Flight Principles

Aerspace Technology & Air Transportation

S. Altmeyer

Escola d’Enginyeria de Telecomunicació i Aeroespacial de Castelldefels

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya

February 16, 2024

Overview
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
Evolution over the years

Montgolfier balloon (1783)

Lilienthal glider (1896)

Samuel Langley’s
“Aerodrome” (1903)
Leonardo da Vinci (≈ 1500) Advance in modern times
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
The Aircraft (Basic components)
The Aircraft (Basic components)

wing
vertical
stabiliser
horizontal
stabiliser

fuselage

engine
nacelle
The Aircraft (Basic components)

wing placement

wing planform
fuselage - basic structure
principle lifting force

→ design & shape depend upon the airplane mission

The Aircraft (Basic components)

tail assembly
horizontal & vertical
stabilizer
landing gear
→ stability
undercarriage

power-plant: engine + related accessories

The Aircraft (Model - Assumptions)

Hypotheses:
▶ Constant mass
▶ Rigid body
▶ Reflection-symmetric
The Wing - Basics

extrados Parts:
intrados ▶ Leading Edge
▶ Trailing Edge
▶ Intrados / Lower Surface
▶ Extrados / Upper Surface
Naming:
▶ S: projected surface
▶ b: span
ge ▶ λ = b 2 /S: aspect ratio
ed
d ing
lea ▶ ltip /lroot : taper
e ▶ Λ: sweep
edg
ling
trai ▶ Γ: dihedral
▶ θi : twist (incidence)
The Wing - control surfaces

1 winglet
2,3 ailerons (outboard, inboard)
4 flap deployment system
5,6 slats (inboard, outboard)
7,8 flaps (inboard, outboard)
9,10 spoilers (outboard, inboard)
 The Aerofoil

Parts:
▶ leading edge
leading upp
chor camber er s
urfa
edge d lin line
e ce ▶ trailing edge
trailing
lower edge
surface ▶ intrados / lower surface
▶ extrados / upper surface

Flight parameters:
▶ α: angle of attack Geometry parameters:
▶ l: chord
▶ γ: slope
▶ t: thickness
▶ θ = α + γ: pitch angle
▶ c: camber
▶ V : aerodynamic speed
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
The Earth

Hypotheses: (M = 2, h = 20km)
▶ Steady earth: (0.8%)

acoriolis 2Ωe V
= ≪1
agravity g

▶ Flat earth: (0.6%)

acentripetal V2
= ≪1
agravity Re g

▶ Constant gravity: (0.6%)

g0 − gh 1
=1− ≪1
g0 (1 + h/Re )2
Air
Properties (sea level values ISA):
▶ p: Pressure (p0 = 101325Pa)
▶ T : Temperature (T0 = 288.15K )
▶ ρ: Density (ρ0 = 1.225kg /m3 )
▶ µ: Dynamic viscosity (µ0 = 1.78 · 10−5 Pa · s )
▶ R = R/M: Air constant (287.14J/(Kg K ))
Composition of dry air ▶ Cp , Cv : specific heat capacities (J/(Kg K ))
(volume fraction): Derived Properties:
▶ 78.1% Nitrogen (N2 ) ▶ γ = Cp /Cv : Adiabatic index (1.4)
√
▶ 20.9% Oxigen (O2 ) ▶ a = γRT : Speed of sound (m/s)
▶ 0.9% Argon (Ar) ▶ ν = µ/ρ: Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
▶ 0.1% Other gases Flow parameters:
Water vapor (H2 O): 0.4% ▶ M = V /a: Mach number
(1-4% at sea level) ▶ Re = VL/ν: Reynolds number
 The International Standard Atmosphere
ISA (ISA online calculator) Hypotheses:
▶ Fixed atmosphere
▶ Ideal gas: p/ρ = RT
▶ Laplace’s law: dp = −ρgdh
▶ Temperature lapse rate: dT = Th dh
▶ Sutherland’s law for µ

Troposphere (h < 11km,

 Th = −6.5K /km):

T = T0 1 + TTh0 h
 − RTg
p = p0 1 + TTh0 h h

 −( RTg +1)

ρ = ρ0 1 + TTh0 h h

standard atmosphere (1962) Tropopause (h > 11km, Th = 0K /km):

air at rest! criteria necessary for design
 
p ρ g
of an aircraft = = exp − (h − h11 )
two atmospheric strata, layers, “shells” p11 ρ11 RT11
▶ Heterosphere > 90km
Real atmosphere:
▶ Homosphere < 90km
Go to Example anticipate “nonstandard” performances
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
Reference Frames
Origin: Gravity Centre.

Earth Axes:
▶ ze : Vertical axis. Oriented by local gravitational acceleration vector.
▶ xe : Latitude axis. South-North direction.
▶ ye : Longitude axis. West-East direction.
Body Axes:
▶ x: Fuselage (roll) axis. Forward pointing, aligned with the fuselage.
▶ z: Belly (yaw) axis. In the airplane symmetry plane.
▶ y: Right wing (pitch) axis. Completing a direct orthonormal basis,
aligned with the right wing.
Aerodynamic Axes:
▶ xa : Oriented by the aerodynamic velocity vector.
▶ za : In the airplane symmetry plane.
▶ ya : Completes a direct orthonormal basis.
 Coordinate Changes
Body Axes (Aircraft attitude)
lateral vertical
Aerodynamic Axes
plane plane
symmetry
plane

horizontal
plane

"wings"
plane

symmetry
plane

▶ ψ: yaw angle or heading

▶ α: angle of attack
▶ θ: pitch angle
▶ β: sideslip angle
▶ ϕ: roll angle
The Aircraft - Model
Mathematical Model Aircraft description

Pilot: direct control only of FCS

BUT → can tailor his inputs to FCS;
observing planes response

Aircraft degrees of freedom six degrees of freedom:

3 displacements:
▶ x: horizontal motion
▶ y : side motion
▶ z: vertical motion
3 rotations:
▶ around x: roll
▶ around y : pitch
▶ around z: yaw
Equations (Rigid Body Dynamics)

The full aircraft equations of motion reflect a rather complicated relationship between
the forces and moments on the aircraft, and resulting aircraft motion
Newton’s second law for translational F = m a and rotational L = I ω = r × p motions
→ 6 second-order equations:
▶ Linear Momentum Equation

d 2 r⃗G X
m 2
= F⃗ext = F⃗ + T
⃗ +W
⃗
dt

▶ Angular Momentum Equation

d X
⃗ G ,ext = M⃗F + M⃗T
(IG ω
⃗) = M
dt

▶ LHS: applied forces and moments on the aircraft.

▶ RHS: aircraft’s response to these forces and moments.
Equations (Rigid Body Dynamics)
d
⃗=
u ⃗ ⃗ ×⃗
x +ω x
dt
▶ Linear Momentum
 Equation 
d
Fx = m u + qw − rv (1)
dt
 
d
Fy = m v + ru − pw (2)
dt
 
d
Fz = m w + pv − qu (3)
dt

▶ Angular Momentum Equation  

d d
Mx = Ix p + (Iz − Iy ) qr − Ixz pq + r (4)
dt dt
d
My = Iy q + (Ix − Iz ) rp − Ixz p 2 − r 2


(5)
dt
 
d d
Mz = Iz r + (Iy − Ix ) pq − Ixz qr − p (6)
(u, v , w ) velocity components; (p,dt
q, r ) rotation rates dt
or 12 first-order equations:
▶ Horizontal Homogeneity and Isotropy: Position (xG , yG ) and heading
(ψ) without influence on forces −→ 9 equations
▶ Decoupling Hypothesis: 5 longitudinal, 4 lateral.
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
Generation of Lift
What is Lift?
Lift equation:
1 2
L= ρ∞ AV∞ CL
2
The coefficient CL contains
all the complex dependencies
and is usually determined
experimentally.

2 alternative interpretations of lift:

Lift as a pressure difference vs Lift as a reaction force

Generation of Lift
Lift as a reaction force
Lift as a pressure difference
▶ deflect air downwards
▶ net circulation around airfoil
▶ 3rd Newton law
▶ Bernoulli’s principle:
p V2 (applied to aerodynamics)
ρ + 2 = const.

along a streamline:
pstatic + pdynamic = ptotal
▶ restrictions:
inviscid, steady, incompressible
(small v ), no heat addition,
negligible change in height
Generation of Lift – Theories

Requirements for a Valid Theory:

▶ A valid theory is a rational explanation of observed phenomenon
▶ A valid theory can be used to predict future observations
▶ A valid theory produces numerical results
Lift – False friend – Incorrect Theory 1
“Longer Path” or “Equal Transit” theory:

▶ Top of airfoil is shaped to provide longer path than bottom

→ Air molecules have further to go over the top
▶ Air molecules must move faster over the top to meet molecules at
the trailing edge that have gone underneath (“Equal Transit”! )
▶ Bernoulli’s equation: higher velocity produces lower pressure on the
top
▶ → Difference in pressure produces lift!
Problem: Assumption: “Equal Transit” WRONG (only true for wing
without lift)
Lift – False friend – Incorrect Theory 2

“(Half) - Ventury” theory:

▶ Upper surface of airfoil behaves like a ventury nozzle constricting the

flow
▶ Based on construction: flow speeds up (v ∗ A =const.)
▶ Bernoulli’s equation: higher velocity gives lower pressure
▶ → Decrease pressure on upper surface produces lift!
Problem: No restrictions! System changed →
no reason for the air to speed up → NO lift
Lift – False friend – Incorrect Theory 3

“Skipping Stone” theory (Isaak Newton):

▶ Lift is the result of simple action ↔ re-action (Newton 3)

▶ Air molukules strikes bottom of the airfoil imparting momentum to
the airfoil
▶ → Reaction outflow downwards produces lift!
Problem: if true, why engines, tanks, flap extenders, ... below the wing
→ minor effects to lift (paper plane)
→ lift happen on the upper part of the wing
Generation of Lift

2 alternative interpretations of lift:

▶ Lift as a reaction force
▶ deflect air downwards
▶ 3rd Newton law (actio=re-actio)
▶ Lift as a pressure difference
▶ net circulation around airfoil
2
▶ Bernoulli’s principle: p + V = ct
ρ 2

But how?
▶ inviscid (& incompressible) potential flow:
▶ flow leaves unperturbed
▶ no net (drag) force: D’Alembert’s paradox
▶ non-physical effects at trailing edge
▶ inviscid flow + circulation:
▶ corrects for non-physical effects (Kutta)
▶ provides lift (Kutta-Zhoukowski)
▶ But how is this accomplished?
Generation of Lift (and drag)
▶ inviscid flow + circulation:

▶ viscous flow:
▶ fluid particles interact at the molecular level
▶ adjacent fluid layers with different velocity:
▶ generate vorticity (circulation) −→ LIFT
▶ produce shear (friction) −→ DRAG
▶ Where?
▶ in a thin layer around solid obstacles: BOUNDARY LAYER
Generation of Lift
Aerodynamic forces:
▶ Pressure forces act normal
(perpendicular) to surface
▶ Force on the body is the vector
sum of pressure * area around the
entirePsolid body
F⃗ = surface p⃗
H
nA = p⃗ ndA
Lift = Fnormal Drag = Fstream
For a lifting airfoil:
(ps + pdyn = ptotal = const.)
▶ the surface static pressure varies from
top to bottom and front to back
▶ the average pressure on the upper
surface is lower than the average
pressure on the lower surface
▶ The pressure differende produces Lift!
Generation of Lift

Question:
Why does the surface static pressure
vary top to bottom and front to back?
▶ The ideal surface velocity varies
from top to bottom and front to
back.
▶ The surface of the foil is a
streamline, so Bernoulli’s equation
relates the surface velocity to
surface pressure.
▶ When we include viscosity, the
surface velocity is zero, but the
local velocity varies at the
boundary layer edge.
Generation of Lift

Why does the surface velocity vary top

to bottom and front to back? Question: What determines the
▶ The flow must follow the surface values for the local surface
velocity, and therefore the local
contour (or the edge of the
surface pressure, and ultimately
boundary layer).
the amount of the lift?
▶ Flow can’t pass through the airfoil.

The flow around the airfoil must satisfy the conservation laws:
▶ Conservation of mass (continuity)
▶ Conservation of momentum (2 or 3 components)
▶ Conservation of energy
=⇒ LIFT
without viscosity NO lift
Lift (velocity & pressure distribution)

Real fluid flow about an airfoil

Ideal fluid flow about an airfoil Real fluid flow vs ideal fluid
Boundary layer
Ideal fluid
▶ slip over the surface
▶ NO drag (d’Alembert)
Real fluid
▶ laminar
▶ no-slip condition
▶ → boundary layer (0 to V∞ )
▶ relative velocities → internal
friction
▶ → drag
▶ turbulent
▶ random motion in the BL
▶ BL has same size as laminar
▶ velocity builds up more
quickly from the wall
▶ fluid further away reenergize
Boundarylayer flows: the slower moving fluid near
ideal fluid →← real fluid the wall
Flow regimes
Shock-wave formation
Useful simplifications in aerodynamics:
▶ Inviscid / viscous regions decoupling:
Boundary layer hypothesis:
▶ Inviscid flow in most of the
domain −→ Euler Equations
Re ⇈
▶ viscosity effects confined to
narrow layer close to solid
obstacles −→ Boundary Layer
Equations
▶ Low-pass filtering + turbulence Flow regimes for viscous fluids:
modelling ▶ Re −→ 0: Stokes flow (no inertial
▶ ideal gas (simple state equations) effects)
▶ Incompressible flow (solenoidal flow) ▶ moderate Re: laminar flow
M⇊ ▶ high Re: turbulent flow
▶ Stationary flow (permanent regime) ▶ increased apparent viscosity
▶ Geometric simplifications (2D flow, (friction)
axisymmetric flow...) ▶ higher momentum transport
(later bl detachment)
Flow regimes
Flow regimes for compressible fluids: Shock-wave formation
▶ Low Subsonic / Incompressible:
M ≲ 0.3
▶ Subsonic Compressible:
0.3 ≲ M ≲ 0.75
▶ Transonic: 0.75 ≲ M ≲ 1.2
▶ Supersonic: M ≳ 1.2
▶ Hypersonic: M ≳ 5

wing drag coefficient

 Flow regimes - trans-sonic & super-sonic
reduces effective
Effect of airfoil thickness:
Effect of sweep thickness-chord ratio:

→ spanwise flow
L/D with M Double delta wing
Stall fences and
vortex generators
Sonic Boom - shock-wave formation

TWO main shock waves: affecting factors

nose - bow shock
tail - tail shock

→ N-shape pressure pulse

Refraction of shock waves

Aerodynamic Forces (Aerofoil)
Lift:
1 2
L= ρ∞ AV∞ CL
2
Drag:
1 2
D= ρ∞ AV∞ CD
2
Pitching moment:
1 2
M= ρ∞ lAV∞ Cm
AC : aerodynamic centre (xAC − xLE ≃ 0.25l) 2

aerofoil 3D body
CL & CD functions of:
surface A l S
shape, α, M = V /a, Re = Vl/ν...
units [F ]/[L] [F ]
α Angle of Attack (AoA): angle between plane of the wing (airfoil chord)
and direction of motion (free stream velocity V∞ )
 Lift (Aerofoil)

CL = CLα (α − α0 ) = CL0 + CLα α

Potential Flow, Linear Theory:

CLα ≃ 2π for thin profiles

Other dependencies: shape, M, Re

Go to Example
Lift (dependenciesAerofoil shape)
Lift (Aerofoil + High-lift devices)

1 Plain Aerofoil
2 Hinged Flap
3 Split Flap
4 Leading-Edge Slat
5 Single-Slotted flap
6 Double-Slotted flap
7 Double-Slotted flap + Leading-Edge Slat
8 Boundary-Layer Suction
Lift (Aerofoil + High-lift devices)
Aerodynamic Centre (Aerofoil)
Centre of Lift (pressure) (xL ):

Aerodynamic Centre (xAC ):

▶ Average location of the

pressure
Place where lift is applied
▶ Place where lift change is applied
▶ Pressure varies around the
surface of an object (airfoil) ▶ Constant Pitching Moment
p = p(x) about α:
(∂Cm /∂α)(xAC ) = 0
R
xp(x)dx
CL = R p(x)dx
=⇒ Fairly independent of α
▶ Aerodynamic force acts low speeds: ∼ 25% of chord
through the center of pressure
=⇒ Center moves with α
Aerodynamic Centre (Aerofoil)

Centre of Lift (pressure) (xL ): Aerodynamic Centre (xAC ):

▶ Place where Lift is Applied ▶ Where Lift change is applied
▶ No Pitching Moment ▶ Constant Pitching Moment
Cm (xL ) = 0 (∂Cm /∂α)(xAC ) = 0
▶ Changes with α ▶ Fairly independent of α

Pitching Moment Coefficient (with

respect to xG ):

Cm = Cmα (α − α0 ) = Cm0 + Cmα α

Pitching Moment Gradient Model:

xAC − xG
Cmα = CLα
l

but the aircraft is yet to be balanced...

Drag (Aerofoil)
Incompressible inviscid flow:
▶ D’Alembert’s Paradox: CD = CDparasitic + CDwave
NO AERODYNAMIC FORCE!
▶ Kutta-Joukowski Theorem: CDparasitic = CDfriction +CDform +CDinterference
circulation −→ LIFT
but still NO DRAG!
▶ CDparasitic : parasitic drag
coefficient
▶ CDfriction : Skin friction
▶ CDform : Form drag, due to
wakes
▶ CDinterference : Interference drag,
due to free-stream
perturbation owing to
presence of other objects
▶ CDwave : Wave drag, due to
compressibility
Drag (Aerofoil)
Effects of streamlining:
Drag: CDfriction vs CDform
Evolution in airplane drag

▶ eleminate bracing wires

▶ shielding engines
▶ polished surfaces
Reduced Lift (Finite Wing)
2D →← 3D
λ = b 2 /S: aspect ratio

Finite-wing flow tendencies

Complete-wing vortex system & vortex
3D → transversal flow
flow effects
Reduced Lift (Finite Wing)
Wake Vortex Generation Wake Encounter Counter
Control
Reduced Lift (Finite Wing)

Lifting-Line Theory (incompressible,

inviscid flow, elliptical lift distribution):
2π
CLα ≃ λ>5
CL = CLα (α − α0 ) 1 + 2/λ
Finite Span −→ Wing tip vortices: CLα ≃ πλ/2 λ<5
−→ Reduced effective α
λ = b 2 /S: aspect ratio
−→ Increased drag CD
 Drag (Wing / Aircraft) – drag polar
Note: CD > 0
CD = CD0 + CD2 CL2 + ki CL2
| {z }
kCL2
CD0 : parasitic drag (∼ M, Re, plane config.)
CDi = kCL2 : induced drag (∼ CL )
▶ Prandtl’s lifting-line theory: ki = 1/(πλ)
for elliptical lift distribution
▶ ki ≃ 1/(πei λ): lift-induced drag
coefficient
▶ ei : span efficiency number.
▶ Induced drag reduction:
▶ elliptical < tapered < square
▶ big λ < small λ A Minimum Drag
▶ negative twist B Maximum Efficiency
▶ winglets C Maximum Lift
▶ e = 1/(πkλ) Oswald efficiency number
D Stall
Go to Example
 Drag (Wing + High-lift devices)

Flap deployment:
▶ CD0 increases
▶ k decreases
Consequence:
▶ Deploy flaps when
high CL is required
▶ Stow flaps for low
CL demand

Go to Example
Drag (Wing + High-lift devices)

▶ increase camber
→ increase lift
▶ boundary layer control →
increase max lift and αstall

Flaps deployed:
▶ CL increases
▶ CD0 increases
Aerodynamic Forces (Aircraft)
Aerodynamic Reference Frame:
   a 
−CD Cl
1 1 1 1
F⃗ = ρSV 2 C⃗F = ρSV 2  CQ  ⃗ = ρlSV 2 C⃗M = ρlSV 2  C a 
M m
2 2 2 2
−CL Cna

Body Axes:
T T
C⃗F = (−CA , CY , −CN ) M⃗F = (Cl , Cm , Cn )

▶ S: wing projected surface symmetry

plane

▶ l: mean aerodynamic chord of the wing

▶ C⃗F and C⃗M : Coefficient vectors, adequately
combined for wing, fuselage and stabilisers,
and dependent on
▶ Compressibility: Mach number (M) "wings"
plane
▶ Viscosity: Reynolds number (Re)
▶ Aerodynamic angles:
▶ Global: angle of attack (α), sideslip (β)
▶ Local: pl/V , ql/V , rl/V
▶ Commands: δl , δm , δn
 Aerodynamic Efficiency

Lift-to-Drag Ratio (E or f ):

L CL 1
E (α, M, Re) = = =
D CD tan γ
Depends on:
▶ Aerofoil characteristics
▶ Wing planform and configuration
▶ Angle of attack α
▶ Mach number M
▶ Reynolds number Re
Maximum Efficiency / Optimal Lift:
r
CD0 1
CLopt = Emax = p
k 2 CD0 k

Go to Example
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
Propulsive Model

Simple model:

T = kT ρV λT δx

▶ kT : some constant
▶ λT : engine-dependent exponent
≃ −1 propeller / turbofan
≃0 turbojet
≃1 turbojet + afterburner
≃2 ram-jet
▶ δx : thrust lever position
Outline
History
Let’s get Airborne
Environmental Model
The Earth
The Atmosphere
Mechanical Model
Reference Frames
Equations: Newton Laws for a Rigid Body
Aerodynamical Model
Fluid Dynamics Basics
Aerofoil Aerodynamic Forces
Wing Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft Aerodynamic Forces
Propulsive Model
Simple Flight Equilibria
Longitudinal Equilibrium

Ascent / Cruise / Descent

▶ xa -equilibrium: T cos α − D − W sin γ = 0 −→ T = D + mg γ

▶ ya -equilibrium: No forces
▶ za -equilibrium: T sin α + L − W cos γ = 0 −→ L = mg
 Straight & Level Flight

▶ x-equilibrium: T = D Load Factor: n = L/W

q =1
▶ y -equilibrium: No forces Stall Speed: Vs = ρSC2W
L
max
▶ z-equilibrium: L = W = mg
Go to Example
 Coordinated Banked Turn

Banked Turn:
▶ x-equilibrium: T = D
▶ y -equilibrium:
L sin(ϕ) = mV 2 /Rt
▶ z-equilibrium:
L cos(ϕ) = W = mg
Load Factor: n = L/W = 1/ cos(ϕ)
Stall Speed: √ p
Vsn̸=1 = Vsn=1 n = Vsn=1 / cos(ϕ)

Go to Example
 Load Factor & Stall Speed

Load Factor (Lift-to-Weight ratio): Stall Speed:

L L
s
n= = 2W √
W mg Vs = n
ρSCLmax

▶ Straight & level flight: n = 1

▶ Ascent / Descent: n = cos γ < 1
▶ Banked turn: n = 1/ cos ϕ > 1
▶ Slope increase: n > 1
▶ Slope decrease: n < 1
▶ Inverted flight: n = −1

Go to Example
Example

1. An airplane is flying at h = 30000ft and V = 200kt

1.1 T , p and ρ
1.2 M back

◦
2. Its lift coefficient is CL = 0.4 + 0.2α, with αs = 11
2.1 Zero-lift angle of attack (α0 )
2.2 α = 0 lift coefficient (CL0 )
2.3 Maximum lift coefficient (CLmax ) back

3. Its drag polar is CD = 0.01 + 0.04CL2

3.1 Parasitic drag coefficient (CD0 )
3.2 Drag coefficient at stall (CD (αs ))
3.3 α = 0 drag coefficient (CD (0)) back

3.4 Maximum efficiency (Emax )

3.5 CL , CD and α for Emax back

4. With deployed flaps: CLf = 0.6 + 0.2α and CDf = 0.02 + 0.03CL2f
4.1 Optimal lift coefficient for configuration change (CLopt )
4.2 Optimal angle of attack (αopt ) back
Example
Airplane characteristics: m = 9000kg , S = 32m2 , b = 20m
5. Straight & level flight (SL and h = 30000ft)
5.1 Speed for α = 0 (V (0))
5.2 Speed for maximum efficiency (V |Emax )
5.3 Speed for optimal flap removal (Vfr ) back

6. Coordinated banked turn at V = 120kt (SL and h = 30000ft)

6.1 Maximum bank angle (ϕmax )
6.2 Turn radius (R) back

7. Stall speed
7.1 SL straight-flight (VEASs )
7.2 h = 30000ft straight-flight (Vs )
7.3 h = 30000ft banked turn with previous ϕSL (Vs ) back

8. Inverted Flight at V = 140kt (SL and h = 30000ft)

8.1 Angle of attack (α) back

9. Glide (SL and h = 30000ft)

9.1 Optimal glide speed (Vglide )
9.2 Descent angle (γ) back