sensors

Review
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Smart
Technologies for Nondestructive Evaluation
Hossein Taheri 1, *, Maria Gonzalez Bocanegra 1 and Mohammad Taheri 2

1 Laboratory for Advanced Non-Destructive Testing, In-Situ Monitoring and Evaluation (LANDTIE),
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30458, USA;
[email protected]
2 Department of Mathematics and Statistics, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are used in many industries to evaluate
the properties of components and inspect for flaws and anomalies in structures without altering
the part’s integrity or causing damage to the component being tested. This includes monitoring
materials’ condition (Material State Awareness (MSA)) and health of structures (Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM)). NDE techniques are highly valuable tools to help prevent potential losses and
hazards arising from the failure of a component while saving time and cost by not compromising its
future usage. On the other hand, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) techniques
are useful tools which can help automating data collection and analyses, providing new insights,
and potentially improving detection performance in a quick and low effort manner with great cost
savings. This paper presents a survey on state of the art AI-ML techniques for NDE and the application
Citation: Taheri, H.; Gonzalez of related smart technologies including Machine Vision (MV) and Digital Twins in NDE.
Bocanegra, M.; Taheri, M. Artificial
Intelligence, Machine Learning and Keywords: nondestructive evaluation (NDE); Artificial Intelligence (AI); machine learning (ML);
Smart Technologies for NDE 4.0; digital twins
Nondestructive Evaluation. Sensors
2022, 22, 4055. https://doi.org/
10.3390/s22114055

Academic Editors: Assefa M. 1. Introduction

Melesse, Alexander Star, Vittorio 1.1. Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
M.N. Passaro, Eduard Llobet and Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is an accepted and well-established method of
Mehmet Rasit Yuce inspection, material state awareness (MSA), structural health monitoring (SHM) and in
Received: 5 May 2022 situ process monitoring for almost every part and product during manufacturing processes
Accepted: 24 May 2022 and service life of the components [1–3]. State-of-the-art and future of NDE requires a sig-
Published: 27 May 2022 nificant increase in accuracy, speed of both inspection and data processing, and reliability
but at lower cost such that NDE can catch up with the advancements in manufacturing,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
advanced materials (such as composites and powder metallurgy), infrastructure and other
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
relevant technologies [4–6]. In addition, the applications of robotics and automation in NDE
published maps and institutional affil-
have been increased significantly to reduce inspection time, reduce human error, improve
iations.
probability of detection (POD) and facilitate the interpretation of NDE results [4,7,8].

1.2. Artificial Intelligence

Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. NDE techniques require high level of intelligence and discernment in performing
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the experiments and interpreting the results. Artificial Intelligence (AI) which is the in-
This article is an open access article telligence demonstrated by machines to do tasks is a well-suited tool for NDE applica-
distributed under the terms and tions [9,10]. Major elements which drive the widespread application of AI algorithms
conditions of the Creative Commons include: broader development and availability of algorithms which some of them are
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// open source and easy to use, availability of large sets of data for training, development
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and advancement of computational devices and their capabilities, and strong interest
4.0/).

Sensors 2022, 22, 4055. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114055 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 2 of 17

in new technologies such as smart manufacturing, autonomous devices and automated

data processing [11].

2. Artificial Intelligence in NDE

The requirements due to advances in NDE technologies and NDE automation implies
the crucial need for consistent and accurate evaluation of test results in terms of signals,
data, images and patterns. To address these emerging needs, an intelligence knowledge-
based system is desired such that it can take the NDE testing results or data, and produce
an intelligent output in the form of classified and systematic interpretation of the results. AI
methods are promising and capable ways for the goals of automated and efficient evaluation
of NDE data and test results. AI methods and algorithms have been recently used with
success in various NDE, SHM and predictive-preventive maintenance applications [11].
Shrifan et al. discussed prospect of using AI for microwave NDE [12]. According to
Shrifan, AI techniques combined with signal processing techniques are highly possible to
enhance the efficiency and resolution of microwave NDE and have tremendous potential
and viability for evaluating structures quality. Another main reason which makes AI
a perfect tool for NDE and specifically automated NDE is that considering the large amount
of complex signals and data from the NDE inspection, nobody needs to really study
the details of the physics or manufacturing process to understand what the correct process
parameters and the quality of the product are [13]. Instead, AI algorithms aim to identify,
by looking at training and/or test data, if the process or the part has passed the quality
criteria. This is particularly useful for the operation and operators. However, development
of AI algorithms in NDE requires the involvement of expert knowledge in each and every
step in a systematic approach such as the flowchart shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Process model for application of AI in NDE.

2.1. Machine Learning

Machine learning (ML) is a subsection of the broad field of AI. This field aims to
mimic the learning and recognition abilities of the human brain as well as the ability of
self-optimization. The first person to formulate and use the term “Machine Learning” was
the computer gaming and artificial intelligence pioneer, Arthur Samuel in 1959. He estab-
lished that machine learning is an algorithm that is able to capture associations and learn
patterns from data without enforcing specific and explicit code instructions [14]. In other
words, without prior information on how to recognize latent relationships in the data.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 3 of 17

This methodology is highly used when met with high-dimensional datasets given its use of
statistics and large training datasets. NDE has a special interest in ML algorithms because
of their ability to automate tasks, in this case, the structural health monitoring and condition
assessment of materials. Statistical ML techniques can be used for prediction of defect’s
characteristics based on known data set of defects due to their capabilities in estimating
unknown values based on training data set [15].
The desire to use ML algorithms in NDE stems from the need to have a precise
prediction method to detect defects in materials and structures. With this in mind, the defect
analysis and detection systems have to keep up with the increased industrial production of
materials. Additionally, these systems should be as precise as possible and with minimum
margin of error, including human error. The more data used to train the algorithms,
the better it gets at predicting and classifying NDE data.
There exist four different subsections of Machine Learning which are: Unsupervised
Learning, Supervised Learning, Semi-Supervised Learning, and Reinforcement Learning.
These sections are separated based on how the data is fed into an ML algorithm and how
it learns from that data. Supervised and Unsupervised learning methods are the most used
and applicable methods for NDE applications.

2.2. Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning refers to the process of feeding unlabeled and unclassified
data into an ML algorithm to extract patterns. The algorithm is expected to learn these
patterns and underlying relationships to properly detect similarities and disparities of
groups in the data without human intervention. Unsupervised learning algorithms are
typically more difficult to train than Supervised Learning ones, clearly from their nature
of minimal human interaction. For example, unsupervised learning algorithms cannot be
applied to classification or regression problems. This stems from the need of an output
target, which is unknown to the algorithm given it has no idea what it is looking for.
The algorithm itself is merely trying to find common characteristics the data and grouping
it. Using unsupervised learning algorithms is advantageous when trying to gain insight
on the available data. However, the algorithms are not perfect and are prone to produce
erroneous associations given that there is not target output. Unsupervised learning also
partitions itself into two subsections: Clustering and Association.

2.3. Cluster Analysis

Clustering is the task of dividing the population or group of data into different groups
or clusters. This method stores data points that are the most similar, together. The data
point’s similarity is based on underlying features and patterns that are meaningful to
the clusters. There currently exist various methods of cluster analysis, such as Density-
Based Clustering, Hierarchical Clustering, K-Means Clustering, and Spectral Clustering.

2.3.1. K-Means Algorithm

One of the most used algorithms for NDE is the K-means algorithm. When presented
with an unlabeled dataset, the K-means algorithms partitions the data in k clusters defined
by a centroid. A cluster is defined as a collection of data points placed together in space due
to similar characteristics shared by the data points. Furthermore, the centroid is the location
of the cluster’s center. It is defined that with the K-means clustering, the plane or data space
will always form a Voronoi diagram. Figure 2 shows how the K-means algorithm would
create clusters around a centroid, in this case k = 5 with the centroids marked as red data
points. In [16], the authors applied the K-means cluster to classify acoustic emission signals
obtained from analyzing the stress-corrosion-cracking (SCC) on 304 nuclear grade stainless
steel. The authors of [16], determined that each data point in the cluster was composed of
five signal characteristics: ring count, duration, rise time, amplitude, and energy. Based on
observations done by the authors, Du et al. [16] experimented with the use of three clusters
(k = 3) which represented types damages encountered in the steel (crack propagation,
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 4 of 17

pitting, and bubble break-up). Through the resulting data clusters found by the K-means
algorithm, Du et al. [16] concluded that the clusters were mainly defined by the amplitude
and the frequency band energy. Other studies have also explored the use of K-means
clustering in other NDE applications. In [17], the algorithm is used for defect detection
in thermal images of industrial materials, while in [18] the K-means is leveraged for defect
detection when using pulse eddy currents. The K-means algorithm has proven to be
a powerful tool and is still predominantly used in the area of NDE.

Figure 2. K-means algorithm plot example with random data.

2.3.2. Density-Based Clustering

The Density-Based Clustering (DBC) algorithm is contingent on the idea that datasets
contain dense data point regions separated by low regions of data points. In contrast to
the K-means algorithm, the DBC algorithms do not need a predetermined k value. Dis-
carding the k value allows for the DBC algorithms to find the number of clusters present
in a dataset by analyzing the density distribution of data points in space. An advantage
of these algorithms in comparison to the K-means is that it can discern noise and outliers
in the data. The noise and outliers are presented as low regions of data point density.
In other words, the K-means algorithm would pull these outliers into a cluster due to
its k constraint while the DBC would inherently leave them alone. Regarding the use of
the DBC algorithms in NDT, many papers predominantly use a branch of the DBC which is
the Density-Based Spatial Clustering Applications with Noise (DBSCAN). The DBSCAN
leverages a data point’s density reachability and density connectivity [19]. The density
reachability specifies the maximum distance of two data points to be considered neighbors
and part of the same cluster. On the other hand, the density connectivity specifies the mini-
mum number data points needed to define a cluster in a region of space. The fields of Civil
and Manufacturing Engineering predominantly use the DBSCAN algorithm to monitor
the structural health of materials. The study in [20] explores Ultrasonic Testing (UT) to
inspect the pressures of tubes in the of the Ontario Hydro. Canada’s system, Channel
Inspection and Gauging Apparatus for Reactors (CIGAR) uses UT to obtain volumetric
images of the pipelines and assess defective regions in them. The statistical properties of
the ultrasonic signals are mapped as data points in space, from which the DBSCAN can
conduct its analysis [21]. An example of the DBSCAN algorithm in use can be observed
in Figure 3. In this case, the algorithm constructed an analysis based on three clusters
created by three dense regions encountered in the dataset. Furthermore, in this example
the DBSCAN found 18 points of noise in the dataset.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 5 of 17

Figure 3. DBSCAN Plot Example with 3 Dense Clusters (After [22]).

2.3.3. Spectral Clustering

Spectral Clustering is the machine learning method in which the data points in the data
set are treated as nodes of a graph. This algorithm is rooted in graph theory and is treated
as a graph partitioning problem. The end goal of spectral clustering is to cluster data that is
connected but not necessarily in round cluster shapes, as seen in Figure 4. The nodes, or data
points, in a data set are projected into a low-dimensional space where connectivity clusters
can be achieved. The first step of conducting this algorithm is to compute a similarity
graph. The similarity graph is analogous to cluster formation.

Figure 4. Spectral Clustering Plot Example.

In the paper [23], the authors apply terahertz time-domain spectroscopy imaging
to conduct nondestructive evaluation tests. This method is applied on three industrial
ceramic matrix composites and one defective silicon slice. The spectral image produced
by the analysis is used to detect defects such as superficial damage or internal bubbles.
The spectral data is then applied to the spectral clustering recognition algorithm.

2.3.4. Hierarchical Clustering

Hierarchical clustering is an analytical algorithm used to compute clusters of data
points. This type of clustering algorithm is subdivided into two different techniques,
agglomerative and divisive. The agglomerative technique imposes that each data point
starts as its cluster. Furthermore, the algorithm computes a proximity matrix from each
point in space. In every iteration, the algorithm merges the two closest pairs of clusters and
a new proximity matrix is computed.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 6 of 17

There exist four forms of cluster linkage to conduct additive hierarchical clustering.
Complete linkage computes the similarity of the furthest pairs in the dataset; however, it is
prone to errors if there exist outliers. Single linkage works similarly, but it conducts this
comparison between the closest data points. In the same fashion as the previous linkage
processes, centroid linkage compares the centroids of each cluster and merges them given
found similarities. The last linkage method, group average, finds similarities between
the overall clusters and merges them. The linkage process is repeated until a predetermined
number of clusters is achieved. The optimal way of describing the additive hierarchical
clustering is by creating a dendrogram, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Single Linkage Additive Hierarchical Clustering with Random Data.

In contrast to additive clustering, divisive clustering works by starting with all data
points in space belonging to one cluster. In this case, the algorithm will split away from
the furthest points in the cluster until the predetermined number of clusters is achieved.
Divisive clustering is not commonly used for NDE.
The application of additive hierarchical clustering in NDE can be observed in [24]
through the implementation of ultrasonic echo testing. Several sensors are implemented
on the material to obtain key feedback from ultrasonic echo testing. The data is then fed to
independent component analysis mixture models (ICAMM) to identify all possible defects
that can be encountered in the material. In the case of [24], the authors implement a single
linkage after the ICAMM model completes its analysis. The hierarchical cluster algorithm is
then tasked to identify and link clusters of similar defects based on the data points provided.
The experimentation done in [24] included 5 different categories of defects. From these
categories, four of them belonged to single-defect materials, and one was composed of multiple
defects. Their results concluded that the algorithm was successful at creating a hierarchy with
significant separation of the one-defect materials and multiple defect materials.

2.4. Association Analysis

Association analysis is an unsupervised learning method that seeks to find underlying
patterns and relationships to describe the data at hand. Association analysis is mainly used
to find frequent patterns between different variables in a data set. These patterns can be
found based on frequency of complimentary occurrences among variables. The descriptive
nature of the association analysis algorithms allows for a better understanding of the data
and ties into the area of feature engineering and extraction. Association analysis is fre-
quently implemented with common statistical methods. Common association analysis
deals with the occurrence of one variable with another. The process seeks to find frequent
patterns that can help explain the data.
Due to its characteristics, association analysis is a useful technique for discovering
interesting relationships hidden in large data sets. Such situations is common in recent
methods of continuous monitoring NDE and SHM. Through recent advancements in sen-
sors and sensing technologies such as distributed fiber optic sensors and multi-point laser
vibrometers for SHM, or even acoustic emission sensors and data acquisition units for
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 7 of 17

manufacturing process monitoring [25], it is possible to acquire large data sets which often
contain uncovered relationships in features of the data, useful for structural integrity assess-
ment. Engineers, designers and technicians can use this type of relations and conclusions
to establish enhanced predictive and preventive maintenance plans.

2.5. Supervised Learning

Supervised learning is a branch of ML in which the user feeds labeled and classified
data to the machine learning algorithms. This data-input methodology helps the algorithm to
detect the relationships and patterns faster. Supervised learning is often divided into different
categories based on the desired output. The first category in supervised learning is the algorithms
with a discrete classification end goal. These algorithms are trained to differentiate among
different classification categories from which they were previously trained. The input is analyzed
by the supervised learning algorithm and placed in a category that the algorithm finds more
suitable given the information extracted from the input (show a feature map and classification
examples, very general). The second category of supervised learning is made of algorithms that
produce a continuous output (e.g., Regression Analysis) [15].

2.5.1. Support Vector Machine

One of the techniques in non-destructive testing that classifies and at the same time
obtains a regression from the input data is the Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm.
This algorithm creates support vector representations from fed labeled examples to prop-
erly classify said labels. The support vectors for each class are the most difficult points to
classify since they are the closest to the boundary that separates those classes. The sep-
arating hyperplanes serve as the plane that separates data into different classes and is
highly effective in multidimensional data classification (e.g., two or more classes). One
can observe the hyperplane as a line that separates the data in a two-dimensional plane
into three different classes, as seen in Figure 6. This line can then be expanded into higher
dimensionalities, e.g., a hyperplane, when more classes are introduced in the data. More-
over, there exist many hyperplanes that can separate the data using the support vectors,
nonetheless, there is only one hyperplane that has the optimal distance with each support
vector. Employing the most optimal hyperplane allows for better data representation and
classification outputs. However, sometimes the most optimal hyperplane is not the best
representation of the data. In this case, the SVM introduces the kernel function. The kernel
function adds dimensionality to the data by employing mathematical functions on the orig-
inal data and creating a data set of higher dimensionalities. Then, the SVM algorithm is
used in the higher dimensionalities data set to find the most optimal hyperplane [26].

Figure 6. Support Vector Machine Example (After [22]).

Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 8 of 17

Support vector machine algorithms have been extensively used in numerous NDE
research [27]. The study [28], talks about the use of SVM for X-ray casting inspection.
The X-ray images used are to analyze weld defects by inputting them into a sorting al-
gorithm. The sorting algorithm casts a wide net of possible defects found in the images
and sends these images to the SVM. The SVM will sort the X-ray images into likely and
unlikely images of defects. The input analyzed features for the SVM are (1) the area of pixels
of potential weld defects and (2) the average parallel greyscale pixel difference to weld edge
joints [28]. This method allows for the automation of fault detection. Other studies, like [29],
have developed NDE methods using the Long-Range Ultrasonic Testing technique. In [29],
the authors develop a method of defect detection in oil and gas pipelines to prevent future
failures or unscheduled shutdowns. The classification is produced through the combination
of the SVM and the calculation of the average Euclidean distance between the testing data
points and the previously defined support vector set for each category. The closest set defines
the classification output for the data point. In this case, the SVM allows for continuous
monitoring of oil and gas pipelines without much human intervention from operators.

2.5.2. K-Nearest Neighbor

The K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) algorithm relies on the idea that similar data points
in a data set are going to be close to each other in space, in other words; neighbors. KNN
falls under supervised learning algorithms, however it can perform both regression and
classification problems. The KNN algorithm assumes that point proximity represents class
similarity. The number of points necessary to determine the output classification label of
a data point is established by the hyperparameter k, which is not to be confused with the k
from clustering analysis techniques. The closest k points to the query input point have their
own label and this will help determine the output label of the query point.
The measuring technique used to measure the distance between two points defines
if KNN is being used for categorical or quantitative data. To measure the distance between
two categorical values, the algorithm implements the Hamming distance measurement.
On the other hand, KNN implements three possible distance functions for quantitative
measurement. The Euclidean function is one of the most common ones, followed but
the Manhattan function and then the Minkowski function.
In [30], the authors conducted structural health testing for coated/uncoated metallic
or dielectric materials using microwave NDE. The focus was to search for cracks in the ma-
terial using microwaves from 8.2 GHz to 12.4 GHz. The paper used feature extraction
to first clean the data obtained from the microwave sensor. This method helped cleanse
the data set of redundant data and improve learning accuracy with the most important
features. The waves showcased a horizontal wave shift to the left when a crack was en-
countered in the material. With this information in mind, feature selection algorithms
were implemented to choose the top five features that are leveraged to accurately detect
cracks in the material. The features are then fed to the KNN algorithm for as data points to
automate the crack detection process. The KNN algorithm yielded a 99.64 accuracy in crack
detection. In [31], several ML models including KNN were applied to classify and predict
the ultrasonic signals as degree of thermal aging of cast austenitic stainless steel (CASS).
It was shown that for signals having large peak-to-peak amplitude, KNN shows higher
classification performance than other classification models. Obvously, application of any
particular classification models including KNN must be based on the case specifications
and experience of the persons with both NDE and ML techniques.

2.5.3. Neural Networks

Neural networks are machine learning algorithms inspired by the workings of the bi-
ological neurons of the human brain. This approach is also referred as “deep learning”.
These algorithms are built upon stacking node layers made up of an input layer, output
layer, and hidden layers. All individual nodes in a node layer have a specific value that
activates them. Once a node is activated, it will send information to next node layer.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 9 of 17

The connections between the nodes are represented by a number, also known as the weight.
The weight also holds influence on the nodes, meaning the higher the weight the more
leverage it has on the network. In many cases, the neural network has a fully connected
design which allows feed forward and feedback information. With this structure, the neural
network can deduct information and improve itself based on previous decisions. One of
the pillar neural networks in Artificial Intelligence is the LeNet 5 network created by Yann
LeCun, et al. [32]. This network was developed to recognize handwritten digits and has
been a base for many new and emerging networks in the field. Stemming from the same
branch as LeNet 5, the famous Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) have emerged.
The widely popular AlexNet [33], a CNN variation, has been implemented across several
fields to understand nonlinear data for classification. Figure 7 showcases the architectural
design of AlexNet.

Figure 7. AlexNet Architecture.

The application of neural networks in NDE is an emerging technique to assess the struc-
tural design and performance of materials. Specific work in NDE with the implementation
of neural networks can be explored in [34]. In this paper, the authors develop a new
experimental method to detect crack conditions of concrete surrounding reinforced steel.
The new method implements the use of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test (UPV). Furthermore,
with parameter control, UPV does not meaningfully impact crack propagation. The data
obtain from the UPV is then fed to an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to train and test.
The ANN in [34] is trained on 100,000 cycles to achieve convergence and an optimal net-
work without overfitting the data. In the case of [34], the ANN is treated as a black-box
model to resolve pattern in the non-linear relationships encountered in the data. Each data
point consists of four input variables that associate with the crack width. The ANN model
intakes the strength of the concrete, the results of the UPV, concrete over reinforcement
ratio, and path length where the UPV is set to travel [34]. Results obtained from the ANN
showcased a strong relationship that variates based on the concrete strength of the concrete
bond and the UPV. The increase of UPV shows a stronger bond condition of the material.
The use of the ANN also proved that UPV is delayed by the presence of microfractures
in the structure and thus help forecast the crack width in steel-concrete bonds. As research
in NDE using neural networks is expanded, such as in [34], it becomes easier to pinpoint
cracks and deterioration of materials.
The implementation of neural networks in NDE is also explored in the NDE technique of
thermograms. In the case of [35], the authors explore a neural network approach to quantify
depth defects in carbon fiber-based composites. Infrared thermograms help capture material
irregularities by leveraging the different thermal responses. These thermal response profiles
also help calculating the depth of the defects encountered. Given the multidimensional
aspect of the thermal data obtained, the authors implement a neural network to search for
the underlying relationship of the irregularities and the thermal response. The study in [35]
implements standardized thermal contrast curves that represent defects of different sizes and
locations which are used to feed into the input layer of the neural network.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 10 of 17

2.6. Feature Extraction

A common technique in data analysis is feature extraction, which allows for dimen-
sionality reduction of a data set. Moreover, a feature is an individual measurable property
in a data set, such as length, width, height, etc. Data sets nowadays contain more and
more features that intertwine with each other. However, when these data sets are fed into
a machine-learning algorithm to train it, the algorithm will show overfitting when tested
with unseen data before. With this in consideration, feature extraction aims to reduce
the number of features or dimensions of a dataset by creating new features from existing
ones. The new features are combined to create representations of the old features, which
can now be discarded. This process also allows for the removal of data redundancy. Many
machine learning algorithms implement feature extraction to reduce the dimensionality
of their datasets. These algorithms include Random Forests, Artificial Neural Networks,
and Autoencoders.

2.7. Machine Vision

The field of computer vision has experienced a boom in the past decade, with examples
such as Facial & Object Recognition and Text Recognition. Moreover, this field is now joining
Nondestructive Evaluation to automate the industrial and manufacturing processes. The use
of computer vision algorithms helps the industry maintain and increase manufacturing
quality. The analysis of information coming from images provides an easier and faster
way to detect material flaws and avoid human error. Inspection systems using computer
vision are designed to detect flaws with high precision and at faster rates than what human
inspectors can. Furthermore, the algorithms profit from having scalability, meaning they can
be used for large or small input datasets. Computer vision models also have the advantage
of finding and leveraging feature importance to accurately detect flaws. Testing techniques
that use these types of computer vision algorithms include X-rays, Thermal Images, Light
Cameras, and Fluorescent Penetration Inspection to name a few. Image processing has
allowed the manufacturing industry to further enhance their quality processes and automate
the industry. In [36], 3D machine vision methods for pose (spatial position and orientation)
estimation is investigated where an RGB-D camera observes the asset under inspection along
with the probe; 3D machine vision processes the camera data to actively track the probe
in relation to the asset, which further allows one to augment each NDE dataset with its
inspection location.
In addition to NDE applications [37,38], Machine vision has also paved its way in SHM
applications [39,40]. 3D visualization models can be generated to simulate the defect
development in structure and infrastructures using machine vision techniques. In [41],
spalling distress defects in subway networks were detected and quantified using image data
processing and machine vision. Spalling is a significant surface defect that can compromise
the integrity and durability of concrete structures. The core idea behind this technique was
to create a complementary scheme of image preprocessing which is effective in isolating
the object of interest from the background of the image.

3. Internet of Things (IoT)-Related Applications and NDE 4.0

Digital transformation has been widely discussed in many different areas of indus-
tries [42] and it is finding its way into NDE applications. The term of NDE 4.0 was first
introduced by Professor Norbert Meyendorf who introduced the term NDE 4.0 where
the Internet of Things (IoT) and cyber physical systems are making a revolution in NDE
industry [43]. In the concept of IoT, anything with an IP address can be connected through
the internet as stated by Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). According to this concept
by Meyendorff [44] and due to advancements in the era of Industry 4.0, the aspects of
NDE reliability and human–machine interactions must be reconsidered such that NDE
is also revolutionized to NDE 4.0 for Industry 4.0 [45]. Identified trends in NDE 4.0 are
summarized in Figure 8.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 11 of 17

Figure 8. Aspects of new trends in NDE 4.0 (After [43]).

Four core areas for digital transformation in the field of NDE have been identified
by the Material Diagnostics branch of Fraunhofer IKTS (until 2014 Fraunhofer IZFP-D) as
shown in Figure 9 [11].

Figure 9. Core areas for digital transformation in the field of NDE as defined for Fraunhofer IKTS
(After [11]).

As can be seen from the trends in NDE 4.0 and the identified core areas of digital
transformation, industrial revolution has been accompanied by NDE revolution such that
new methods of NDE have been introduced and new ways of applying these methods
have been developed. Through the new technologies in NDE 4.0 high-performance and
adequate measurement tools will be available worldwide while the communications and
connections through the internet allows the involvement of specialists for discussion and
decision making. Meanwhile NDE 4.0 is still opening its way into daily applications, the fu-
ture is shaping by a combination of human and smart machines working together based
on real-time evaluation, computation and communications which is known as NDE 5.0.
The revolution of NDE over the time has similar steps as the industrial revolution such that
one can correlate these steps and see the similarities such as summarized in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Similarities between industrial and NDE revolution steps.

Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 12 of 17

The concept of NDE 4.0 (and NDE 5.0) becomes more prominent when considering
the advancement in material development and manufacturing processes. One of these
recent advanced technologies which implies the crucial need for developing new measure-
ment methods and NDE techniques is additive manufacturing [44]. Due to the intricacy
of manufacturing process in AM techniques, as well as geometrical complexity of the pro-
duced parts and surface finish condition [46], new NDE and metrology methods have
to be developed for quality and maintainability of AM parts. Modeling and simulation
applications in NDE become even more essential in NDE 4.0 since they can provide crucial
information on NDE experimental design, integration of NDE in design and manufacturing
processes and interpretation of NDE results [47–49].

4. Digital Twins in NDE

The potentials and capabilities of Multiphysics modeling and data-driven analytics as
described above are the basis for the “Digital Twin” concept [50]. Using digital twin, a live
digital representative (model) of a system can be generated. The immediate advantage of
such a model is that it can continuously adapt to the operational conditions using the in situ
monitoring, collection and processing of the associated sensors’ data on the system. As a
consequence, digital twins can predict the future of the corresponding physical counterpart
and thus become a core part of the proactive and predictive maintenance plans. Since in
situ condition monitoring of the systems usually contains multiple data sources (also due to
advancement in sensors and data recording devices), data fusion has a key role in the digital
twin framework. Data fusion integrates multiple data sources to produce more consistent,
accurate, and useful information and enhances the flow of information from raw sensor
data to high-level decision making steps. Signal-, feature-, and decision-level fusions
are generally integrated into the digital twin framework. Figure 11 shows the system
architecture of the digital twin ecosystem.

Figure 11. System architecture of digital twin ecosystem (After [50]).

In the case of NDE, integrating the data from different steps in the digital twin of
the inspected part can be used in future as a baseline for structural health monitoring
and predictive maintenance plans of the part. In addition, it can be used to determine
the important parameters of remaining useful life (RUL) of the physical twin. The other
useful applications of digital twin in NDE are the capabilities of early warning, anomaly
detection, prediction and optimization. This has direct economic impact due to imple-
mentation of predictive maintenance by turning the recorded data and information into
actionable decisions.

5. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)

By advancing NDE techniques and application of AI/ML algorithms for NDE interpre-
tation and evaluation, the role of other relevant technologies become even more important.
As an example in the core area of remote monitoring and evaluation, Virtual Reality (VR)
and Augmented Reality (AR) tools can be implemented by developing adequate portable
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 13 of 17

inspection devices and modern human machine interface (HMI). The large amount of data
and metadata generated in NDE is the main challenge in management, assessment and
visualization of the NDE results. Thus, the available information may not be fully utilized
and cause less than optimal decision making or inaccurate decisions. Therefore there is
a crucial need for a novel strategy such that data is not separated from their environment
but becomes part of it. VR/AR can be a promising and suitable tool to address the above
challenges. The interaction between the users and VR/AR framework provides the input
for use of these technologies in NDE. As examples of practical work which has been done
on application of VR/AR in NDE, Ababsa [51] showed how a more appropriate 3D visu-
alization tool can be developed by AR to improve the understanding and interpretation
of NDT data obtained from a nacelle of an Airbus A380. In Ababsa’s study, a set of data
including the nacelle CAD file, coordinates of the ultrasonic transducers and their locations
on the nacelle, and the simulation files containing defect coordinates have been used for
the aims of visualizing the sensors used for the NDE measurement on the real structure,
the defect region of the structure, and accurate localization of the defect. The experimental
tests have shown that Ababsa’s developed application works reasonably well however
the reported challenges were that the model had to be simplified to avoid overloading
the computations of the augmented scene and also the tracking becomes unstable some-
times in closer locations to the structure. Nevertheless, the promising results showed that
a more in-depth study can resolve these issues and provide a better VR/AR environment
for NDE applications.

6. Challenges and Needs Assessment

6.1. General
General challenges in application of AI methods for NDE are that usually a sufficiently
large set of training data, a high signal-to-noise ratio, and an optimized and exact fixa-
tion of components are required [11]. In addition, it should be noted that for accurate
performance of AI techniques for NDE, an adequate level of theoretical and mathematical
knowledge, experience in applying NDE techniques for inspection and material characteri-
zation, and carefulness is necessary [52].

6.2. Preprocessing
NDE examinations usually provide a large amount of data which requires prior knowl-
edge about the NDE technique which has been used, material specifications, experimental
setup, and equipment specifications (calibration procedure, sampling frequency, digitiza-
tion capabilities, signal to noise ratio, etc.). Preprocessing of NDE data is usually required
to prepare raw data for further analysis and specifically to use in AI algorithms. In data
preprocessing, it is desired to smooth out insignificant features while allowing relevant
important features to survive. These preprocessing procedures can be challenging and
time-consuming tasks. As one of the reasons, since the AI algorithms are very sensitive to
minor shifts in the features, they may map the same target into different features.

6.3. Physical Situation

Integrating the knowledge about the part under inspection with NDE and its physical
situation is another need for the ultimate goal of automated defect detection using AI. This is
because in NDE, the same signal or image can mean different things. As an example, an ul-
trasonic echo or a contrast change in radiography image can indicate a designed drilled hole
in a part or it can be an indication of a defect in another situation. This indicates the need for
a knowledge-intensive AI-based NDE model to integrate the physical condition of the materi-
als into account for automated defect detection. This is where the concepts and applications
of the modeling, simulations and digital twins for NDE become major role players.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 14 of 17

6.4. Opportunities
AI and ML techniques provide a powerful approach to NDE and SHM applications
in terms of useful algorithms and fast and accurate analyses of very substantial quantities
of data that are acquired by recent and advanced NDE/SHM techniques.In addition to
the benefits and advantages that AI/ML techniques provide for traditional NDE/SHM
applications, they are demonstrated to be successful for in-line inspection and in situ process
monitoring applications in many industries and manufacturing facilities.Last but not least,
since the next generation of NDE will be based on data, automation and digitization,
NDE 4.0 is considered to be the future of NDE as a central tool of quality assurance.

7. Summary and Conclusions

This paper describes and reviews the role and applications of the recent advancements
in data science and technologies including AI/ML, AR/VR and digital twin in the crucial
field of NDE. These technology advances and requirements have a great impact on how
conventional NDE is being done and already started changing the traditional way of
material testing and evaluation. In addition, NDE techniques are also advancing in recent
years due to advancements in electronics, extensive research on physics of the problems,
as well as the need for adopting NDE methods for new materials and manufacturing
processes. Moreover, using simulation approach, a large training data set can be generated
which enables adequate application of AI/ML techniques such as deep learning for crack
characterization. As discussed above in this paper, several investigations showed that
the percentage of accurate defect detection and characterization (such as sizing) can be
doubled when using AI/ML techniques such as CNN compared to traditional techniques
such as 6-dB drop [53]. All these technology advances will change the future NDE and
maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) business in almost every industry. Table 1
provides some examples of studies on each AI/ML technique in NDE applications.

Table 1. Machine Learning Algorithms with NDE.

Algorithm NDE Methodology Paper Reference

K-Means Algorithm Acoustic Emission Signal [16,25]
Thermal Imaging [17]
Pulse Eddy Currents [18]
Thermography [54,55]
DBSCAN Ultrasonic Testing [20]
Ultrasonic Lamb Wave [46,55]
Impact Echo, Ultrasonic Pulse
[56]
Echo
Laser Ultrasound [57]
Spectral Clustering Terahertz Spectroscopy [23]
Vibration Signals [58]
Spectral Kurtosis [59]
Hierarchical Clustering Ultrasonic Echo Testing [24]
Electromechanical Impedance
[59,60]
Method
Association Analysis Fiber Optic Sensors [25]
Multi-point Laser Vibrometers
Acoustic Emission Sensors
Support Vector Machine X-Ray Casting [28]
Long Range Ultrasonic Testing [29]
Raman Spectroscopy [61]
K-Nearest Neighbor Microwave Testing [30]
Neural Networks Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test [34]
Thermograms [35]
Sensors 2022, 22, 4055 15 of 17

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.T. and M.T.; methodology, H.T. and M.G.B.; investiga-
tion, M.G.B. and M.T.; resources, M.G.B. and M.T.; data curation, M.G.B.; writing—original draft
preparation, M.G.B.; writing—review and editing, H.T. and M.T.; visualization, H.T. and M.G.B.;
supervision, H.T.; project administration, H.T.; All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Authors would like to thank the Office of Research and the College of Engineering
and Computing at Georgia Southern University, as well as Research Council and Engineering Council of
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) for their support and encouragement of this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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