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Electric Flux
𝐸
You can think of the flux through some surface as a measure of
the number of field lines which pass through that surface.

Flux depends on the strength of 𝐸 , on the surface area, and on

the relative orientation of the field and surface.

area A area A
𝐸 Here the flux is
 = 𝐸 · 𝐴⃗

 We divide the surface into small

regions with area dA
A cos  𝐴⃗
d = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴⃗ = E dA cos 

 = 𝐸. 𝐴⃗ = E A cos  𝑑𝐴⃗

A

 =  d =  𝑬 . 𝒅𝑨
𝐸

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Gauss’s Law
In the case of a closed surface
   q enclose
 E.dA  
   E.dA.cos   
inside

The loop means the integral is over a closed surface.

dA Surface a, qa =(+2q) + (-q) +(+q) = 2q

 Surface b, qb = q
Surface c, qc = 0
E Surface d, qd = -q

Gauss’s Law

The total flux within … is proportional to

a closed surface … the enclosed charge.

  Q enclosed
   E  dA =
 0
Gauss’s Law is always true, but is only useful for certain
very simple problems with great symmetry.

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GAUSS LAW – SPECIAL SYMMETRIES

SPHERICAL CYLINDRICAL PLANAR

(point or sphere) (line or cylinder) (plane or sheet)

CHARGE Depends only on radial Depends only on Depends only on perpendicular

DENSITY distance from central perpendicular distance from distance from plane
point line

GAUSSIAN Sphere centered at Cylinder centered at axis Pillbox or cylinder

SURFACE point of symmetry of symmetry with axis perpendicular to plane

ELECTRIC E constant at surface E constant at curved surface E constant at end surfaces

FIELD E E ║A - cos  = 1 and E ║ A and E ║ A
E ┴ A at end surface E ┴ A at curved surface
cos  = 0 cos  = 0

FLUX 

Spherical geometry Cylindrical geometry Planar geometry

Problem: Uniform sphere of Charge Q (insulating sphere)

Outside sphere    q enclose Inside sphere


  E.dA  inside
0
𝐸
R R
r 𝐸
𝑑𝐴⃗ r 𝑑𝐴⃗
O O

   
   
    E.dA  E.4r 2  
 E.dA  E.4r 2

  Q Q   q enclose 1  Qr 3 Qr
  q enclose Q  E.4r   E  Q  4 3   E.4 r 2  E
2
 inside  r
 4 r 20  0    R 3
4  R3
   0  4 3   3 
inside 0 0 0

  0 0    R  
 3  

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Insulating sphere Conducting sphere

Infinite sheet of charge

Gauss’s law is useful only when the electric field
is constant on a given surface

1. Select Gauss surface

In this case a cylindrical
pillbox
2. Calculate the flux of the
electric field through the
Gauss surface
 = 2 EA
3. Equate  = qencl/0
2EA = qencl/0
4. Solve for E
E = qencl / 2 A 0 =  / 2 0
Infinite sheet of charge (with  = qencl / A)

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22.35. An insulating sphere with radius 0.120 m has 0.900 nC of charge uniformly distributed throughout its volume.
The center of the sphere is 0.240 m above a large uniform sheet that has charge density -8.00 nC/m2. Find all points
inside the sphere where the electric field is zero. Or, show that there is no such points.

= -8.00 nC/m2


E
2 0

Qr
E
4 0 R 3

22.39(45). Concentric Spherical Shells. A small conducting spherical shell with inner radius a
and outer radius b is concentric with a larger conducting spherical shell with inner radius c and
outer radius d. The inner shell has total charge +2q, and the outer shell has charge +4q.
(a) Calculate the electric field (magnitude and direction) in terms of q and the distance r from the
common center of the two shells for (i) r < a; (ii) a< r < b; (iii) b< r < c; (iv) c < r < d; (v) r > d.
Show your results in a graph of the radial component of E as a function of r.
(b) What is the total charge on the (i) inner surface of the small shell; (ii) outer surface of the
small shell; (iii) inner surface of the large shell; (iv) outer surface of the large shell?

Conducting spherical shell

Conducting body
+ +
+ Point M: E=0 (inside)
+
b +
Inside E = 0 a Point N: E=0 (inside)
+
M N+ P

+ +
Point P:
+ +
+

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The inner shell has total charge +2q,

The outer shell has charge +4q
(i) Point 1: r < a; E1 = 0 (𝑄 = 0)

(ii) Point 2: a< r < b; E2 =0 (𝑄 = 0)

2𝑞
2q + (iii) Point 3: b< r < c; 𝐸 = (𝑄 = 2q)
+ 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
+ (iv) Point 4: c < r < d; E4 = 0 (𝑄 = 0)
+ +
+ d + 2𝑞 + 4𝑞 6𝑞
-2q + (v) Point 5: r > d. 𝐸 = = (𝑄 = 6q)
+ c 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
b +
a
+ + +
1 2 +3 4 5

+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+6q +
+
+

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Conducting solid cylinder

Insulating solid cylinder

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22.47(39). A very long conducting tube (hollow cylinder) has inner radius a and outer radius b. It carries charge per unit
length -, where  is a positive constant with units of C/m. A line of charge lies along the axis of the tube. The line of charge
has charge per unit length +.
(a) Calculate the electric field in terms of a and the distance r from the axis of the tube for (i) r < a; (ii) a < r < b; (iii) r > b.
Show your results in a graph of E as a function of r.
(b) What is the charge per unit length on (i) the inner surface of the tube and (ii) the outer surface of the tube?
+ (i) r < a
-

(ii) a < r < b

(iii) r > b

-
b

a
+ 0 (b)
the outer surface of the tube?

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with

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22.(33)35. The electric field E1 , at one face of a parallelepiped is uniform over the entire face and is directed out of the face. At
the opposite face, the electric field E2 is also uniform over the entire face and is directed into that face (Fig.). The two faces in
question are inclined at 30.00 from the horizontal, while E1, and E2 are both horizontal; E1 has a magnitude of 2.50x104 N/C,
and E2 has a magnitude of 7.00x104 N/C. (a) Assuming that no other electric field lines cross the surfaces of the parallelepiped,
determine the net charge contained within. (b) Is the electric field produced only by the charges within the parallelepiped, or is
the field also due to charges outside the parallelepiped? How can you tell?

b. If there were no charge within the parallelpiped the net flux

would be zero. This is not the case, so there is charge inside.

The electric field lines that pass out through the surface of the
parallelpiped must terminate on charges, so there also must be
charges outside the parallelpiped.

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22.43(49). Negative charge -Q is distributed uniformly over the surface of a thin spherical insulating shell with radius
R. Calculate the force (magnitude and direction) that the shell exerts on a positive point charge q located
(a) a distance r > R from the center of the shell (outside the shell)
(b) a distance r < R from the center of the shell (inside the shell).
(a) r > R
Apply Gauss’s law to a spherical Gaussian surface that has radius r > R and that is concentric with the shell

(b) r < R

Outside the shell the electric field and the force it exerts is the same as for a point charge −Q
located at the center of the shell. Inside the shell E = 0 and there is no force.

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22.51(53). Thomson’s Model or the Atom. In Thomson’s model, an atom consisted of a sphere of positively
charged material in which were embedded negatively charged electrons, like chocolate chips in a ball of
cookie dough. Consider an atom consisting of two electrons, each of charge -e, embedded in a sphere of
charge + 2e and radius R. In equilibrium, each electron is a distance d from the center of the atom (Fig.). Find
the distance d in terms of the other properties of the atom.

There is a force on each electron due to the other electron and a force due to the sphere of charge. Use Coulomb’s law for the force between the electrons.
If the electrons are in equilibrium the net force on each one is zero.

The force diagram for electron 2

There is a repulsive force F1 due to the electron 1

 
   
 E.dA  E.4r
2

 
  q enclose 1 
Q  4 3  E.4r 2 
Qr 3 Qr
The electric field inside the uniform distribution of positive charge is  inside E
  r   R3 40 R 3
R  0 0  4 3   3   0
𝐸   R  
r  3  
O 𝑑𝐴⃗

At the position of electron 2, r = d. The force Fcd exerted by the positive charge distribution is

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22.55(55). A Uniformly Charged Slab. A slab of insulating material has thickness 2d and is oriented so that its faces are parallel to the yz-plane and given by
the planes x = d and x = - d. The y- and z-dimensions of the slab are very large compared to d and may be treated as essentially infinite. The charge density of

the slab is given by 𝜌 = 𝜌 , where 𝜌 is a positive constant .

(a) Explain why the electric field due to the slab is zero at the center of the slab (x = 0).
(b) Using Gauss’s law, find the electric field due to the slab (magnitude and direction) at all points in space.

(a)

(b) Apply Gauss’s law to a cylindrical Gaussian surface whose axis is perpendicular to the slab

In general

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22.61(61). (a) An insulating sphere with radius a has a uniform charge density . The sphere is not centered at the origin but at
𝑟⃗ = 𝑏⃗. Show that the electric field inside the sphere is given by 𝐸 = 𝜌(𝑟⃗ − 𝑏⃗ )⁄3 𝜀 . (b) An insulating sphere of radius R has a
spherical hole of radius a located within its volume and centered a distance b from the center of the sphere, where a < b < R (a
cross section of the sphere is shown in Fig.). The solid part of the sphere has a uniform volume charge density 𝜌. Find the
magnitude and direction of the electric field 𝐸 inside the hole, and show that 𝐸 is uniform over the entire hole. [Hint: Use the
principle of superposition and the result of part (a).]

(a) For a sphere NOT at the coordinate origin:

(b) An insulating sphere of radius R has a spherical hole of radius a

The electric field inside a hole in a charged insulating sphere is:

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22.63(63). Positive charge Q is distributed uniformly over each of two spherical volumes with radius R. One
sphere of charge is centered at the origin and the other at x = 2R (Fig.). Find the magnitude and direction of
the net electric field due to these two distributions of charge at the following points on the x-axis: (a) x = 0;
(b) x = R/2; (c) x = R; (d) x = 3R

The electric field at each point is the vector sum of the fields of the two charge distributions.
directed away from the center of the sphere

Outside a sphere of uniform positive charge, directed away from the center of the sphere.

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Problem 1
An insulating spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius b has a uniform charge per
unit volume .

(a) Find the magnitude of the electric field in the regions r<a, a<r<b, and r>b.
You must begin with a statement of Gauss’s Law. Draw an appropriate Gaussian surface on
the diagram and label its radius r. Justify the steps leading to your answer.

(b) If an uncharged conducting spherical shell of inner radius c>b were placed around and
concentric with the insulating shell, what charge would be induced on the inner surface of
the conducting shell?

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Problem 2
An insulating sphere of radius a is uniformly charged with total positive charge Q

a. Calculate the charge density (charge per volume) inside the sphere in
terms of Q and a
b. Find the electric field (magnitude and direction) both inside and outside
the sphere. Begin with a statement of Gauss’s Law and indicate in the diagram
your choice of Gaussian surfaces.
c. A metallic (conducting) spherical shell is placed around the charged
sphere of parts (a) and (b). Its inner and outer radiuses are b and c, and it
carries net charge -2Q. Find the electric field magnitude and direction)
inside the shell (b<r<c) and on the outside (r>c). Begin with a statement of
Gauss’s Law and indicate in the diagram your choice of Gaussian surfaces.

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Problem 3
A solid insulating sphere of radius a has a positive uniform charge density +ρ
(i.e., a constant charge per unit volume) distributed throughout. The insulating
sphere is surrounded by a spherical metal conducting shell of inner radius a and
outer radius b=2a that carries no net charge.

a. Beginning with Gauss’s Law (expressed in the form of an integral) find the magnitude of the electric
field inside the insulating sphere at a point a distance r1=a/3 from the center of the sphere. Express your
answer symbolically in terms of ρ, a, the permittivity constant ε0, and any purely numerical constants.

b. What is the electric field inside the metal shell, at a radius r2=3a/2 from the center of both spheres?

c. Using Gauss’s law find the magnitude of the electric field at a point outside the metal shell, at a
distance r3 = 3a from the common center of both spheres. Express your answer symbolically in terms of
ρ, a, the permittivity constant ε0, and any purely numerical constants.

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