Faculté Polytechnique

Machine Design Project

Drillbotics

State of the Art

version from November 18, 2021

Alix R OGER
Alix.R [email protected]

Vincent T HIELENS
Vincent.T [email protected]

Prof. Dr Ir Pierre D EHOMBREUX

Pierre.D [email protected]
Dr Ir Lucas E QUETER
Lucas.E [email protected]
MAB1 Mechanical Engineering 2021-2022
Contents

1 Drilling rig 5

2 Down hole motors 7

2.1 Positive displacement mud motor (PDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Dump valve/sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Motor assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.3 Transmission rod assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.4 Bearing assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Turbodrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Electrodrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Cardan transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 Deviation systems 15
3.1 Whipstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1 Standard removable whipstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.2 Circulating whipstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.3 Permanent casing whipstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Jetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Bent sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Steerable drilling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.1 Drill bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4.2 PDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4.3 Navigation sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4.4 Navigation stabilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4.5 Survey system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Drilling fluids 19

5 Sensors 21
5.1 WOB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 Cutting speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Azimuth and inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.6 Mud pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.7 Length of the hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Data transmission 24
6.1 Mud stream transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Electromagnetic transmission (EM-MWD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
7 PDC drill bits 27
7.1 Matrix-body bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.2 Steel-body bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8 Choices made by other teams 30

A Exploded view of the bearing assembly 38

2
Abbreviations

BHA: Bottom Hole Assembly

DD: Directional Drilling
DTU: Double Titlted Universal joint housing
IMU: Inertial Measurement Unit
LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformer
MWD Measurement While Drilling
PDC: Polycrystalline Diamond Compact
PDM: Positive Displacement Motor
ROP: Rate Of Penetration
RPM: Revolutions Per Minute
RSS: Rotary Steerable System
TKO: Tilted Kickoff Sub
WOB: Weight On Bit

3
Introduction

With many years of experience, directional drilling is still an innovative industrial domain
where new technologies are still upcoming. The main concept of DD is to follow a non linear
trajectory with the drill bit. Such a request needs complex mechanical solutions and the role
of engineers is crucial. While it was mainly manual (handmade modifications of the drill pipe)
at its begin (1920), we tend nowadays to automate the process. This will require less operators
on the field (security advantages) and increase the accuracy of the operations.
Created a few years ago, the target of the Drillbotics competition is to boost the innovations
in this sector. Miniaturise a drilling rig necessarily implies to reinvent the current technologies
to conform to the shortness of the bit. With the aim of designing an appropriate device for the
competition, it seems essential to linger over the different aspects taken on in the functional
specification. Through the different chapters of this report, several constituents of the machine
will be concerned such as the drilling rig (1), the down hole motors (2), the deviation systems
(3), the drilling fluids (3), the different sensors required (5), the data transmission (6) and the
PDC bit (7).
The competition organisers also want to promote cooperation between the different teams and
allow to consult previous year reports. All the technical solutions previously chosen are so
reported in different tables (8) at the end of this report.

4
Chapter 1

Drilling rig

The drilling rig is a surface structure including many equipment, crucial for the drilling opera-
tions. We find there: the pumps, the derrick, the drill string, the power generation, the control
technologies... Drilling rigs can be mobile, permanent, offshore, etc. depending on the type of
wellbore. What is about the Drillbotic competition, a drilling rig has already been designed
by Laurie Delenin and Steven Volcher in [1]. To spare time, we are going to reuse their
conception and will maybe apply some modifications if needed. Calculations will be done to
ensure and verify their choices (section size, type of materials...)

Figure 1.1: Drilling rig in drilling position designed by [1]

The global structure is about 800 × 1150 mm and the beam chosen are squared (50 × 50
mm). To allow its displacement, the structure has been designed in two parts pliable as we
can see on figure 1.2. Roulettes, to facilitate the displacement of the table, have not yet been
chosen and the present study will have to turn its attention to this aspect. The first part of the
drilling rig, represented to the left in figure 1.1, will integrate the computer for the operations
control, display of the drilling parameters... This part also includes an emergency button that

5
have to be pressed to directly stop the operations.

Figure 1.2: Drilling rig in transport position designed by [1]

The structure will be subject to rude conditions (vibrations, projections...) and security sys-
tems are designed in the aim to preserve operators but also the system in itself. Consequently,
Plexiglas will cover the system to protect people from projections and one will be movable so
that operators can load the sandstone block.
As we can see in chapter 4, the use of a drilling fluid is required to cool the system and eventu-
ally motor the turbine or lubricate the mechanical components. Mud must be collected during
the drilling operations to avoid pollution (in case of synthetic fluids) or simply for the cleanness
of the operations. Therefore, a crank case will be set to collect dirt drilling fluid. While the
design presented in [1] is relevant, an overfull system seems to be missing given that the flow
required will certainly exceed the capacity of the crankcase. As an example, we know that a
sink under normal pressure (2-3 bar) lets flow roughly 12 l/min. If our operation takes 3 hours,
as avowed in the specifications, the fluid amount will reach at least 2 m³.

6
Chapter 2

Down hole motors

Years of industrial developments has led to different technologies of down hole motors. The
widely used concept is to transform hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. We can see two
types of devices based on such a transformation:

• the positive displacement motor using the Moineau principle (section 2.1 at page 7);

• the turbodrilling using a turbine either centrifugal or axial (section 2.2 at page 11).

Innovatively, we will also rely on other technologies from other sectors (dentistry, milling...).

2.1 Positive displacement mud motor (PDM)

"Steerable motor assemblies" other known as "positive displacement motors (PDM)" are tech-
nologies developed on the Moineau principle. Introduced to the industry in the 60s, they are
versatile and widely used for their ability to provide an accurate trajectory control accord-
ing to [2]. [3] learns us that a standard positive displacement motor could be divided in four
assemblies:

1. the dump valve;

2. the motor assembly;

3. the transmission rod assembly;

4. the bearing assembly.

Each component should be tiny design to optimise the performances of the tool.

2.1.1 Dump valve/sub

The aim of the dump valve is to direct the fluid into or out the drill pipe. It is mainly composed
of a piston/coil system. When the pressure is not strong enough to crush the spring, the valve
remains in the open position permitting the fluid to entry or exit. When the pressure is strong
enough, the piston closes the external ports and the fluid flows into the motor. This system is
illustrated on figure 2.2

7
 Figure 2.1: Dump valve system [3]

2.1.2 Motor assembly

Based on the Moineau pump, the hydraulic energy is converted to mechanical energy. As
an invert volumetric pump, the force of the fluid rotates the spiral shaped rotor inside an
elastomeric stator. The design of the lobes allows to focus on the torque or the rotary speed.
Whereas the torque increases with the number of lobes, the rotational speed decreases. In
addition, the stator must have one more lobes than the stator. Tables presented in [3] allow
to match correctly the dynamical characteristics to the number of lobes ensuring the best
performances.

Figure 2.2: Relation between the torque, the rotary speed and the number of lobes [2]

Different technologies of motors with different limits of pressure stages exist:

• Dyna-drill and Baker (85 Psi);

• Posi-drill (108 Psi);

• Navi-drill (115 Psi);

• ...

8
2.1.3 Transmission rod assembly
At the output of the Moineau pump, the rotor makes oscillations. These eccentric motions are
unacceptable for the drive shaft as we can see in figure 2.3. Therefore a universal coupling is
used to transmit the torque from the motor to the shaft vanishing eccentricities.

Figure 2.3: Connecting rod assembly [3]

2.1.4 Bearing assembly

The bearing assembly (figure 2.4) makes the connection between the connecting rod and the
bit. It is crucial on the way that it links the "static" part to the "rotating" one, required for
cutting with the bit. It also allows the fluid to flow through the bit for cooling it. According
to [2], the assembly needs to have different bearings to support different thrusts coming from:
• the rotor;

• the hydraulic pressure;

• the WOB.
The bearings are often made of carbide or diamond to diminish the frictional forces. It can be
decomposed into five sub assemblies:
1. the upper thrust bearing;

2. the flow restrictor;

3. the drive shaft;

9
 4. the radial thrust bearing;

5. the main thrust bearing.

Figure 2.4: Bearing assembly [3]

An exploded view is presented at the figure A.1 in the appendix.

Upper thrust bearing

The upper thrust bearing supports many forces coming from:
• the weight of the shaft;

• the weight of the bit;

• the weight of the rotor;

• the hydraulic pressure.

Despite the main thrust bearing, these forces are lighter and the life time of this component is
not restrictive.

10
Flow restrictor
The flow restrictor allows a fraction of the fluid (5-8%) to go trough the bearing assembly
for cooling it. Avoiding the bearings to reach high temperature ensures a right efficiency and
extend service life.

Drive shaft
The drive shaft allows the transmission of the axial load (e.g. WOB) as well as the torque
coming from the connecting rod. It has to deal with many constraints (mainly normal and
torsion) and a fatigue study should be performed. Different covering on this forged component
are often realised to optimise its mechanical resistance.

Radial thrust bearing

Between the upper and the lower bearings, the shaft needs to be radially support. Consequently,
a marine support has to be chosen as radial thrust bearing. Thanks to holes made in it, as we
can see on the cross-section A-A at figure 2.4, the flow coming from the flow restrictor can go
through.

Main thrust bearing

The main thrust bearing is specially designed to take on the weight-on-bit.

2.2 Turbodrill
Turbodrilling is based on the turbine motor principle. An alternation of rotors and stators along
a shaft will make it turn. The stator stages are locked on the housing while the rotors are fixed
on the shaft. The number of stages varies from 50 to 80. According to [2], turbines are specially
suited for high speed, low torque and PDC bits. The figure 2.5 presents an exploded view of
turbodrilling assembly. The dynamical characteristics could be adjusted to the application
thanks to a reduction gear. This will allow the turbine stages to work in their best conditions
(getting the greatest power). The reducer will increase the torque and reduce the speed in such
a way that the cutting conditions are optimised.

11
 Figure 2.5: Exploded view of a turbodrilling assembly [3]

Nevertheless, the operating conditions mainly depend on the deflection angle of the blades.
This makes the technology less adaptive given that the shape of the blades is fixed. Furthermore,
this technology is quite complex and difficult to realise in tiny conditions. An example of
characteristics is given at table 2.1.

size 5 3/8"
length 6.1 m
number of stages 50
discharge volume 950 l/min
speed range 800 rot/min
torque 810 Nm
power output 67 kW
pressure drop 1018 psi
temperature limit 610 °F

Table 2.1: Characteristics of a Maureur turbodrill [3]

Using the similitude principle for our tool dimensions, we get the data presented on table
2.2. They are indicative and gives magnitude (for the size, torque...)

size 5.375 1.5 in

length 6.1 1.7 m
number of stages 50 50
discharge volume 950 74 l/min
speed range 800 800 rpm
torque 810 1.37 Nm
power output 67 0.113 kW
pressure drop 1018 79 psi

Table 2.2: Characteristics obtained with the similitude principle

12
2.3 Electrodrill
As presented in Oil and Gas Journal [4], the electrodrilling should be considered as an in-
teresting alternative to conventional drilling techniques. The use of electricity allows to have
characteristics independent from the depth. As a reminder, with turbodrills and PDMs, the
water pressure increases with the depth and leads to different drilling conditions. Furthermore,
measures, made with amperemeters and wattmeters, permit to determine relevant characteris-
tics as torque and rotational speed. However, the use of cooling fluid imposes to ensure tightness
for obvious reasons (short circuit...)

2.4 Cardan transmission

Working with universal joint is an innovative technique that allows to bypass the use of a
down-hole motor. Due to the thinness of the hole, this purely mechanical solution is less bulky.
Furthermore, using a drilling fluid that could also lubricate the Cardan joints, consists in a
strong advantage. As we use mechanical link, we should ensure that no mud particle enter in
the assembly. In such a case, it is going to lead to a premature wear.
As we can see on figure 2.6, the output velocity vary with the rotation angle and the deviation
angle. The evolution of the angular velocity at the output ω2 for an angular velocity ω1 at the
input for a deviation angle β and an angle of rotation at the entry γ1 is given by [5]:

ω1 cos β
ω2 = (2.1)
1 − (sin β cos γ1 )2

As the deviation angle β should not exceed 30°, we can assume that the rotation speed could
vary between 0.85 and 1.15 between the input and the ouput of one joint.

Figure 2.6: Evolution of the output speed with the rotation angle and the deviation angle

In the worst case, these fluctuations could cumulate and lead to a jerky transmission. As
an example, if we take n joints, each ensuring an azimutal deviation of 15° (maximum relative
variation of 1.05 per joint), the total relative speed variation is given by:

max(ωn ) = 1.05n (2.2)

13
The figure 2.7 shows the evolution of the output relative speed with the rotation angle for n
joints and a deviation angle of 15°.

Figure 2.7: Evolution of the output speed with the rotation angle for n joints and a deviation
angle of 15°

14
Chapter 3

Deviation systems

3.1 Whipstocks
Whipstocks are common deviation tools [6]. They allow to deviate the drilling bit working
as a tough obstacle forcing the bit to deviate from its initial direction. Firstly, a pin is set
between the drilling assembly and the whipstock assembly to block their relative movement.
The all is then set in the hole and rotated to give the right orientation. After ensuring the
right orientation of the whipstock, the pin relying these two is sheared thanks to a load. The
bit next begins to rotate and follows the concave direction of the whipstock. The figure 3.1
illustrates the principle of a whipstock.

Figure 3.1: Principle of a whipstock from [7]

Three categories of whipstocks could be characterised by what we are going to do after their
placement. We can distinguish:
1. the standard removable whipstock;
2. the circulating whipstock;
3. the permanent casing whipstock.

3.1.1 Standard removable whipstock

The standard removable whipstock is a steelen device ended by a chisel point. After its place-
ment in the bottom of the hole, it will be removed.

3.1.2 Circulating whipstock

The circulating whipstock differs from the standard removable whipstock by a passage that
enables the mud to flow through it and to its bottom.

15
3.1.3 Permanent casing whipstock
In this case, the whipstock will stay in the hole. The aim of this procedure is to anchor the
whipstock down hole so that it can not rotate or move. This way of processing is faster given
that no time will be spent to pull out the device.

3.2 Jetting
Jetting technique is based on the directive erosion of the stone. According to [6], this technique
should not be implemented when the penetration speed is higher than 80 ft/h. The stone needs
to be soft otherwise it will be unachievable. The deeper we work, the tougher the formation and
consequently the technique is less adapted. To successfully erode, the jet velocity is required to
reach at the least 500 ft/s. As we can see on figure 3.2, the jet nozzle is firstly taken done and
oriented. Secondly, high pressure water begins to erode the rock formation to create a pocket.
The nozzle is then moved down to accentuate the deviation to reach that required. During
this operation, the weight-on-bit should reach 40-45 klb and the rotational speed 60-70 rpm
according to [6]. This requirements are justified by the need of the assembly to bend and follow
the deviation while jetting.

Figure 3.2: Jetting technique from [6, p. 207]

3.3 Bent sub

The bent sub allows to deviate the drilling direction by using a connector that makes a slight
angle (max 3°) between the axis of the drill string and the axis of the downhole motor. This
technique is mainly used with PDM ([6]) and the curvature depends on the angle of offset.
The figure 3.3 illustrates the use of a bent sub. We must however pay attention to the right
orientation of the bit and only use it with downhole motors (turbine, PDM...) The rotation of
the entire shaft would consequently make such an operation impossible. A huge drawback of
this technology is the removing from the hole the bottom hole assembly at each time we want
to change the direction. This will inevitably lead to time losses.

16
 Figure 3.3: Bent sub from [8]

3.4 Steerable drilling system

Compared to classical deviation systems that need to be tripped to change the BHA, the
deviation is here automatically changed. They permit an accurate control of the trajectory
when they are combined with petrophysical sensors. Furthermore, they represent a time-saving
technology when many directional changes are required.
Two steering concepts has been developed: push the bit and point the bit. In push-the-bit
systems, a force is applied on the side of the hole to deviate the bit as illustrated in figure 3.4

Figure 3.4: Push-the-bit system from [9]

In point-the-bit system, a navigation sub will offset an angle and the bit follows the direction
imposed. According to [2], RSS’s permit maximum build rate reaching 6 to 8°/100 ft. The figure
3.5 illustrates the principle of a point-the-bit system.

Figure 3.5: Point-the-bit system from [9]

17
 They consequently enhance the hole quality. [6, pp. 209-211] distinguishes five key compo-
nents constituting the steerable drilling system:

1. the drill bit;

2. the mud motor;

3. the navigation sub;

4. the navigation stabilisers;

5. the survey system.

3.4.1 Drill bit

The drill bits compatible with steerable systems are from two types: tricone or PDC. This last
has a longer life time and is mainly use to keep benefiting from a technology that do not need
frequent trips to change the BHA.

3.4.2 PDM
The PDM has already been presented at section 2.1 page 7. However, it can be highlighted
that a navigation sub is incompatible with a rotational drill string.

3.4.3 Navigation sub

This key component tilts the bit to a given angle. To ensure precision, the distance between
the navigation sub and the drill bit must be minimised. The load remains consequently mainly
applied on the bit. Two types of subs are distinguishable:

1. the double tilted universal joint housing (DTU), with two opposing tilts;

2. the tilted kickoff sub (TKO), with two tilts closed to the bit and in the same direction.

3.4.4 Navigation stabilisers

To stabilise the operation, stabilizers are used. The first one is related to the motor and the
second one to the directional system.

3.4.5 Survey system

To correctly orientate the drill bit, accurate data have to be collected about: the azimuth, the
declination, the WOB... These specified sensors are discussed on chapter 5 at page 21.

18
Chapter 4

Drilling fluids

By the past, drilling fluids were mainly composed of water and clay while nowadays they
are much more complex and sophisticated. According to [10], many additives (chemicals, oil,
solids...) allows to fully satisfy the functions of a drilling fluid. Using a drilling fluid allows to
[10]:

• remove the cuttings to unclog the hole;

• cool the bit and the drill string avoiding variations in mechanical properties due to tem-
perature rise;

• lubricate the mechanical bindings;

• transmit the hydraulic energy to the downhole motor;

• protect the casing.

[10] says that we have to focus on: the density, the rheology, the filtrate, the chemical inhibition
and the solids content. Other properties have to remain on the second plan. As an example,
we could seek some particular properties to prevent fluid losses in fractured zone (figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Example of particular properties for a drilling fluid from [11]

19
 From the density results the hydrostatic pressure, an important parameter conditioning the
flow rate and the drilling efficiency.
Rheology studies allows to determine the plastic viscosity and the Yield point. The plastic
viscosity consists on the flow resistance due to internal friction forces while the Yield point
measures the electrical forces linked to charges present on particles surfaces.
The filtration rate is an image of the quantity of mud adhering on the permeable wall of the
hole.
The chemicals encompass a wide variety of products that allow to work on characteristics like:
the pH, the chlorides concentration, the calcium concentration... This data should be relevantly
adapted to the working environment.
Among all drilling fluids, two groups can be distinguished on basis of their main constituent:
water or oil.
What is about water-based fluid, they are composed of four components:

1. water;

2. active solids (clay, polymer...) that increase the viscosity of the fluid and define its
filtration properties;

3. inert solids that weight the fluids and are non-reactive;

4. chemicals (ogranic and inorganic) that modify the behavior (pH, lubricant, defoamer...)

Varying the proportions and the types of those components allows to obtain different mud
properties. While the density and the viscosity are mainly given by the first constituent (water
or oil), modifying the others allows to get accurate properties that optimise the cutting condi-
tions.
What is about the oil-based fluid, they cannot contain more than 50% water (over 10% we
already talk about "invert emulsion"). The active solids added in oil-based fluids have to be
oleophilic. The emulsion must be stabilized with surfactants.

20
Chapter 5

Sensors

Nowadays, the diversification of sensors enables to measure a wide category of parameters that
enhance our comprehension of the drilling. This set of parameters also permit to improve the
drilling trajectory, the WOB, the torque to approach best conditions. Thanks to last innova-
tions, compactness and accuracy of sensors have consistently enhanced. The data permitting
to enhance the process will be:

• the WOB;

• the torque;

• the flow rate;

• the cutting speed;

• the azimuth;

• the declination;

• the mud pressure;

• the length of the hole.

5.1 WOB
To measure the WOB, the sensor used is a drillstring weight indicator sometimes consisted
of 2 parts : one which measures the suspended weight of drilling assembly and the other for
the drill bit weight. Hydraulic gauges attached to the dead line of the drilling line measure
the forces. While the force increases or decreases, the fluid is pushed or not in the sensor
and thus, provides a measure. Nevertheless, a zero must be made offset to ensure that only
forces from the drillstring are taken into account. This includes the weight on the drillpipe
and on the bottomhole assembly. The rotating on bottom weight must be substract from this
measure because the only interesting value is the weight on the bit (WOB). Regularly, there is
an indicator dial that can be set to read zero with drillstring hanging free [12].
More sophisticated tools are Measurement While Drilling (MWD) placed down hole, close
to the drilling assembly. These sensors measure the strain applied on the tool, from this, it is
possible to assess the weight on the bit [13].

21
5.2 Torque
To monitor the torque, the adequate sensor is a clamp put on the power cable linked to the
top-drive system. This works on the basis of the Hall effect and the generated deformation of
a chip . The torque is directly proportional to the intensity of the current transmitted by the
top-drive system. The greater the current, the greater the magnetic field generated by the Hall
effect and the greater the chip’s deformation [14].
An other tool permits to measure the torque, called a rotary torque sensor. It is based
on metal foil strain gauge which is a force transducer, meaning that its resistance is variable
depending on the stress applied on the shaft. In this case, the strain gauge is relied to the
shaft. After that, a Wheatstone bridge amplifier is used to permit the conversion of resistance
variations into a calibrated voltage [15].

5.3 Flow rate

Sensors are used to track the flow rate of the fluid applied downhole. This permits the assess-
ment of the pressure that the pump has to provide. The sensors more often used to measure
these flow rates are whisker or proximity switches. The first one is activated by the movement
of a piston raised by an external whisker. The whisker is dragged away by the liquid flow and
has a certain displacement related to a defined position of the piston [14].
Secondly, the proximity sensor is stimulated by an external magnetic field. While passing
through the sensor’s field, the liquid conductive flow will generate a proportional voltage signal
[14].
An other possibility to assess the velocity of the flow is to measure the operating speed of
an impeller. The fluid is getting through it and set it in motion. It is used to call this device
a spinner flowmeter. However, below a threshold velocity the spinner does not turn because of
friction and viscosity of the fluid. These factors will permit to choose the right spinner [16].

5.4 Cutting speed

To evaluate the cutting speed, it is necessary to measure the RPM (revolutions per minute).
It is frequent to use a proximity sensor. A magnet could be set on the shaft. Then while the
shaft is rotating, the magnetic field passing through the sensor is evolving. By the Hall effect,
it will generate a variable voltage which will be measured [17].

5.5 Azimuth and inclination

In order to know exactly the position of the bit, it is possible to use magnetometers and
accelometers. The magnetometers permit to know the direction of the hole by knowing the
Earth magnetic field while the accelometers permit to know the gravitational field. Three of
each sensor are used and place orthogonally to be able to know the three components of each
vector. The z axis is defined as being the axis of the tool and the y axis is lined up with the
toolface [18]. Nevertheless, the magnetic sensors could be perturbed by the other magnetic
components.
Thereby, it is possible to calculate the magnetic btotal and the gravity gtotal fields vectors.
q
btotal = b2x + b2y + b2z (5.1)

22
 q
gtotal = gx2 + gy2 + gz2 (5.2)

The inclination α is calculated by this following equation [19].

p 2
gx + gy2
tan(α) = (5.3)
gz
The azimuth is calculated with the help of the components of the magnetic field and refer-
enced to the magnetic north.

5.6 Mud pressure

To be able to monitor the pressure applied at the surface, it is essential to know the mud
pressure. A transducer is used and is based on a physical deformation of strain gages. This
deformation is applied on a diaphragm and induces a strain to the gages. This will produce
an electrical signal which is proportional to the pressure [20]. This pressure can be measured
with the help of rubber diaphragm which expands with the mud pressure. This expansion has
a direct impact on the pressure of the hydraulic-oil-filled system. This increase of pressure will
then be measured by the transducer [14].
An other way to make the measure is to put the transducer directly in contact with the
mud [14].

5.7 Length of the hole

The length of the hole can be known by measuring the rate of penetration (ROP). This is "the
speed at which the drill bit can break the rock under it and thus deepen the wellbore". If a
column of water is dropped into the hole, there will be a change in the hydrostatic pressure
and the height of the collumn will varry. By associating this measure with time-based counter,
it is possible to calculte an average ROP [21].
A sensor LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) is able to measure the ROP. This
sensor can convert mechanical movement into an electric change. It is composed by two cylin-
ders : one is hollow and the other with a smaller diameter is full. The smallest cylinder is able
to pass through the biggest one along its axis and includes a magnetic core. Once again, by
the variation of a magnetic field, this will be translated by a variable electric answer [17].

23
Chapter 6

Data transmission

Introduced in 1970s, the measurement while drilling system (MWD) allows to evaluate drilling
parameters. It mainly contributes to the development of real-time control system optimising
consistently the accuracy of the drilling. Before their introduction in the industry, the drilling
had to be stopped to lower surveying equipment. It consequently resulted in time consuming
operations. In a nutshell, MWD contributes to improve the productivity and the accuracy of
the drilling.
As many data are taken during the drilling, they need to be transmitted to the surface for their
treatment. To allow a relevant control, surface equipment has to modify parameters down hole.
The communication must be established in the two directions.
Different means of transmission exist, the more current are the mud stream and the electro-
magnetic transmissions. Given that the length to drill is not long (<1m), it is also possible
to use a wired connection to easily make the transmission. This way of processing is simple
however we must pay attention that the wire does not rotate otherwise it will break. We should
also ensure that there is sufficient place to pass the wire trough the equipment.

6.1 Mud stream transmission

The mud stream transmission is based on hydraulic pulses. The pressure variations are realised
by a valve that impedes or facilitates the mud flow. Either the flow is impeded, the pressure then
rises and we talk about "positive system" or the flow is facilitated, the pressure decreases and
we talk about "negative system". To establish the communication, we first define a reference
series of pulses that will initiate the transmission. The pressure pulses can be assimilated to
binary code and will be translated to relevant results/instructions. The figure 6.1 shows how
the system works.

24
 Figure 6.1: Use of an hydraulic pulse system from [22]

6.2 Electromagnetic transmission (EM-MWD)

As explained in [23], the mud stream transmission has some drawbacks. Indeed, the trans-
mission speed is slow and the communication system is complex (giving pulses, measuring the
binary signal, translating binary to decimal...) Moreover, the liquid needs to be pure and gas-
free without that the transmission would be compromised. These disadvantages conducted to
the elaboration of the "electromagnetic measurement while drilling (EM-MWD)". The atten-
uation of an electromagnetic signal through a given environment is given by:

A(z) = A0 e−αz (6.1)

Where A0 is the initial amplitude, A the amplitude at a depth z for a down going plane wave
and α is known as equal to:
v r !
u
u µϵ 2
σ
α = ωt 1+ 2 2 −1 (6.2)
2 ϵω

With:
• ω: pulsation in [rad/s];

• µ = µ0 µr : permeability in [Tm/A];

• ϵ = ϵ0 ϵr : permittivity in [F/m];

• σ: the electrical conductivity in [S/m].

Literature gives µr ≃ 1, ϵr ≃ 4 and σ ≃ 10− 3 S/m. Figures 6.2 and 6.3 show the higher
the frequency, the fewer the signal is transmitted. However, our application does not require
important dimension (±1 m) and we can let this preoccupation down. But we have to ensure

25
that metallic pieces will not scatter the signal. [23] puts forward the interest of increasing the
frequency to obtain high data transmission speed. It proposes to use the power line carrier
communication principle that couples the high frequency signal with the power line.

Figure 6.2: Evolution of the amplitude for a given depth

Figure 6.3: Evolution of the amplitude for a given frequency

26
Chapter 7

PDC drill bits

The choice of a drill bit has to be clever to ensure the desired penetration rate and the quality of
the hole. Understanding its dynamical behaviour allow to predict its wear and the interactions
with the hole. The components of a drill bit are represented at figure 7.1. This last one highlight
the complexity of its architecture.

Figure 7.1: Scheme of a fixed cutter bit from [24]

There is different types of bits with distinctive working principles (Roller Cone, PDC, TSP...)
This study will focus on the polycrystalline diamond compact bit (PDC) imposed by the com-
petition. Like machining, the PDC bit shears the rock with an hard material. The diamond
has been chosen to benefit from superior properties. PDC is an aggregate of tinier diamonds
with tungsten carbide. These set of diamonds are shaped in "diamond tables" as represented
in figure 7.2 where the substrate measures roughly 0.5 in and the diamond table 3/8 in.

27
 Figure 7.2: PDC construction from [25]

As mentioned in [25], the diamond volume increases the wear life and the highest-quality one
can reach 4 mm. However, the maximal use temperature cannot exceed 750°C. The temperature
rise will indeed produce thermal gradient and differential expansion that will break the diamond
grid. Furthermore, heat decreases the bonding strength between diamond and tungsten carbide.
Consequently, the PDC bit needs to be cool down during drilling. Two types of PDC bits have
been designed ([25]):
1. the matrix-body bit;
2. the steel-body bit.

7.1 Matrix-body bit

The matrix-body bit (figure 7.3) has an hardness able to face abrasion and erosion. The
structure of tungsten carbide grains bonded with a metallic binder permits high compress loads
but a poor impact resistance.

Figure 7.3: PDC matrix-body bit from [25]

7.2 Steel-body bit

The steel-body bit (figure 7.4) has a softness able to face impacts but is less resistant against
abrasion and erosion. The steel ductility makes able to manufacture larger bits than matrix one.
Steel-body bit accepts more complex bit profile (including hydraulic performances...) thanks to

28
machining operation. It can also be rebuilt and the cutters can be replaced in case of damages.
That makes steel-body bit a low cos solution.

Figure 7.4: PDC steel-body bit from [25]

29
Chapter 8

Choices made by other teams

It is interesting to focus on the different choices that have already be done by other teams.
Some interesting analysis could be highlighted like finite element simulations, CFD simulations,
etc. and would certainly represent advantages in our report. Here-under stay different tables
comparing technical solutions made by the finalist of 2021:

• Kasdi Merbah Ouargla University (Algeria) [26];

• Utah Valley University (USA) [27];

• NTNU (Norway) [28];

• Texas A&M University (USA) [29];

• TU Clausthal (Germany) [30];

• University of Stavanger (Norway) [31];

• University of Houston (USA) [32].

For many of them, the solutions they proposed result in many years of development, enhancing
the previous year solution of their university. On the following tables, we will compare:

• the motorisations (table 8.1);

• the deviation systems (table 8.2);

• the hoisting systems (table 8.3);

• the control systems and sensors (table 8.4);

• the stabilizers (table 8.5);

• the drilling fluids (table 8.6).

30
Country University Year Motorisation
downhole motor
Algeria Kasdi Merbah Ouargla 2021
pneumatic air vane motor to avoid rotating
the drill string and because high torque can
be reached at low speeds (170 W, 750 rpm,
2.1 Nm, 0.3 m³/min)
USA Utah Valley University 2021 downhole motor
Norway NTNU 2021 top drive motor transmitting the torque to
the drill pipe
USA Texas A&M University 2021 top drive system with a flexible shaft
Germany TU Clausthal 2021 top drive electric system with a flexible shaft
conjunction of hollow-shaft electric top drive
Norway University of Stavanger 2021
motor with a pneumatic downhole motor
connection between pneumatic motor and
shaft with universal joint or wire
USA University of Houston 2021 top drive motor

Table 8.1: Types of motorisation previously used

Country University Year Deviation

Algeria Kasdi Merbah Ouargla 2021 electrical motor: knuckle joint
USA Utah Valley University 2021 whipstock inserted manually
Norway NTNU 2021 separate motor with hollow gearbox and ro-
tary table
USA Texas A&M University 2021 rotary steerable assembly with electromag-
nets
2/3 wings extendable with liquid pressure in
Germany TU Clausthal 2021
a cylinder
addition of springs to limit the movement of
the cylinders
Norway University of Stavanger 2021 bent sub
USA University of Houston 2021 push the bit system isolated from the rotary
parts with a slip ring

Table 8.2: Types of deviation systems previously used

Country University Year Hoisting system

Algeria Kasdi Merbah Ouargla 2021 control of the vertical movement with servo-
motor
USA Utah Valley University 2021 stepper motor and ball screw
Norway NTNU 2021 ball screw
Norway University of Stavanger 2021 stepper motor

Table 8.3: Types of hoisting systems previously used

31
Country University Year Control system and sensors
WOB: load cell
Algeria Kasdi Merbah Ouargla 2021 inertial measurement unit (IMU): 3-axis gy-
roscope/accelerometer and compass
connection with wires
plate with a laser to measure the total depth
USA Utah Valley University 2021
WOB: load cell
Norway NTNU 2021 WOB: load cell with the ball screw
WOB: S-Beam load cell
RPM: optical tachometer
USA Texas A&M University 2021 Torque: Hall effect sensor and AcuAMP DC
sensor
acceleration, inclination and azimuth
temperature
magnetometre
accelerometer
Germany TU Clausthal 2021 gyrometer
WOB
RPM: optical tachometer
magnetometre
Norway University of Stavanger 2021 accelerometer
gyrometer
RPM: optical tachometer
torque encoder
Norway University of Stavanger 2021
pressure transmitter
displacement of the drill bit: height distance
sensor
WOB: S-Beam load cell
9 axis IMU downhole
rate of penetration: accelerometer
USA University of Houston 2021
RPM and torque: variable frequency drive
flow meter
vibration

Table 8.4: Types of control systems and sensors previously used

Country University Year Stabilizer

Algeria Kasdi Merbah Ouargla 2021 design of a spiral bottom stabilizer
Norway NTNU 2021 2 stabilizers
USA Texas A&M University 2021 2 stabilizers
Germany TU Clausthal 2021 1 stabilizer at the BHA
USA University of Houston 2021 1 stabilizer

Table 8.5: Types of stabilizer systems previously used

32
Country University Year drilling fluid
Algeria Kasdi Merbah Ouargla 2021 air
USA Utah Valley University 2021 water collected and filter in a tank
USA Texas A&M University 2021 air and water
Germany TU Clausthal 2021 mud
Norway University of Stavanger 2021 water or mud
USA University of Houston 2021 water

Table 8.6: Types of cooling fluids previously used

33
Conclusion

As shown in this state of the Art, directional drilling is a complex system that requires many
skills like the mining abilities to determine the forces required to drill, the design of accurate
control processes, the mechanical resistance of the drilling rig, the mud trajectory... The need
of engineers is so highlighted by these complex tasks.
Furthermore, the DD exists in the industry since 1920 and many techniques have already been
developed up to today and are still in development.
For the drilling rig, we explained in chapter 1 that the design of Laurie Delenin and Steven
Volcher will be reused. However, calculations are going to be remade to ensure the exactness
of their solution.
For the deviation systems, we explained in chapter 3 that many procedures exist. Some, like
whipstocks and bent sub, require to stop the drilling process to remove the drill string. They
are more time consuming while others can be done with the BHA still in the end of the hole.
For example, jetting works with mud that will erode the walls of the hole and steerable drilling
system directly orientates the bit in the good direction.
For the drilling fluids, we explained in chapter 4 how can additives variate to obtain character-
istics that will optimise the drilling. The reasons of using either a water-based or an oil-based
fluid have also been explained.
For the sensors, we explained in chapter 5 that different data have to be collected to provide
a return-on-loop control. The most common data to measure are: WOB, torque, flow rate,
cutting speed, azimuth, declination, mud pressure and lenght of the hole. Those data will
normally allows to monitor the trajectory of the tool and adapt the drilling parameters.
For the data transmission, we explained in chapter 6 how the data could be transmitted. In
the industry, mud stream and electromagnetic transmissions are often used, however it could
also be possible to simply use a wire.
For the PDC drill bits, we explained in chapter 7 what constitute a PDC drill bit to better
understand how they work. The different kinds of body for the bit have also been presented.
For the choices made by other teams, we explained in chapter 8 the different techniques pre-
viously used. All the teams presented are finalists of the competition and the solutions they
provide result in many years of development. These are very relevant solutions that are inter-
esting to take into account.
To sum up, we have presented many solutions that will allow to make a relevant choice aware
of the existing technologies. It will be the next part of the project.

34
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37
38
Appendix A

Exploded view of the bearing assembly

Figure A.1: Exploded view of a bearing assembly [3]

39