ft; visibility, 3 to 6 mi), and the percentage of time winds of specified velocity
ranges occur from different directions (e.g., from NNE, 4 to 7 mi/h). The directions are
PDF-XChange
referenced to Editor
true north. PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The Wind Rose DEMO DEMO
The appropriate orientation of the runway or runways at an airport can be determined
through graphical vector analysis using a wind rose. A standard wind rose consists of a
series of concentric circles cut by radial lines using polar coordinate graph paper. The

A C E BANGALORE Page 76
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
radial lines are drawn to the scale of the wind magnitude such that the area between each
pair of successive lines is centered on the wind direction.

The shaded area indicates that the wind comes from the southeast (SE) with a magnitude
between 20 and 25 mi/h. A template is also drawn to the same radial scale representing
the crosswind component limits. A template drawn with crosswind component limits of
15 mi/h is shown on the right side of Fig. above. On this template three equally spaced
parallel lines have been plotted. The middle line represents the runway center line, and
the distance between the middle line and each outside line is, to scale, the allowable
crosswind component (in this case, 15 mi/h). The template is placed over the wind rose in
such a manner that the center line on the template passes through the center of the wind
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
rose.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

By overlaying the template on the wind rose and rotating the centreline of the template
through the origin of the wind rose one may determine the percentage of time a runway in
the direction of the centerline of the template can be used such that the crosswind
component does not exceed 15 mi/h. Optimum runway directions can be determined from
this wind rose by the use of the template, typically made on a transparent strip of material.
With the center of the wind rose as a pivot point, the template is rotated until the sum of
the percentages included between the outer lines is a maximum. If a wind vector from a
segment lies outside either outer line on the template for the given direction of the
runway, that wind vector must have a crosswind component which exceeds the allowable
PDF-XChange Editorplotted
crosswind component PDF-XChange
on the template. When Editor PDF-XChange
one of the outer lines on the Editor
template divides a segment of wind direction, the fractional part is estimated visually to
DEMO the nearest 0.1 percent. This DEMO DEMO
procedure is consistent with the accuracy of the wind data
and assumes that the wind percentage within the sector is uniformly distributed within
that sector. In practice, it is usually easier to add the percentages contained in the sectors
outside of the two outer parallel lines and subtract these from 100 percent to find the
percentage of wind coverage.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 77
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH AND CORRECTIONS

Introduction

Length of runway decided taking following assumptions:

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

on runway
DEMO DEMO DEMO

The basic runway length is determined form the performance characteristics of aircraft
using airport. The following cases are usually considered

Normal landing case

Normal takeoff case

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Engine failure case
DEMO DEMO DEMO
For jet engine aircraft all three cases are considered but for piston engine air craft first and
third case are usually considered. The longest runway length is finally adopted. The
landing case require that aircraft should come to stop within 60% of the landing distance.
The full strength pavement is provided for entire landing distance.

A C E BANGALORE Page 78
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The normal takeoff requires a clear way which is an area beyond the runway and is
alignment with the centre line of the runway. The width of the clear way is not less than
150m ( 500 ft) and is kept free from obstruction. The clearway ground area any object
should not protrude a plane upward at a slope of 1.25% from the runway end.

Engine failure case may require either a clearway or a stop way or both. Stopway is
defined as the area beyond runway and centrally located in alignment with the centreline
of the runway. It is used for decelerating the aircraft to stop during aborted takeoff. The
strength of the stopway should be sufficient to carry the weight of the aircraft without
casing any structural damage. If engine fail at a speed less than the designated engine
failure speed, the pilot decelerate the aircraft and use the stopway. If however engine fails
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
at a speed higher than the designated speed, there is no other option to pilot take-off. The
DEMO pilot may latter take turn andDEMO make a landing. For piston engineDEMO aircrafts full strength
pavement is provided for entire takeoff distance and the accelerated stop distance.

Correction for elevation, temperature and gradient

Airports are constructed in different elevation different atmospheric temperature and

gradient, in contrast to the assumption made for basic runway length. Therefore
correction required for changes in each components.

Correction in elevation
All other things being equal, the higher the field elevation of the airport, results the less
dense the atmosphere, requiring longer runway lengths for the aircraft to get to the
PDF-XChange Editor toPDF-XChange
appropriate groundspeed Editor
achieve sufficient lift for PDF-XChange
takeoff. For airports at elevation Editor
DEMO above sea level, the designDEMO
runway length is 300 ft plus 0.03 ft for every foot above sea
DEMO
level. ICAO recommends the basic runway length should increase at rate of 7% per 100 m
rise in elevation over MSL.

Correction in temperature
With rise of reference temperature same effect is there as that of elevation. The airport
reference temperature defined as monthly mean of average daily temperature (Ta) for the
hottest month of the year plus one third the difference of this temperature and monthly
mean of the maximum daily temperature(Tw) for same month of the year. Reference
Temperature = Ta + (Tw – Ta)/3 ICAO recommends the basic runway length after have
been corrected for elevation, should further increase at the rate of 1% for every 10C
increase of reference
PDF-XChange Editortemperature. If both correction
PDF-XChange increases PDF-XChange
Editor more than 35% ICAO Editor
recommended specific site study should be conducted.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Correction for gradient
Steeper gradient require greater consummation of energy and longer length of runway to
attain the desired speed. ICAO does not recommend any correction. FAA recommend

A C E BANGALORE Page 79
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
after correction for elevation and temperature a further increase in runway length at arte
of 20% for every 1 percent effective gradient.

Effective gradient is defined taking maximum difference between elevation between

lowest point and highest point in the runway divided by length of the runway.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS DESIGN

Taxiways and Taxi lanes

Taxiways are defined paths on the airfield surface which are established for the taxiing of
aircraft and are intended to provide a linkage between one part of the airfield and another.
Basically it established the connection between runway, terminal building and hanger.
PDF-XChange
The term ―dualEditor PDF-XChange
parallel taxiways‖ Editor
refers to two taxiways parallel PDF-XChange
to each other on which Editor
airplanes can taxi in opposite directions. An apron taxiway is a taxiway located usually on
DEMO the periphery of an apron intended
DEMO DEMO
to provide a through taxi route across the apron. A taxi
lane is a portion of the aircraft parking area used for access between the taxiways and the
aircraft parking positions. ICAO defines an aircraft stand taxi lane as a portion of the
apron intended to provide access to the aircraft stands only. In order to provide a margin of
safety in the airport operating areas, the traffic ways must be separated sufficiently
from each other and from adjacent obstructions. Minimum separations between the
centerlines of taxiways, between the centerlines of taxiways and taxi lanes, and between
taxiways and taxi lanes and objects are specified in order that aircraft may safely
maneuver on the airfield.

Taxiway and Taxilane Separation Requirements

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
FAA Separation
DEMO Criteria The separation criteria
DEMO DEMO
adopted by the FAA are predicated upon the wingtips of
the aircraft for which the taxiway and taxilane system have been designed and provide a
minimum wingtip clearance on these facilities. The required separation between taxiways,
between a taxiway and a taxilane, or between a taxiway and a fixed or movable object

A C E BANGALORE Page 80
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
requires a minimum wingtip clearance of 0.2 times the wingspan of the most demanding
aircraft in the airplane design group plus 10 ft. This clearance provides a minimum
taxiway centerline to a parallel taxiway centerline or taxilane centerline separation of 1.2
times the wingspan of the most demanding aircraft plus 10 ft, and between a taxiway
centerline and a fixed or movable object of 0.7 times the wingspan of the most demanding
aircraft plus 10 ft. The taxilane centerline to a parallel taxilane centerline or fixed or
movable object separation in the terminal area is predicated on a wingtip clearance of
approximately half of that required for an apron taxiway. This reduction in clearance is
based on the consideration that taxiing speed is low in this area, taxiing is precise, and
special guidance techniques and devices are provided. This requires a wingtip clearance
PDF-XChange Editor
or wingtip-to-object PDF-XChange
clearance Editor
of 0.1 times the wingspan PDF-XChange
of the most demanding aircraft Editor
plus 10 ft.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Sight Distance and Longitudinal Profile

As in the case of runways, the number of changes in longitudinal profile for taxiways is
limited by sight distance and minimum distance between vertical curves. The FAA does
not specify line of sight requirements for taxiways other than those discussed earlier
related to runway and taxiway intersections. However, the sight distance along a runway
from an intersecting taxiway needs to be sufficient to allow a taxiing aircraft to enter or
PDF-XChange Editor
cross the runway PDF-XChange
safely. The FAA specifies that fromEditor
any point onPDF-XChange
the taxiway centerline Editor
the difference in elevation between that point and the corresponding point on a parallel
DEMO runway, taxiway, or apron edgeDEMO DEMO
is 1.5 percent of the shortest distance between the points.
ICAO requires that the surface of the taxiway should be seen for a distance of 150 m from
a point 1.5 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter A runways, for a distance of
200 m from a point 2 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter B runways, and for a
distance of 300 m from a point 3 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter C, D, or E
runways. In regard to longitudinal profile of taxiways, the ICAO does not specify the
minimum distance between the points of intersection of vertical curves. The FAA
specifies that the minimum distance for both utility and transport category airports should
be not less than the product of 100 ft multiplied by the sum of the absolute percentage
values of change in slope.

Exit Taxiway Geometry

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The function of exit taxiways, or runway turnoffs as they are sometimes called, is to
DEMO DEMO
minimize runway occupancy by landing aircraft. Exit taxiways can be placed at right
angles to the runway or some other angle to the runway. When the angle is on the order of
30°, the term high-speed exit is often used to denote that it is designed for higher speeds

A C E BANGALORE Page 81
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
than other exit taxiway configurations. In this chapter, specific dimensions for high-speed
exit, right-angle exit (low- speed) taxiways are presented.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

Aircraft paths in the test approximated a spiral. A compound curve is relatively easy to
establish in the field and begins to approach the shape of a spiral, thus the reason for
suggesting a compound curve. The following pertinent conclusions were reached as a
result of the tests [13]:

1. Transport category and military aircraft can safely and comfortably turn off runways at
PDF-XChange
speeds on the Editor
order of 60 toPDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
65 mi/h on wet and dry pavements. Editor
DEMO DEMO
2. The most significant factor DEMO
affecting the turning radius is speed, not the total angle of
turn or passenger comfort.

3. Passenger comfort was not critical in any of the turning movements.

4. The computed lateral forces developed in the tests were substantially below the
maximum lateral forces for which the landing gear was designed.

5. Insofar as the shape of the taxiway is concerned, a slightly widened entrance gradually
tapering to the normal width of taxiway is preferred. The widened entrance gives the pilot
more latitude in using the exit taxiway.

6. Total angles of turn of 30° to 45° can be negotiated satisfactorily. The smaller angle
PDF-XChange Editorbecause
seems to be preferable PDF-XChange Editor
the length of the curved PDF-XChange
path is reduced, sight distance is Editor
improved, and less concentration is required on the part of the pilots.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
7. The relation of turning radius versus speed expressed by the formula below will yield a
smooth, comfortable turn on a wet or dry pavement when f is made equal to 0.13.

A C E BANGALORE Page 82
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
8. The curve expressed by the equation for R2 should be preceded by a larger radius
curve R1 at exit speeds of 50 to 60 mi/h. The larger radius curve is necessary to provide a
gradual transition from a straight tangent direction section to a curved path section. If the
transition curve is not provided tire wear on large jet transports can be excessive.

9. Sufficient distance must be provided to comfortably decelerate an aircraft after it leaves

the runway. It is suggested that for the present this distance be based on an average rate of
deceleration of 3.3 ft/s2. This applies only to transport category aircraft. Until more
experience is gained with this type of operation the stopping distance should be measured
from the edge of the runway.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Location of Exit Taxiways

The location of exit taxiways depends on the mix of aircraft, the approach and
touchdown speeds, the point of touchdown, the exit speed, the rate of deceleration, which
in turn depends on the condition of the pavement surface, that is, dry or wet, and the
PDF-XChange Editor
number of exits. While thePDF-XChange Editor
rules for flying transport PDF-XChange
aircraft are relatively precise, a Editor
certain amount of variability among pilots is bound to occur especially in respect to
DEMO braking force applied onDEMO DEMO
the runway and the distance from runway threshold to
touchdown. The rapidity and the manner in which air traffic control can process arrivals is
an extremely important factor in establishing the location of exit taxiways. The location of
exit taxiways is also influenced by the location of the runways relative to the terminal area.

Holding Aprons

Holding aprons, holding pads, run-up pads, or holding bays as they are sometimes called,
are placed adjacent to the ends of runways.

The areas are used as storage areas for aircraft prior to takeoff. They are designed so that
one aircraft can bypass another whenever this is necessary. For piston-engine aircraft the
PDF-XChange
holding apronEditor
is an area PDF-XChange Editor
where the aircraft instrument PDF-XChange
and engine operation can be Editor
checked prior to takeoff.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The holding apron also provides for a trailing aircraft to bypass a leading aircraft in case
the takeoff clearance of the latter must be delayed for one reason or another, or if it
experiences some malfunction. There are many configurations of holding aprons. The

A C E BANGALORE Page 83
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
important design criteria are to provide adequate space for aircraft to maneuver easily
onto the runway irrespective of the position of adjacent aircraft on the holding apron and to
provide sufficient room for an aircraft to bypass parked aircraft on the holding apron.

The recommendations for the minimum separation between aircraft on holding aprons are
the same as those specified for the taxiway object-free area. Holding pads must be
designed for the largest aircraft which will use the pad. The holding pad should be located
so that all aircraft using the pad will be located outside both the runway and taxiway
object-free area and in a position so as not to interfere with critical ILS signals.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

AIRPORT LAYOUTS AND TERMINAL BUILDING

Terminal building
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The terminal area is the major interface between the airfield and the rest of the airport. It
DEMO includes the facilities for passenger
DEMOand baggage processing, cargoDEMO handling, and airport
maintenance, operations, and administration activities. The passenger processing system
is discussed at length in this chapter. Baggage processing, cargo handling, and apron
requirements are also discussed relative to the terminal system.

The Passenger Terminal System

The passenger terminal system is the major connection between the ground access system
and the aircraft. The purpose of this system is to provide the interface between the
passenger airport access mode, to process the passenger for origination, termination, or
continuation of an air transportation trip, and convey the passenger and baggage to and
from the aircraft.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Components of the System The passenger terminal system is composed of three major
DEMO components. These components
DEMOand the activities that occur within DEMO
them are as follows:

1. The access interface where the passenger transfers from the access mode of travel to
the passenger processing component. Circulation, parking, and curbside loading and
unloading of passengers are the activities that take place within this component.

A C E BANGALORE Page 84
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
2. The processing component where the passenger is processed in preparation for starting,
ending, or continuation of an air transportation trip. The primary activities that take place
within this component are ticketing, baggage check-in, baggage claim, seat assignment,
federal inspection services, and security.

3. The flight interface where the passenger transfers from the processing component to
the aircraft. The activities that occur here include assembly, conveyance to and from the
aircraft, and aircraft loading and unloading.

A number of facilities are provided to perform the functions of the passenger terminal
system. These facilities are indicated for each of the components identified above.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

The Access Interface

This component consists of the terminal curbs, parking facilities, and connecting
roadways that enable originating and terminating passengers, visitors, and baggage to
enter and exitEditor
PDF-XChange the terminal. It includes the following facilities:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
1. The enplaning and deplaning curb frontage which provide the public with loading and
DEMO DEMO DEMO
unloading for vehicular access to and from the terminal building

2. The automobile parking facilities providing short-term and long-term parking spaces
for passengers and visitors, and facilities for rental cars, public transit, taxis, and
limousine services

3. The vehicular roadways providing access to the terminal curbs, parking spaces, and
the public street and highway system

4. The designated pedestrian walkways for crossing roads including tunnels, bridges, and
automated devices which provide access between the parking facilities and the terminal
building
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
5. The service roads and fire lanes which provide access to various facilities in the
DEMO terminal and to other airport
DEMO DEMO
facilities, such as air freight, fuel truck stands, and
maintenance.

The ground access system at an airport is a complex system of roadways, parking

facilities, and terminal access curb fronts.

A C E BANGALORE Page 85
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The Processing System The terminal is used to process passengers and baggage for the
interface with aircraft and the ground transportation modes. It includes the following
facilities:

1. The airline ticket counters and offices used for ticket transactions, baggage check-in,
flight information, and administrative personnel and facilities

2. The terminal services space which consists of the public and nonpublic areas such as
concessions, amenities for passengers and visitors, truck service docks, food preparation
areas, and food and miscellaneous storage

PDF-XChange Editor
3. The lobby for circulation PDF-XChange
and passenger and visitorEditor
waiting PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO 4. Public circulation space DEMO DEMOand visitors
for the general circulation of passengers
consisting of such areas as stairways, escalators, elevators, and corridors

5. The outbound baggage space which is a nonpublic area for sorting and processing
baggage for departing flights

6. The interline and interline baggage space used for processing baggage transferred from
one flight to another on the same or different airlines

7. The inbound baggage space which is used for receiving baggage from an arriving
flight, and for delivering baggage to be claimed by the arriving passenger

8. Airport administration and service areas used for airport management, operations, and
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
maintenance facilities Editor
DEMO DEMO
9. The federal inspection service facilities which are the areas forDEMO
processing passengers
arriving on international flights, as well as performing agricultural inspections, and
security functions.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 86
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

AIRPORT MAKING AND LIGHTING-I

Introduction

Visual aids assist the pilot on approach to an airport, as well as navigating around an
airfield and are essential elements of airport infrastructure. As such, these facilities
require proper planning and precise design.

PDF-XChange Editor
These facilities PDF-XChange
may be divided Editor
into three categories: lighting, PDF-XChange
marking, and signage. Editor
Lighting is further categorized as either approach lighting or surface lighting. Specific
DEMO lighting systems described inDEMO
this chapter include
DEMO
1. Approach lighting

2. Runway threshold lighting

3. Runway edge lighting

4. Runway centerline and touchdown zone lights

5. Runway approach slope indicators

6. Taxiway edge and centerline lighting

PDF-XChange Editorof these
The proper placement PDF-XChange
systems is describedEditor PDF-XChange
in this chapter but no attempt has Editor
DEMO been made to describe in DEMO
detail the hardware or its installation.DEMO
Airfield marking and
signage includes

1. Runway and taxiway pavement markings

A C E BANGALORE Page 87
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
2. Runway and taxiway guidance sign systems

Airfield lighting, marking, and signage facilities provide the following functions:

1. Ground to air visual information required during landing

2. The visual requirements for takeoff and landing

3. The visual guidance for taxiing

The Requirements for Visual Aids

Since the earliest days of flying, pilots have used ground references for navigation when
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
approaching an airport, just as officers on ships at sea have used landmarks on shore
DEMO when approaching a harbor.DEMO DEMO
Pilots need visual aids in good weather as well as in bad
weather and during the day as well as at night.

In the daytime there is adequate light from the sun, so artificial lighting is not usually
required but it is necessary to have adequate contrast in the field of view and to have a
suitable pattern of brightness so that the important features of the airport can be identified
and oriented with respect to the position of the aircraft in space. These requirements are
almost automatically met during the day when the weather is clear.

The runway for conventional aircraft always appears as a long narrow strip with straight
sides and is free of obstacles. It can therefore be easily identified from a distance or by
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
flying over the field. Therefore, the perspective view of the runway and other identifying
DEMO reference landmarks are used DEMO DEMO
by pilots as visual aids for orientation when they are
approaching the airport to land. Experience has demonstrated that the horizon, the runway
edges, the runway threshold, and the centreline of the runway are the most important
elements for pilots to see.

In order to enhance the visual information during the day, the runway is painted with
standard marking patterns. The key elements in these patterns are the threshold, the
centreline, the edges, plus multiple parallel lines to increase the perspective and to define
the plane of the surface. During the day when visibility is poor and at night, the visual
information is reduced by a significant amount over the clear weather daytime scene. It is
therefore essential to provide visual aids which will be as meaningful to pilots as possible.

PDF-XChange
The AirportEditor
Beacon PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO Beacons are lighted to markDEMO DEMO
an airport. They are designed to produce a narrow horizontal
and vertical beam of high-intensity light which is rotated about a vertical axis so as to
produce approximately 12 flashes per minute for civil airports and 18 flashes per minute
for military airports. The flashes with a clearly visible duration of at least 0.15 s are
arranged in a white- green sequence for land airports and a white yellow sequence for

A C E BANGALORE Page 88
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
landing areas on water. Military airports use a double white flash followed by a longer
green or yellow flash to differentiate them from civil airfields. The beacons are mounted
on top of the control tower or similar high structure in the immediate vicinity of the
airport.

Obstruction Lighting

Obstructions are identified by fixed, flashing, or rotating red lights or beacons. All
structures that constitute a hazard to aircraft in flight or during landing or takeoff are
marked by obstruction lights having a horizontally uniform intensity duration and a
vertical distribution design to give maximum range at the lower angles (1.5° to 8°) from
PDF-XChange Editor
which a colliding approach PDF-XChange
would most likely come. Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

The Aircraft Landing Operation

An aircraft approaching a runway in a landing operation may be visualized as a sequence
of operations involving a transient body suspended in a three-dimensional grid that is
approaching a fixed two-dimensional grid. While in the air, the aircraft can be considered
as a point mass in a three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system in which it may have
translation along three coordinate directions and rotation about three axes. If the three
coordinate axes are aligned horizontal, vertical, and parallel to the end of the runway, the
PDF-XChange
directions of Editor
motion can bePDF-XChange Editor
described as lateral, vertical, PDF-XChange
and forward. The rotations are Editor
normally called pitch, yaw, and roll, for the horizontal, vertical, and parallel axes,
DEMO respectively. During a landingDEMO operation, pilots must control andDEMOcoordinate all six
degrees of freedom of the aircraft so as to bring the aircraft into coincidence with the
desired approach or reference path to the touchdown point on the runway. In order to do
this, pilots need translation information regarding the aircraft‗s alignment, height, and
distance, rotation information regarding pitch, yaw, and roll, and information concerning
the rate of descent and the rate of closure with the desired path.

Alignment Guidance
Pilots must know where their aircraft is with respect to lateral displacement from the
centerline of the runway. Most runways are from 75 to 200 ft wide and from 3000 to
12,000 ft long. Thus any runway is a long narrow ribbon when first seen from several
PDF-XChange
thousand feetEditor PDF-XChange
above. The predominant Editor
alignment guidance comes PDF-XChange
from longitudinal lines Editor
DEMO that constitute the centerlineDEMO
and edges of the runway. All techniques, such as painting,
DEMO
lighting, or surface treatment that develop contrast and emphasize these linear elements
are helpful in providing alignment information.

A C E BANGALORE Page 89
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

UNIT 7

Tunnel Engineering

PDF-XChange
Introduction:Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO [1] A tunnel is an underground

DEMO or underwater DEMO
entrance and exit, commonly at each end. passageway, enclosed except for

[2] A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal.
The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels
are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are
sewers.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

[3] Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or
DEMO DEMO
telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings DEMO
for convenient passage
of people and equipment.

A C E BANGALORE Page 90
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
[4] Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of
weapons, contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are
built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely.

[5] A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; the length is often much greater than twice
the diameter, although similar shorter excavations can be constructed such as cross
passages between tunnels.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO [6] Much of the early DEMO DEMO
technology of tunneling evolved from mining and military
engineering. The etymology of the terms "mining" (for mineral extraction or for
siege attacks), "military engineering", and "civil engineering" reveals these deep
historic connections.

Geotechnical Consideration of tunneling

Introduction:-


PDF-XChange EditorInformation
Geotechnical PDF-XChange
is needed from theEditor
very momentPDF-XChange Editor
planning begins on any tunnel
project.
DEMO  DEMO DEMO
This type of information provides the greater freedom the owner and designer can have in
their selection of alignment and construction methods thus the greater the potential cost
savings.

 Geotechnical information can be invaluable in the selection of the general

corridor as well as the detailed alignment of a tunnel project.

CHALLENGES OF THE UNDERGROUND

The underground condition, deal with challenges to the geotechnical and tunnel design
teams. It is important that this uncertainty, and its associated risk, be fully appreciated by
all parties, especially the management and legal staff of the owner.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Some of the numerous challenges are discussed below:-
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Underground projects have vast uncertainty

• The cost, and indeed feasibility, of the project is dominated by geology

A C E BANGALORE Page 91
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Every aspect of the geologic investigation for tunnels is more demanding than
investigations for traditional foundation engineering projects

• Regional geology and hydrogeology must be understood

• Groundwater is the most difficult condition/parameter to predict and the most

troublesome during construction

• Engineering properties change with a wide range of conditions, such as time, seasons, rate and
direction of loading, etc.; sometimes drastically

• It is guaranteed that the actual stratigraphy, groundwater flow, and behavior observed during
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
construction will be compared to your predictions
DEMO DEMO DEMO

WHEN TO CONDUCT GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS:-

• The planning of each exploration phase should be based on the results of the previous phase.

• The geotechnical exploration, including evaluation and report, must be available to the decision
makers on the design team in a timely manner

PDF-XChange Editor
. • Significant PDF-XChange
geotechnical work will be necessaryEditor PDF-XChange
during the early portions Editor
of
DEMO preliminary and of final design
DEMOinterspersed with relatively low levels of effort.
DEMO
During the latter stages of final design when contract documents are finalized, there
should be a significant geotechnical effort to support the preparation of the Geotechnical
Baseline Report (GBR) and the rest of the contract documents.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 92
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO
Geotechnical investigation and design:
• A tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by
collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed
choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support,
which will reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions.

• In planning the route the horizontal and vertical alignments will make use of the best
ground and water conditions.

• Conventional desk and site studies (desk study and walk-over survey) may yield
PDF-XChange Editor to PDF-XChange
insufficient information Editor
assess such factors as the PDF-XChange
blocky nature of rocks, the exact Editor
location of fault zones, or the stand-up times of softer ground. This may be a particular
DEMO concern in large-diameter tunnels.
DEMO DEMO
To give more information, a pilot tunnel, or drift, may
be driven ahead of the main drive.

• This tunnel will be easier to support should unexpected conditions be met, and will be
incorporated in the final tunnel. Alternatively, horizontal boreholes may sometimes be
drilled ahead of the advancing tunnel face.

Other key geotechnical factors include:

• Stand-up time is the amount of time a tunnel will support itself without any added
structures. Knowing this time allows the engineers to determine how much can be
excavated before support is needed. The longer the stand-up time is the faster the
PDF-XChange Editor
excavating will PDF-XChange
go. Generally certain configurationsEditor PDF-XChange
of rock and clay will have the Editor
greatest stand-up time, and sand and fine soils will have a much lower stand-up time.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Groundwater control is very important in tunnel construction. If there is water leaking
into the tunnel stand-up time will be greatly decreased. If there is water leaking into the
shaft it will become unstable and will not be safe to work in. To stop this from happening
there are a few common methods. One of the most effective is ground freezing. To do this

A C E BANGALORE Page 93
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
pipes are inserted into the ground surrounding the shaft and are cooled until they freeze.
This freezes the ground around each pipe until the whole shaft is surrounded frozen soil,
keeping water out. The most common method is to install pipes into the ground and to
simply pump the water out. This works for tunnels and shafts.

• Tunnel shape is very important in determining stand-up time. The force from gravity is
straight down on a tunnel, so if the tunnel is wider than it is high it will have a harder time
supporting itself, decreasing its stand-up time. If a tunnel is higher than it is wide the
stand-up time will increase making the project easier. The hardest shape to support itself is
a square or rectangular tunnel. The forces have a harder time being redirected around the
tunnel making it extremely hard to support itself.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 94
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

MICROTUNNELLING

The Principles

Micro tunnelling was originally defined as mechanised pipe jacking for non man entry
size tunnels. As the process was developed and greater sophistication applied, it is
perhaps now more correctly defined as pipe jacking employing a remote-controlled
tunnelling machine.

The History
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Pipe jacking has been used since at least the mid-20th-century. This is the principal of
DEMO pushing a rigid pipe into DEMO DEMO
the ground into a tunnel bore that has been pre-excavated.
Generally this is carried out from a shaft which has been sunk from ground level to the
depth where the pipe jack pipe has to be installed. Originally the tunnel excavation was
carried out by a man at the front of the pipe being installed. For various reasons such as:

• The requirement to install smaller diameter pipes

• Safety concerns

• The ability to operate in more difficult grounds Engineers sought to develop mechanised
equipment to replace the man at the front of the pipe. Much of the original development
was carried out in Japan because of their requirement to:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• Maximise the utilisation of underground space
DEMO • Install a significant newDEMO DEMO
sewerage network in the late 20th century. Japanese made
mechanised equipment was imported into Europe in the 1980‘s where it was appreciated
and the principles copied. Throughout the 1990‘s a number of other manufacturers
became established in Asia, Europe and USA. Microtunnelling is now established
worldwide with several hundred kilometres of microtunnelled pipeline being installed
annually using the principle.

The Techniques
Micro tunnelling can be broken into two broad techniques:

• Auger based (also known as the pressure balance UPP) systems

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• Slurry systems
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Auger Systems employ an open tunnel machine head with a cutter that feeds into a screw
conveyor. This transports the ―spoil‖ material from the head to the exit shaft or into
another conveyancing method. Auger Systems may offer the following advantages:

A C E BANGALORE Page 95
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• They may be simpler (less costly) to manufacture

• In ideal ground conditions (typically clays and non granular materials) they may operate
faster

• They may offer greater flexibility permitting the installation of different pipe diameters
using the same machine.

Slurry systems employ a cutter head in a tunnel machine that is sealed against any
penetration by liquid or solids. Typically a crusher chamber will texturise the excavated
ground so that it can be carried away from the head of the machine through a sealed
PDF-XChange
pumped slurryEditor PDF-XChange
network. This Editor
delivers the spoil outside PDF-XChange
of the tunnel. Slurry systems may Editor
offer the following advantages:
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• The crusher may offer a larger range of soils through which they can tunnel

• They can operate more easily below ground water

• They may operate over a longer distances employing intermediate discharge pumps

• Using flexible hoses they offer the ability to pipe jack on curved alignments.

Any microtunnelling operation commences with the sinking of a shaft to access the tunnel
horizon. Within this shaft a jacking frame is installed which will initially pushed the
machine into the ground. Thereafter it continues to push

pipes into the ground behind the machine thereby both propelling the machine and lining
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
the tunnel. This process continues until arrival at an exit shaft.
DEMO The pipes that are utilised must
DEMObe designed to accommodate:
DEMO
• The permanent loading of ground

• The liquid pressure inside and outside the pipeline

• The installation jacking pressures.

Pipes are typically made from:

• Concrete

• Polymer concrete
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• GRP (or FRP)
DEMO • Steel DEMO DEMO
• Clay or ceramic Due to the installation loads, the design of joints are critical for jacking
pipes. Frequently the highest loads are at misaligned pipe joints.

A C E BANGALORE Page 96
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
The remote-controlled tunnelling machine is operated and guided from the outside of the
tunnel. This is frequently at ground level from a control cabin but also occasionally from
within the shaft. The operator controls issues such as:

• Steering of the machine

• Cutter head rotation direction

• Cutter head pressure

• Cutter head torque

PDF-XChange
• Auger flightEditor
controls PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO • Slurry pressures DEMO DEMO
• Volume of slurry flow

• Jacking pressures in the rams

Alignment of the tunnel results from the steering of the Microtunnelling machine. This is
frequently monitored and controlled using a laser that is shone the length of the installed
tunnel. There are also other sophisticated steering control methods using computers for
dynamic positioning calculations.

Common Applications Microtunnelling is used generally where there are constraints on

trench excavation. These might include:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Installation being carried out in an urban environment
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Installation underneath an obstruction such as a river, motorway or rail lines

• Installation at a depth at which trenching is not a commercial or technically viable

alternative.

Micro tunnelling is widely employed for the installation of all types of utilities including

• Water pipelines

• Sewerage pipelines

• Storm water pipelines

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

• Gas pipelines

DEMO • Electricity cable ducts DEMO DEMO

• Telecommunication cable ducts

• Oil pipelines

A C E BANGALORE Page 97
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
It is also employed for some sophisticated ground support operations such as for the
installation of pipe arches. These consist of steel or concrete pipelines installed adjacent
to one another (often ―clutched‖ together) in order to provide support under which an
excavation can be made.

Using the Microtunnelling principle pipes may be installed from 200 mm diameter up to in
excess of 2500 mm diameter.

Cost Issues
Costs frequently play an important part in the determination of whether Microtunnelling
PDF-XChange Editoradditional
is employed. Perceived PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange
costs attaching to Microtunnelling include: Editor
DEMO • The cost of the sophisticated equipment
DEMO DEMO
• The additional cost of highly skilled operatives

• The higher cost of jacking pipe compared to conventional pipe.

In balance to these additional costs Microtunnelling offers the following potential

savings:

• Micro tunnelling at depth may not be much more expensive than at shallow depth
(trenching increases in cost as depth increases)

• Microtunnelling may save cost for the reinstatement of roads or buildings adjacent to a
trenchexcavation.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO
Microtunnelling may offer reduced safety costs DEMO

Microtunnelling reduces the cost of spoil cart away

Microtunnelling reduces the cost of imported backfill materials

In general the greater the obstacle to trenching, the more competitive Micro tunnelling
might be. Micro tunnelling might be viewed as a competitive alternative to trenching at
depths exceeding 2.5 to 4 m. In addition to the direct cost advantages that might accrue to
Microtunnelling, there are also frequent social cost benefits. These are due to the reduced
disruption caused by Microtunnelling compared with conventional installation

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 98
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

UNIT 8

HARBOUR ENGINEERING
Water transportation:

The water transportation can further be subdivided into two categories:

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO inland transportation and DEMO DEMO
Ocean transportation.

Inland Water transportation


Inland Water transportation is either in the form of river transportation or canal
transportation.

Ocean Water transportation is adopted for trade and commerce.

It is estimated that about 75 per cent of international trade is carried out by shipping.

PDF-XChange
 Editor
The developmentPDF-XChange
of navy force is intendedEditor PDF-XChange Editor
for national defense.
DEMO  DEMOhas an limitation and it possesses
Ocean water transportation DEMO high flexibility.

Definitions Harbours:

A C E BANGALORE
Page 99
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
A harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which vessels could be
launched, built or taken for repair; or could seek refuge in time of storm; or provide for
loading and unloading of cargo and passengers. Harbours are broadly classified as:


Natural harbours

Semi-natural harbours

Artificial harbours.

Natural harbours:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO Natural formationsDEMO
affording safe discharge facilities forDEMO
ships on sea coasts, in the
form of creeks and basins, are called natural harbours.


With the rapid development of navies engaged either in commerce or war,
improved accommodation and facilities for repairs, storage of cargo and
connected amenities had to be provided in natural harbours.

 The size and draft of present day vessels have necessitated the works
improvement for natural harbours.


The factors such as local geographical features, growth of population,
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
development of the area, etc. have made the natural harbours big and attractive.
DEMO DEMO
Bombay and Kandla are, examples of natural harbours DEMO

Semi-natural harbours:


This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands protection and it requires man-
made protection only at the entrance.

Vishakhapatnam is a semi-natural harbour.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Artificial harbours:
DEMO  DEMO DEMO
Where such natural facilities are not available, countries having a seaboard had to create or
construct such shelters making use of engineering skill and methods, and such harbours are
called artificial or man-made harbours.

Madras is an artificial harbour.

Thus, a naval vessel could obtain shelter during bad weather within a tract or area of water
close to the shore, providing a good hold for anchoring, protected by natural or
artificial harbour walls against the fury of storms.

A C E BANGALORE Page 100

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
BANK OR SHOAL

ROAD STEAD BANK

BANK

NAVIGABLE BANK OR SHOAL CHANNEL

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO Natural roadstead’s: DEMO DEMO
 A deep navigable channel with a protective natural bank or shoal to seaward is a
good example of a natural roadstead

Artificial roadsteads:


These may be created suitably by constructing a breakwater or wall parallel to the coast or
curvilinear from the coast

As an alternative a circumscribed artificial roadstead could be formed by
enclosing tract provided good anchorage, by projecting solid walls called jetties, from the
shore.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO Another method DEMOis to create a confined basin of smallDEMO
area having a narrow
entrance and exit for ships.

Such roadsteads with smaller inner enclosures and wharf and with loading and
unloading facilities are commonly provided for fishing vessels.

From their utility and situation, harbours are further classified into three major types:


Harbours of refuge including naval bases

Commercial harbours, connected with ports

Fishery harbours.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO It is necessary to study the requirements
DEMO of these types of harbours and provide for such
DEMO
requirements. Requirements of harbour of refuge:

• Ready accessibility

• Safe and commodious anchorage

• Facilities for obtaining supplies and repairs

A C E BANGALORE Page 101

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Requirements of commercial harbour :


Spacious accommodation for the mercantile marine.

Ample quay space and facilities for transporting; loading and unloading cargo.

Storage sheds for cargo.

Good and quick repair facilities to avoid delay.
PDF-XChange
 Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
More sheltered conditions as loading and unloading could be done with advantage in
DEMO calmer waters. DEMO DEMO
Accessibility and size of harbours

• Accessibility depends on the location of the harbours.

• The harbour entrance should be designed and located for quick easy negotiation by
ships, overtaken by storms.

• At the same time, it should be narrow enough not to expose the harbour to the effects of
the stormy sea.

• Maximum dimensions upto 180 have been adopted

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• The entrance is generally placed of the sea, with a passage to the interior of the harbour
DEMO so arranged as to minimize the
DEMOeffect of rough seas. DEMO

Thus; the size is determined by:


Accommodation required.
PDF-XChange
 Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Convenience for maneuvering and navigation.
DEMO  DEMO DEMO
Adaptability to natural features.

Site selection:

The guiding factors which play a great role in choice of site for a harbour are as follows

A C E BANGALORE Page 102

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 Availability of cheap land and construction materials

 Transport and communication facilities

 Natural protection from winds and waves

 Industrial development of the locality

 Sea-bed subsoil and foundation conditions

 Traffic potentiality of harbour

PDF-XChange
 Editor ofPDF-XChange
Availability electrical energy and freshEditor
water PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO  DEMO
Favorable marine conditions DEMO
 Defence and strategic aspects
Shape of the harbour:

The following principles should be kept in mind:


In order to protect the harbour from the sea waves, one of the pier heads should project a
little beyond the other.

Inside the pier heads, the width should widen very rapidly.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The general shape of the harbours should be obtained by a series of straight lengths
DEMO and no re-entrant DEMO
angle should be allowed DEMO
Harbour planning:


The important facts to be studied and scrutinized can be enumerated as follows:

It is necessary to carry out a thorough survey of the neighbourhood including the foreshore
and the depths of water in the vicinity

The borings on land should also be made so as to know the probable subsurface
conditions on land. It will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly

The nature
PDF-XChange Editor of the harbour, whether sheltered Editor
PDF-XChange or not, should PDF-XChange
be studied. Editor

DEMO  The existence of seaDEMO
insect undermine the foundations shouldDEMO
be noted.

The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied.


The natural metrological phenomenoa should be studied at site especially with respect
to frequency of storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and, minimum temperature
and of winds, humidity, direction and velocity of currents, etc.

A C E BANGALORE Page 103

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Ports :

 The term port is used to indicate a harbour where terminal facilities, such a stores, landing
of passengers and cargo, etc. are added to it.

 Thus, a harbour consists of the waterways and channels as far as the pier head lines
and a port includes everything on the landward side of those lines i.e. piers, slips, wharves,
sheds, tracks, handling equipment, etc.

Classification of ports:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Depending upon the location, the ports can be classified as;
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Canal ports

• River ports and

• Sea ports

 The term free port is used to indicate an isolated, enclosed and policed area for
handling of cargo; etc. for the purpose of reshipping without the intervention of
customs.

 It is furnished with the facilities for loading and unloading; for storing goods and
reshipping them by land or water; and for supplying fuel.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
 Free port thus indicates an area within which goods can be landed, stored,
DEMO DEMO
mixed, blended, repacked, DEMO
manufactured and reshipped without payment of duties
and without the intervention of custom department.

 Depending upon the commodities dealt with or their use, the ports can also be
classified as grain ports, coaling ports, transhipment ports, ports of call, etc.

 Depending upon the size and location, the ports can also be grouped as major
ports, intermediate ports and minor ports

 A major port is able to attract trade and it commands a really pivoted position for
the extension of communications. Port design: The design of a port should be
made while keeping in mind the following requirements :
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
 The entrance channel should be such that the ships can come in and go out easily
DEMO  The ships should beDEMO
able to turn in the basin itself. DEMO
 The alignment of quays should be such that the ships can come along side easily
even when there is an on-shore wind.

A C E BANGALORE Page 104

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 The width behind the quay should be sufficient to deal with the goods.

 There should be enough provision for railway tracks to take care for loading and
unloading of cargo

Requirements of a good port

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
 It should be centrally situated for the hinterland. For a port, the hinterland is that
DEMO DEMO
part of the country behind DEMO
it which can be served with economy and efficiency by
the port.

 It should get good tonnage i .e. charge per tonne of cargo handled by it.


It should have good communication with the rest of country.

It should be populous

It should be advance in culture, trade and industry.

It should be a place of defence and for resisting the sea-borne invasion

PDF-XChange ItEditor PDF-XChange
should command Editor
valuable and extensive trade. PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO
It should be capable DEMO
of easy, smooth and economic development.

It should afford shelter to all ships and at all seasons of the years

 It should provide the maximum facilities to all the visiting ships including the
servicing of ships.

TIDES AND WAVES:

Some of the natural and meteorological phenomena which primarily affect the location
and design of the harbour. They are as follows:

 Coastal currents and evidences of sitting, including littoral drift or coast erosion.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
 Tides and tidal range.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 Wind, wave and their combined effect on harbour structures.

Tides:
 Tides on the coast-line are caused by the sun and moon.

A C E BANGALORE Page 105

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 The effect of tides is to artificially raise and lower the mean sea level during
certain stated periods

 This apparent variation of mean sea level is known as the tidal range. Spring tides
and Neap tides:

 At new and full moon or rather a day or two after (or twice in each lunar month),
the tides rise higher and fall lower than at other times and these are called Spring
tides.

 Also one or two days after the moon is in her quarter i.e. about seven days from
new and
PDF-XChange full moonsPDF-XChange
Editor (twice in a lunar month), the tides rise
Editor and fall less than at
PDF-XChange Editor
other times and are then called neap tides.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Waves and wind:
 The ‗sea wave‘ is by far the most powerful force acting on harbour barriers and
against which the engineer has to contend.

 The wave has the impulse of a huge battering ram and equipped with the point of
a pick axe and chisel edge‖.

 It is the most in compressible natural phenomena.

 The formation of storm waves takes place in the open sea due to the action of
wind.
PDF-XChange
Water waves Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
are of two kinds:
DEMO • Waves of oscillation and DEMO DEMO
• Waves of translation;

The former are stationary, while the latter possess forward motion.

But all translatory waves originally start as waves of oscillation

Breakwaters:


The protective barrier constructed to enclose harbours and to keep the harbour waters
undisturbed by the effect of heavy and strong seas are called breakwaters.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Alignment:
DEMO DEMO DEMO

A good alignment for a breakwater is to have straight converging arms so that the
angle of inter section does not exceed 60 degrees.

It is desirable to avoid straight parallel or diverging arms running out to sea.

A C E BANGALORE Page 106

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Design of breakwaters:

Following information should he collected before the design of a breakwater:

• Chara cter of coasta l curre nts

• Co st and avai labil ity of mater ials of con struct ion

• Dire ction s and forc e of pr evai ling winds

• Natur e of the bot tom or fou ndation

• Probab le maxi mum he ight, forc e and intens ity of waves. !

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The three important rules to be observed in the design of a breakwater are as under:
DEMO DEMO DEMO

The design should be based on the extreme phenomena of the wind and waves, and not
on the mean or the average.

The height of the wave should he determined by Using the equation H =
034¥Fand the height of wall should be decided accordingly by making
sufficient allowance for freeboard.

It should be seen that the material in the foundation is not subject to scour.

Detrimental forces acting on breakwaters:

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Hydrostatic force:

DEMO • This force reduces theDEMO DEMO

apparent weight and hence, the marine structures suffer
these losses to a great extent unless the foundations are absolutely impervious.

External forces:
• The intensity of external forces, especially wind and wave action, is enormous.

• The power of wind produces vibrations in the masonry structure and weakens the
different courses of masonry.

• In a similar way, the wave when it recedes induces ‗suction action and it results in the
erosion of the foundation unless it is made safe and secure.

PDF-XChange Editor
Solvent action of sea water:PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO • This quality of sea water causes
DEMO DEMO
damage to the materials of construction Sea insects:

• The concentrated action of sea insects results in the undermining of the hardest and the
soundest building material and it is for this reason that the marine structures are made
specially bulky and strong.

A C E BANGALORE Page 107

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
Classification of breakwaters:

Breakwaters are classified mainly into three types:


Heap or mound breakwater

Mound with superstructure

Upright wall breakwater.

Heap or mound breakwater

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO
It is a heterogeneous DEMOstone blocks, rip rap,
assemblage of natural rubble, undressed
supplemented in many cases by artificial blocks of huge bulk and weight, the whole being
deposited without any regard to bond or bedding.

This is the simplest type and is constructed by tipping or dumping of rubble stones
into the sea till the heap or mound emerges out of the water, the mound being
consolidated and its side slopes regulated by the action of the waves.

The quantity of rubble depends upon the depth, rise of tides and waves and
exposure.

On exposed sites, the waves gradually drag down the mound, giving it a flat slope on the
sea face.
PDF-XChange
 Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO  As far as possible, DEMO
such flattening has to he protected.
DEMO
The disturbing action of the waves is the most between the high and low water levels.

 Consequently, all protective methods are adopted above the low water level.

 Protection is also very necessary to the top of the mound and outer or exposed face.

WHARVES


Platforms or landing places are necessary for ships to come, close enough to the shore, for
purposes of embarkation, disembarkation, etc. at the same time.

PDF-XChange Editor
These PDF-XChange
platform locations Editor
should give sufficient PDF-XChange
depth of Editor
water for the ship to float.
DEMO  Such platforms are,DEMO
called wharves. DEMO
 They are built out into or on to. the water

A C E BANGALORE Page 108

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 Thus, a wharf affords a working platform alongside the ship in continuity of the shore.

A wharf is quay but the term wharf is generally used for an open structure of piles or posts
 with bracings, jutting from the shore towards the sea.

A wharf may be a sheet pile wall or it may consist of a piled projection with or
 without artificial retention of soil some distance behind or it may be a gravity wall.


Wharves may either be parallel to the shore and abutting against it or they
mayproject into the water either at right angles or oblique to the shore.
PDF-XChange

Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The former type is adopted at places where depth of water is sufficient for the ships to
DEMO DEMO DEMO
berth, say 10 m to 12 m

The latter type is adopted at places where depth of water near the shore is not enough
for the ships to enter safely.

The level of wharf should be above the high water level. But at the same time, it should
be economical to load the vessels when the water level is low.

Wharf should act as a unit when there is an impact from any vessel.


Hence, it should be properly braced and bolted. It is desirable to provide
PDF-XChange Editor
rounded PDF-XChange
corners for wharves which art likelyEditor
to be used byPDF-XChange
large vessels. Editor

DEMO DEMO
Such a construction DEMO
will result in a smooth entry of vessels into the slips
PIERS


The structures which are built perpendicular or oblique to the shore of a river or sea are
known as piers.

In the sea the piers are constructed where the sea is not deep and the natural harbour
is not convenient for allowing the ships to berth adjacent to the shore.

In many cases, the piers are constructed with piles, columns and braces leaving good
space for the ocean current to flow without causing any obstruction.

PDF-XChangeTheEditor
dimensions ofPDF-XChange Editor
a pier should be worked out PDF-XChange Editor
very carefully.

DEMO DEMO
Its length should be DEMO
sufficient to accommodate the longest ship likely to take its
advantage.

In other words, it should project beyond the bow or stern of the ship so as to protect
its hull. Its width should be sufficient to satisfy its utility.

A C E BANGALORE Page 109

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 It can be stated that the pier should be of sufficient width to allow easy unloading of cargo
without any undue delay.

JETTIES :


These are the structures in the form of piled projections and they are built out from the
shore to deep water and they may be constructed either for a navigable river or in the sea.

 In rivers, the jetties divert the current away from the river bank and thus, the
scouring action is prevented.
PDF-XChange Editor
As the PDF-XChange
current is diverted to deep waters, the Editor PDF-XChange
navigation is also controlled. Editor

DEMO DEMO
In the sea, the jetties are pr at places where harbour entranceDEMO
is affected by littoral drift or

the sea is shallow for a long distance.

 Thus, they extend from the shore to the deep sea to receive the ships.

 In a limiting sense, a jetty is defined as a narrow structure projecting from the shore
into water with berths on one or both sides and sometimes at the end also.

 Jetties are exposed to severe wave action and their structural design is similar to that of
breakwater.


However,
PDF-XChange Editorthe designed standards may be released
PDF-XChange Editor to a certain extent due to fact Editor
PDF-XChange the
that the jetties are usually built normal to the most dangerous wave front.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

The impact caused by the berthing ships will depend on the skill of the berthing officer,
local condition of currents, wind, etc.

The berthing velocity depends upon the condition of approach, wind, etc. and it
decreases with the increase in the size of the ships

FENDER:


The cushion which is provided on the face of jetty for ships to come in contact is known as
fender.
PDF-XChange
 Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
It is provided for various forms and is made of different materials.
DEMO  DEMO DEMO
The common material used as fender for jetties is the framework of timber pile driven
into the sea bed at a short distance from the jetty and filling the space with coiled rope,
springs, rubber, buffers, etc.

The fender system controls the relative motion between dock and ship caused by wind
and waves.
AC
E
BA
NGALORE

Page 110
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 Hence, it also prevents the paint of ships being damaged. For the purpose of
classification, the fenders can be classified in the following four categories:
Rubbing strips:

 In its simplest form, the fender system adopted for small vessels consists of
rubbing strips of timber, coir padding or used rubber tyres


It is also convenient to use pneumatic inflated tyres, either by suspending them or
installing them at right angles to jetty face.

PDF-XChange
The Editor PDF-XChange
inflated big-size Editor
tyres are useful to transfer PDF-XChange
cargo between mother ship and Editor
daughter ships.
DEMO  DEMO DEMO
The pneumatic rubber fenders are very useful for transferring cargo from ship to ship of
big sizes.

Timber grill:


This system consists merely of vertical and horizontal timber members fixed to the face
piles.

This is a simple form of fender and to make it more effective, energy fender piles may be
driven along the jetty face with cushion or spring inserted between them.

PDF-XChange
Gravity-typeEditor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
fendering system:

DEMO  DEMO DEMO

As the ships grew in size, this s came into force and in its simplest form, it consists of a
weighty fender which is raised up when there is an impact of the berthing ship and thus,
the initial energy of shock, is absorbed. Rubber tendering:


Due to the development of rubber technology and with, further growth in size, ship
rubber fendering is preferred at present.

The shapes of rubber fenders may be cylindrical, square, V-shape or cell type.

NAVIGATIONAL AIDS A

PDF-XChange
Necessity forEditor
signals: PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor C

DEMO The mariner and his ship have

DEMOto be guided by proper signals duringDEMO
navigation, E
especially,
B
A
(1) to avoid dangerous zones like hidden rocky outcrop and sand bars,
N
G
(2) to follow proper approaches and A
L
(3) to locate ports. O
R
E
Page 111
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Fixed and floating light stations:


The light stations when they are built on land are called fixed as in the case of
permanent lighthouse structures.

PDF-XChange
SuchEditor
structures arePDF-XChange Editor
located either in the hinterland close toPDF-XChange
the shore or in the sea onEditor
submerged outcrops and exposed to the fury of the waves.
DEMO DEMO DEMO

Alternately, where there are difficulties in establishing proper foundations;
floating light rations in the form of a light vessel may be adopted.


Buoys of standard shapes also belong to the ‗floating type and are generally used to
demarcate boundaries of approach channels in harbour basins.

Lighthouse:


It is a lofty structure popularly built of masonry or reinforced concrete in the shape of a tall
PDF-XChange
towerEditor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
on a high pedestal.

DEMO  DEMO DEMO

The tower is divided into convenient number of floors, the topmost floor
containing powerful lighting equipment and its operating machinery.

 The lower floors are used, as stores and living rooms necessary for the
maintenance and working of the light station.

 The main parts of a typical lighthouse tower are illustrated in fig.


Lighthouses may be located on shore or on islands away from the mainland as in the case
of warning light stations.

PDF-XChange Editor
In the PDF-XChange
former case, Editor
the lighthouse may be PDF-XChange
easily connected with the nearest Editor
village
or township by proper communications, while in the later situation it is located far
DEMO habited area. DEMO DEMO

In either case as a matter of convenience and urgency, all the requirements for the efficient
and unfailing maintenance and working of the lighthouse, like stores and staff quarters are
provided in the lighthouse shaft.

Lighthouse construction :

 It is quite
evident that foundation to be adopted for a situation will depend on the characteristics
the type of of soil of that area. particular

A C E BANGALORE Page 112

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 On good rock or hard soil, a thick bed of concrete may serve while on submarine or
marshy locations, piles or caissons could be used.

 The superstructure is generally a masonry or an R.C.C tower constructed on a

prominent basement.

 The stone or concrete blocks used in the construction of the basement are joggled both
vertically and horizontally as shown in fig.

 To secure and bind the blocks together and resist strongly forces tending to
dislodge or move them.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO
The tower is divided into a number of floors and the light isDEMO
housed at the summit in a
glazed room.

The floors are accessible by a flight of winding stairs from bottom to top.

Just below the lantern room is the service room and other rooms lower down are used for
oil and general stores, personnel, and other accessories like water storage and fire fighting
apparatus.

A narrow gallery is provided outside the lantern room protected by pipe railing.

The dimensions and geometrical shapes shown in the figure are adopted in modern practice
and more recent lighthouse like the Eddystone are examples of this type of construction.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
The light should be identified and its distance ascertained, for the mariner to locate
DEMO  his position. DEMO DEMO
 These lights are made ‗fixed‘ or flashing for easy identification by the navigator and are
classified accordingly to their illuminating power.

 The height of the tower above sea level determines the geographical range and
the intensity or power of the light the luminous range.

 These two are important factors, deciding the range of visibility.

The illumination is both refracted through powerful lenses and prisms and

reflected or flashed by highly polished hyperbolic concave mirrors fig.shows the details
PDF-XChange
of theEditor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
light apparatus.

DEMO  DEMO
Fixed lights are likely to be confused with the private lightsDEMO
of the neighbourhood and
hence, it is desirable to avoid fixed lights as far as possible.

Signals:

A C E BANGALORE
Page 113
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 The approach channel of a modern port should be clearly defined o demarcated by the
provision of suitable signals.

Thus, signals will be required at the following places:


Light ships have to be provided at important changes in the direction of the route of ships.

 Lighted beacons are to be fixed on river banks

 Buoys are required at entrance channels to ports

PDF-XChange Editor
Requirements of a signal PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO  DEMO DEMO
It should be conspicuously visible, from a long distance.

It should not vary in character and should be positively recognizable.

It should be simple for identification.

Types of signals:
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO The signals are broadly divided
DEMO into the following three categories‘:
DEMO
1.
Light signals
2.
Fog signals
3.
Audible signals.

The first classification of light signals is very important. Fog signals and audible signals
are occasionally used.

Light signals

PDF-XChange
These signalsEditor
are subdividedPDF-XChange
into three types: Editor PDF-XChange Editor
DEMO (1) Light ships DEMO DEMO
(2) Beacons

(3) Buoys.

Light ships:

A C E BANGALORE Page 114

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Small ships displacing about 500 tonnes are used for this purpose.

• The lantern is carried on an open steel tower approximately 9 m to 12 m above the water
level and erected amidships.

• The light apparatus consists of four pairs of mirror reflectors placed around the light and
made to revolve at a suitable speed emitting ,a predetermined number of flashes.

• The ship is with service personnel and is securely anchored or moored.

• light ships are more stable and the lights in them more steady which is an important
factor for a mariner.
PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
• The hulls of light ships are built of steel and they are generally painted with red colour.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• The name of the station is painted in white colours on both sides of light ship.

• The superstructures are also provided with white colours.

• The storm warning signals are also installed on the light ships.

• When the light ships are being overhauled, red colour relief light ships with the word
‗Relief‘ on the sides are used.

Beacons:
PDF-XChange Editor
• Any prominent object, PDF-XChange Editor easily
natural or artificially constructed, PDF-XChange
indentifiable and Editor
DEMO capable of being used as DEMO
a means to indicate and guide in navigation
DEMO is generally
designated as a beacon.

• Lofty topographical feature like hill summit, building or structure like a church steeple,
or factory chimney, could all be made use of as beacons. Alternately, a beacon could be
built in the form of an open tapering frame work, with a wide stable base and gradually
narrowed top, terminating in a distinctive figure, like a triangle or circle as shown in fig.

• The distinctive geometrical figure is suitably painted so as to cause prominence.

Buoys:
• Buoys are floating structures of small size employed for demarcation like entrances,
PDF-XChange Editor
approach channel used for PDF-XChange Editor
indicating direction changes in means PDF-XChange
of alignment. Beacons Editor
are thus of the navigation.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Beacons are navigation or as immense help in boundaries and so on.

• They are moored to sinkers, or heavy anchors, with the help of heavy chains, whose
length are two to three times the depth of water and which are 70 to 90 mm in diameter.

A C E BANGALORE Page 115

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• They are useful in indicating approach channel widths, two rows of buoys being used
one along each boundary.

• These buoys are denominated ‗Star board-hand‘ or ‗port-hand‘ buoys according to their
positions being to the left or right of the navigator respectively as he approaches the
harbour.

• Buoys are of different designs and patterns. They are designed not only to support their
own weight, but also the weight of cables or chains by which they are moored.

• The surface of buoy structure near water line should be protected by the provision of
PDF-XChange
stout wooden Editor PDF-XChange
fendering so that Editor
it is not seriously damaged in case ofPDF-XChange
an impact. Editor
DEMO DEMO
• Thus, buoys are floating signals and they are usually prepared of DEMO
steel and iron plates of
minimum thickness 6 nun. Buoys are hollow structures and they are constructed in two
watertight sections so that in case one of them is leaky, at least the other one may prevent
it from sinking.

• The maxi mum distance between consecutive buoys is about 16Q0 m in estuaries and in
narrow channels, it is about 150 m to 300 m.

• The diameter of a buoy varies from 1 80 m to 3 m.

• In tidal places, the depth of water is liable to fluctuation and hence, in such cases, the
buoys are not steady and they do not give correct guidance regarding alignment.

PDF-XChange Editor
• The presence PDF-XChange
of buoys also Editor
indicates the proximity of places PDF-XChange
with shallow depth of Editor
water.
DEMO DEMO DEMO
• Buoys are also classified according to their size, shape, colour, weight, purpose, etc.
Brief descriptions of buoyage system, mooring buoys and wreck buoys are given below.

Mooring buoys:


In harbour interiors, buoys are pro vided in fixed positions to which ships could be moored
during their stay in the harbour without using anchors.

These buoys are called mooring buoys. Some common types of mooring buoys in use in
India are shown in fig.

PDF-XChange
Wreck buoys: Editor
These arc ofPDF-XChange Editor
peculiar shape and are used PDF-XChange
to locate wrecks in harbour Editor
DEMO exteriors or open seas. TheyDEMO
are also used for sea cable crossing locations
DEMO
Fog signals: These signals are to be provided at places likely to be seriously affected by
fog and they take the following forms:

 Ordinary bells struck by hand.

A C E BANGALORE Page 116

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
DEMO DEMO DEMO
 Ordinary bells operated by mechanism.

 Submarine bells struck by mechanism.

 Whistles or sirens blown by compressed air or steam.

Audible signals:


These signals are to be used in emergency to bring immediate attention of the
mariners and they take up the form of explosive signals, electric oscillators, sirens, bells
and diaphones.
PDF-XChange
 Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor
Thus, audible or sound signals are very useful during heavy mists or fogs. It should
DEMO also be noted thatDEMO DEMO
sound transmitted through the air gives sometimes the misleading
idea about the direction of sound.

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor PDF-XChange Editor

DEMO DEMO DEMO

A C E BANGALORE Page 117