Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background and Motivation

1.1.1 Importance of Renewable Energy in Mitigating Climate Change

Renewable energy plays a crucial role in addressing climate change, which is one of the
most significant global challenges today. Climate change, driven by increased levels of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide (CO₂), results from the burning of fossil fuels
for energy. This has led to global warming, which causes extreme weather events, rising sea
levels, and biodiversity loss.

The primary benefit of renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric
power, is their ability to generate electricity without emitting GHGs. Unlike fossil fuels,
renewable energy sources do not deplete over time and have a minimal environmental
footprint. The use of renewable energy can significantly reduce the concentration of GHGs
in the atmosphere, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.

Wind energy, in particular, is one of the fastest-growing sources of renewable energy. Wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy without producing any
direct emissions. The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that wind power could
avoid up to 5.6 gigatonnes of CO₂ emissions annually by 2050, which is about 17% of the
emissions reductions needed to limit global warming to 2°C above pre-industrial levels [1].

Adopting wind energy not only helps in reducing carbon emissions but also enhances
energy security, reduces dependence on imported fuels, and promotes economic growth
through job creation in the renewable energy sector. For example, the Global Wind Energy
Council (GWEC) estimates that the wind energy sector could employ over 4 million people
globally by 2030 [2].

1.1.2 Overview of Global Wind Energy Trends and Statistics

Wind energy has emerged as a leading source of renewable energy worldwide, showing
significant growth over the past few decades. This growth is driven by technological
advancements, policy support, and a growing awareness of the need to reduce carbon
emissions to combat climate change.

Globally, the installed capacity of wind power has been increasing at a rapid pace.
According to the GWEC, the total global wind power capacity reached 837 GW by the end of
2022, up from just 17.4 GW in 2000 [3]. This remarkable growth highlights the increasing
role of wind energy in the global energy mix.

Figure 1: Global Wind Energy Statistics [3]

Several countries have made significant contributions to this growth. China leads the world
in wind power capacity, with over 288 GW installed by the end of 2022. The United States
follows with approximately 140 GW, and Germany ranks third with about 64 GW [4]. These
countries have invested heavily in wind energy infrastructure, supported by favorable
government policies and incentives.

The cost of wind energy has also been decreasing, making it more competitive with
traditional fossil fuels. Technological advancements in turbine design, materials, and
manufacturing processes have led to significant cost reductions. The average cost of
onshore wind power has fallen by about 40% since 2010, making it one of the most cost-
effective renewable energy sources [5].

Offshore wind energy is another area experiencing rapid growth. Offshore wind farms have
the advantage of stronger and more consistent wind speeds, which can lead to higher
energy yields. Europe has been a leader in offshore wind development, with the United
Kingdom and Germany being the top contributors. By 2022, the global offshore wind
capacity reached 56 GW, and it is expected to grow significantly in the coming years [6].

Wind energy not only contributes to reducing carbon emissions but also promotes energy
security and economic development. The wind industry supports millions of jobs
worldwide, from manufacturing and installation to maintenance and operation. According
to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the wind sector employed over 1.2
million people globally in 2021, with numbers expected to rise as the industry expands [7].

1.1.3 Significance of Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) in Modern Wind

Turbines

DFIG have become an important technology in modern wind turbines due to its efficiency
and flexibility in energy conversion. DFIG systems are widely used in the wind energy
industry because they offer several significant advantages over other types of generators,
making them particularly well-suited for variable speed wind turbines.

One of the primary benefits of DFIG technology is its ability to operate efficiently over a
wide range of wind speeds. This is achieved through the use of a partial-scale power
converter that controls the rotor currents, allowing the generator to adjust its speed in
response to changing wind conditions. This capability enables the wind turbine to
maximize energy capture and operate near its optimal efficiency point across different
wind speeds [7].

Another advantage of DFIGs is its ability to provide active and reactive power control
independently. This feature is essential for maintaining grid stability and meeting the grid
code requirements for voltage and frequency control. By independently controlling active
and reactive power, DFIGs can support grid operations more effectively than fixed-speed
generators, which is increasingly important as the penetration of wind energy in the grid
grows [8].

DFIG systems also offer economic benefits. The partial-scale power converter used in DFIGs
is typically rated at around 30% of the generator's capacity, which makes it more cost-
effective compared to full-scale converters required for other variable speed generator
types. This reduction in converter size leads to lower initial costs and reduced losses,
enhancing the overall economic viability of wind power projects [9].

Moreover, DFIGs provide the capability for grid fault ride-through, which is the ability to
remain connected and continue operating during grid disturbances such as voltage dips.
This feature is very important for the reliability and resilience of wind power plants,
ensuring continuous power supply and compliance with modern grid codes [10].

1.2 Aims

The primary aim of this project is to advance the performance, reliability, and grid
integration of DFIGs used in Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS).

1.3 Objectives

The primary objectives of this project are clearly defined to achieve the aim of enhancing
the efficiency and performance of wind energy conversion systems using DFIG:

1. To Review and evaluate established control method (vector control) through

simulation.

2. To Implement Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) in the Control method.

3. To Model and Simulate DFIG Wind Turbines in Matlab/Simulink (Use existing dq-
frame transformation models in MATLAB/Simulink to simulate DFIG dynamics).

4. To Analyze the Performance of DFIG Wind Turbines.

1.4 Work Done and Results

This section provides the research activities conducted and the outcomes achieved in the
study of DFIGs in WECS. The work focuses on the review and evaluation of control methods,
enhancing performance, and modeling and simulation in MATLAB/Simulink.

1. DFIG Review and Evaluation of Established Control Methods

Work Done:
 Conducted a thorough review of established control methods, specifically vector
control, which is widely used for managing active and reactive power in wind energy
systems.
 Simulated the vector control method using MATLAB/Simulink to assess its
performance under various operational conditions.

Results:
 The vector control method effectively maintained desired power outputs and
enhanced overall stability of the DFIG system [11].

 Simulations confirmed that vector control significantly improves the dynamic

response and stability of DFIGs [53].

2. Performance Enhancement of DFIGs

Work Done:

 Conducted experimental and simulation studies to optimize the energy conversion

efficiency of DFIGs.

 Analyzed mechanical and electrical reliability to identify and address common

failure points.

Results:

 Efficiency improvements were observed, with optimized energy conversion

processes resulting in higher power output from wind energy [13].

 Reliability enhancements reduced maintenance requirements and extended the

operational lifespan of DFIG components [14].

3. Modeling and Simulation of DFIG Wind Turbines in MATLAB/Simulink

 Work Done:

 Utilized existing dq-frame transformation models in MATLAB/Simulink to simulate

the dynamic behavior of DFIG systems.

Results:

 The simulations accurately represented the dynamic performance of DFIG wind

turbines, validating the effectiveness of the models used [54].

1.5 Report Structure

The structure of this report is designed to systematically address the objectives of the study
and provide a comprehensive analysis of wind energy conversion using DFIGs. Each chapter
focuses on a specific aspect of the research, building a cohesive narrative that leads to the
final conclusions and recommendations.

Chapter 1: Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research by providing background and motivation,
discussing the importance of renewable energy in mitigating climate change. It explains
overview of global wind energy trends and statistics . This chapter defines the significance
of DFIG in modern wind turbines and outlines the objectives of the study.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The literature review chapter comprehensively examines existing research relevant to the
project, including wind energy conversion systems, DFIG technology, power electronics,
MPPT techniques, and simulation studies.

Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework

In this chapter, the theoretical underpinnings necessary for understanding DFIG wind
turbines are established, including fundamental principles, system components, and
control strategies.

Chapter 4: System Modeling and Simulation

Focused on practical implementation, this chapter details the modeling and simulation
methodologies used to analyze DFIG wind turbines, covering aspects such as aerodynamics,
mechanical dynamics, electrical modeling, simulation tools, and control algorithm
development.
Chapter 5: Results and Analysis

Presenting the findings obtained from simulations, this chapter analyzes the performance
of DFIG wind turbines under various conditions, including output analysis, efficiency
evaluation, and interpretation of results.

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Future Work

The final chapter summarizes the research outcomes, draws conclusions, and outlines
potential avenues for future research and development, including limitations, challenges,
and suggestions for further exploration.

Chapter 2

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Overview of WECS

WECS are designed to harness wind power and convert it into electrical energy. They are
essential for the sustainable generation of electricity from renewable sources. This
overview provides an insight into the key components and operation principles.

Principles of Wind Energy Conversion

Wind energy conversion involves transforming the kinetic energy from the wind into
mechanical and then electrical energy. This process is achieved using wind turbines, which
consist of several key components, each playing a crucial role in the efficient generation of
electricity. In this section, we will discuss the main components of a wind turbine and their
functions.

Figure 1: WECS [34]

Wind Turbine Components and Their Functions

1. Rotor Blades
 Function: The rotor blades are responsible for capturing the wind's kinetic energy.
When the wind blows, it exerts a force on the blades, causing them to rotate.

 Description: Modern wind turbines typically have three blades made of lightweight,
durable materials such as fiberglass or carbon fiber composites. The aerodynamic
design of the blades maximizes energy capture and minimizes drag.

2. Hub
 Function: The hub connects the rotor blades to the main shaft of the turbine.

 Description: The hub is a central component that supports the blades and ensures
they rotate together. It is designed to withstand the mechanical stresses exerted by
the blades.

3. Main Shaft (Low-Speed Shaft)

 Function: The main shaft transfers the rotational energy from the rotor blades to
the gearbox.
 Description: This component is located between the hub and the gearbox. It rotates
at a relatively low speed, typically 10-60 rotations per minute (rpm).

4. Gearbox
 Function: The gearbox increases the rotational speed from the main shaft to a level
suitable for generating electricity.

 Description: Wind turbines operate most efficiently when the generator spins at a
high speed. The gearbox steps up the low-speed rotation of the main shaft to the
high-speed rotation needed for the generator, typically around 1,000-1,500 rpm.

5. Generator
 Function: The generator converts the mechanical energy from the rotating shaft
into electrical energy.

 Description: Most wind turbines use either induction generators or doubly fed
induction generators (DFIGs). These generators are designed to produce electricity
at variable speeds, which is important for capturing energy efficiently from
fluctuating wind speeds.

6. Nacelle
 Function: The nacelle houses key turbine components, including the gearbox,
generator, and control systems.

 Description: Positioned at the top of the turbine tower, the nacelle is a protective
enclosure that shields the mechanical and electrical components from the elements.
It also allows maintenance access.

7. Yaw System
 Function: The yaw system orients the nacelle and rotor blades to face the wind
direction.

 Description: By ensuring that the turbine is always facing into the wind, the yaw
system maximizes energy capture. It consists of electric or hydraulic motors and a
yaw bearing, which allow the nacelle to rotate on the tower.
 8. Tower
 Function: The tower supports the nacelle and rotor blades at a height where wind
speeds are higher and more consistent.

 Description: Made from steel or concrete, the tower is designed to withstand the
forces exerted by the wind and the weight of the turbine components. Towers can
range from 50 to 120 meters in height.

9. Anemometer and Wind Vane

 Function: These instruments measure wind speed and direction, providing data to
the turbine's control system.

 Description: The anemometer measures the wind speed, while the wind vane
determines the wind direction. This information is crucial for optimizing turbine
performance and ensuring safe operation.

10.Control System
 Function: The control system monitors and adjusts the turbine's operation to
maximize efficiency and protect the components.

 Description: It includes sensors and software that regulate blade pitch, yaw
position, and generator speed. The control system also ensures that the turbine
shuts down in extreme wind conditions to prevent damage.

2.1.1 Aerodynamics of wind turbines

Wind turbines rely on the science of aerodynamics to transform the invisible force of wind
into usable electricity. The aerodynamics of wind turbines is fundamental to their efficiency
and performance.
Figure 2: Aerodynamics of wind turbines [36]

1. Lift and Drag Forces

Wind turbine blades operate on the principles of lift and drag, similar to the wings of an
airplane.

Lift Force: Lift is the aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the wind direction. It is
generated by the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the blade.
The shape of the blade, specifically its airfoil cross-section, creates this pressure difference.
As the wind flows over the curved upper surface of the blade, it travels faster than the wind
on the flat lower surface, creating lower pressure above the blade and higher pressure
below it, thus generating lift.

Drag Force: Drag is the aerodynamic force that acts parallel to the wind direction. It
opposes the motion of the blade through the air. While some drag is inevitable, blade design
aims to minimize it to increase efficiency.

The ratio of lift to drag (L/D ratio) is a critical parameter in blade design. A higher L/D ratio
indicates a more efficient blade, as more lift is generated for less drag.

2. Blade Design
The design of wind turbine blades is crucial for maximizing energy capture and efficiency.
Key aspects of blade design include:

Airfoil Shape: The cross-sectional shape of the blade, known as the airfoil, is designed to
optimize the lift-to-drag ratio. Commonly used airfoil profiles are derived from those used
in aircraft wings, modified to suit the lower Reynolds numbers typical of wind turbines
[14].

Blade Twist: The blades are twisted along their length to maintain an optimal angle of
attack—the angle between the oncoming wind and the chord line of the airfoil—at different
points along the blade. This twist ensures that the entire blade length contributes
effectively to lift generation.

Blade Length: Longer blades can capture more wind energy. However, the structural and
material constraints must be balanced to avoid excessive weight and ensure durability.

Tip Speed Ratio (TSR): The TSR is the ratio of the speed of the blade tip to the wind speed.
An optimal TSR, typically between 6 and 8 for modern turbines, ensures efficient energy
conversion. Blades are designed to operate at this TSR to balance aerodynamic efficiency
and mechanical stress [15].

3. Betz Limit

The Betz limit, named after German physicist Albert Betz, defines the maximum theoretical
efficiency of a wind turbine. According to Betz's law, no wind turbine can capture more than
59.3% of the kinetic energy in the wind. This limit is derived from the conservation of mass
and momentum principles and reflects the fact that not all the wind's energy can be
extracted without stopping the airflow completely [16].

2.1.2 Electrical Generators Used in Wind Energy Conversion

Electrical generators are important components in wind energy conversion systems, as

they transform mechanical energy from the rotating wind turbine blades into electrical
energy. Several types of generators are used in wind turbines, each with its own advantages
and applications. This section will explore the main types of generators used in wind
energy conversion, focusing on their operating principles, benefits, and typical uses.

Types of Electrical Generators

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)

 2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
4. Synchronous Generator (SG)

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)

Operating Principle:

The SCIG operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The rotor consists of a
series of conductive bars short-circuited by end rings, forming a "squirrel cage." When the
stator's rotating magnetic field induces a current in the rotor, it creates its own magnetic
field, which interacts with the stator's field, causing the rotor to turn.

Benefits:

Robust and Simple: SCIGs are known for their rugged construction and simplicity.

Low Cost: These generators are relatively inexpensive and easy to maintain.

Applications:

Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines: SCIGs are typically used in older, fixed-speed wind turbines
where the generator is directly connected to the grid.

2. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

Operating Principle:

PMSGs use permanent magnets embedded in the rotor to create the magnetic field,
eliminating the need for rotor windings and slip rings. The stator windings generate
electricity as the rotor's magnetic field rotates.

Benefits:

 High Efficiency: Permanent magnets reduce losses associated with rotor windings.
 Compact and Lightweight: PMSGs can be smaller and lighter than other types of
generators.

Applications:

Direct-Drive Wind Turbines: Commonly used in direct-drive (gearless) wind turbines,

which have fewer moving parts and require less maintenance.
3. Synchronous Generator (SG)

Operating Principle:

SGs operate similarly to PMSGs but use electromagnets on the rotor instead of permanent
magnets. The rotor's magnetic field is generated by DC current supplied through slip rings.

Benefits:

 Grid Stability: SGs can provide reactive power support, helping to stabilize the grid.
 Versatility: Suitable for both direct-drive and geared wind turbine designs.

Applications:

High-Power Wind Turbines: Often used in high-power wind turbines, especially in offshore
applications where grid stability is crucial.

2.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIGs)

2.2.1 Overview of DFIGs

DFIGs are a widely used technology in modern wind turbines, especially for variable-speed
wind energy conversion systems. This section provides an overview of DFIGs, focusing on
its key components, operating principles, advantages, limitations and applications.

Key Components:

 Stator: The stator windings are connected to the grid, providing the pathway for the
generated electrical power to be delivered.

 Rotor: The rotor windings are connected to the grid via slip rings and a power
converter, allowing for bidirectional power flow.

 Slip Rings and Brushes: These components transfer electrical power between the
stationary and rotating parts of the generator.

 Power Converter: Comprising a rotor-side converter and a grid-side converter, it

allows for the control of rotor currents and thereby the generator's operation over a
wide range of speeds.

Operating Principle
A DFIG is an induction generator that has both the stator and the rotor connected to
external circuits, that’s why it’s called "doubly fed." The stator is directly connected to the
grid, while the rotor is connected through slip rings to a back-to-back power electronic
converter.

The DFIG system operates by controlling the rotor currents through the power converter.
This control is typically implemented using vector control techniques, which manage the
magnitude and phase of the rotor current to achieve the desired power output. The power
converter allows the DFIG to generate power at a variable speed, which is essential for
capturing the maximum energy from varying wind speeds.

Figure 3: DFIG [33]

Operational Modes:

 Sub-Synchronous Mode: When the rotor speed is less than the synchronous speed,
the rotor consumes power from the grid through the converter.
 Super-Synchronous Mode: When the rotor speed is greater than the synchronous
speed, the rotor delivers power to the grid through the converter.

This dual operation capability allows DFIGs to maintain a high efficiency over a wide range
of wind speeds.
Applications

DFIGs are commonly used in medium to large wind turbines, typically ranging from 1.5 MW
to 3 MW, making them suitable for both onshore and offshore wind farms. Their variable-
speed operation and efficient energy capture make them ideal for areas with fluctuating
wind conditions.

Advantages of DFIGs

 Variable Speed Operation: DFIGs can operate efficiently over a wide range of wind
speeds, maximizing energy capture. This is achieved by controlling the rotor
currents through a power converter, which allows the rotor to rotate at varying
speeds while maintaining a constant frequency output to the grid [21].

 Reduced Converter Rating: Only a fraction (typically 25-30%) of the total power
flows through the power converter. This reduces the cost, size, and losses associated
with the converter compared to full-converter systems used in PMSGs and SGs [22].

 Reactive Power Control: DFIGs can independently control reactive power, which
helps in stabilizing grid voltage and improving power quality. This capability is
beneficial for grid integration, particularly in regions with stringent grid codes [23].

 Improved Efficiency: The ability to operate at variable speeds results in higher

overall efficiency, as the turbine can adapt to varying wind conditions and maintain
optimal performance.

 Cost-Effective: The lower power rating of the converter and the ability to use a
smaller generator size make DFIGs a cost-effective solution for many wind turbine
applications.

 Grid Compatibility: The ability to control rotor currents and power flow makes
DFIGs compatible with modern grid requirements, including fault ride-through
capabilities and grid support functionalities.

Limitations of DFIGs

 Complexity and Maintenance: DFIGs have a more complex design than SCIGs,
requiring slip rings and brushes to connect the rotor to the external circuit. These
components are subject to wear and tear, leading to higher maintenance
requirements and potential reliability issues over time [24].
  Limited Speed Range: Although DFIGs offer variable speed operation, the range is
limited compared to direct-drive systems like PMSGs. Typically, the speed range is
about ±30% around the synchronous speed [22].

 Sensitivity to Grid Disturbances: DFIGs can be sensitive to grid faults and

disturbances. Although modern DFIG systems include advanced control strategies
and protection mechanisms, they are still more susceptible to grid issues than fully
rated converter systems used in PMSGs and SGs [25].

 Need for Slip Rings: The use of slip rings introduces additional points of failure and
requires regular maintenance. This can be a disadvantage in offshore wind farms
where maintenance is more challenging and costly.

2.2.2 Comparison with Other Generator Types:

DFIGs are a popular choice in wind energy conversion due to their unique advantages.
However, they also have certain limitations when compared to other types of generators
such as Squirrel Cage Induction Generators (SCIGs) and Synchronous Generators (SGs).
Here's a table summarizing the key advantages and limitations of DFIGs compared to
commonly used generator types in wind turbines:

Generator Type Advantages Limitation

Synchronous Generator Simple and robust design,
Fixed speed operation,
high efficiency limited grid support
capabilities
Squirrel-Cage Induction Low cost, simple and rugged Fixed speed operation, poor
Generator (SCIG) design power quality, limited grid
support
Doubly Fed Induction Variable speed operation, Higher complexity and cost,
Generator (DFIG) improved power quality, grid grid dependence, converter
stability support losses
Table 1: Comparison with Other Generator Types

2.3 Related Existing Research on Wind Energy Conversion Using Doubly Fed
Induction Generators (DFIG)

Research on wind energy conversion using Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) has
been extensive due to the DFIG's advantages in efficiency, controllability, and grid
compatibility. This section reviews studies and methodologies that highlight the
advancements and applications of DFIGs in wind energy systems.

2.3.1 Efficiency and Performance Optimization

One of the primary focuses of research on DFIG-based wind energy systems is improving
efficiency and performance. Study by Pena et al. [8] discussed the application of DFIGs with
back-to-back PWM converters, highlighting their effectiveness in variable-speed wind
energy generation. This study demonstrated that DFIGs could efficiently convert wind
energy across a wide range of wind speeds. The back-to-back PWM converters allow for
independent control of the rotor currents, which optimizes the energy capture from the
wind. By adjusting the rotor currents, the system can operate efficiently even when wind
speeds vary, ensuring that the maximum possible energy is extracted from the wind [8].

2.3.2 Control Strategies

Control strategies for DFIG systems are crucial for maximizing power extraction and
ensuring grid stability. Studies by Muller et al. [10] and Xu and Cartwright [18] explored
various control methodologies. Muller et al. reviewed fundamental principles of DFIG
systems and various control schemes, including vector control and direct power control.
These strategies enable precise regulation of active and reactive power. Vector control, for
instance, decouples the control of torque and flux, allowing independent adjustment of
active and reactive power, which is essential for optimizing performance and supporting
grid stability under changing wind conditions [10].

Xu and Cartwright [17] proposed a direct active and reactive power control method for
DFIGs, simplifying the control system and improving dynamic performance. This approach
directly controls the power outputs rather than relying on traditional indirect methods.
Their study showed that this control method could manage power output effectively and
maintain system stability during fluctuations in wind speed and grid conditions, reducing
the complexity and improving the responsiveness of the control system [17].

2.3.3 Fault Ride-Through Capabilities

The ability of wind turbines to ride through grid faults is critical for maintaining grid
stability. Research by Qiao et al. [18] investigated the fault ride-through capabilities of
DFIG-based wind turbines. They proposed a coordinated control strategy that combines
rotor-side and grid-side converter controls to enhance fault tolerance. During grid faults,
the proposed strategy helps maintain the connection to the grid by quickly adjusting the
rotor currents and controlling the grid-side converter to mitigate the fault's impact. This
minimizes disruptions and ensures continuous operation, which is vital for the reliability
and stability of the wind energy system [18].

2.3.4 Power Quality and Grid Integration

Power quality and grid integration are essential aspects of DFIG research. Muyeen et al.
[19] examined the integration of energy capacitor systems with variable-speed wind
generators. Their study focused on improving power quality and grid support capabilities
of DFIG systems. By integrating an energy capacitor system, the wind turbine can store
excess energy during high wind speeds and release it during low wind speeds, thus
stabilizing voltage and providing better frequency regulation. This integration enhances the
DFIG system's ability to support grid stability and maintain high power quality [19].

2.4 Control Strategies for DFIG

2.4.1 MPPT Control Algorithms

The control strategies for DFIG in wind turbines are important for optimizing power
capture and ensuring efficient operation. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
algorithms are specifically designed to adjust the operating point of the wind turbine to
maximize power output under varying wind speeds. This section provides an in-depth
review of existing MPPT control algorithms commonly used for DFIG wind turbines,
focusing on Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) control and the Perturb and Observe (P&O) method.

1. TSR Control
The TSR is the ratio of the speed of the turbine blade tips to the wind speed. The TSR
control method aims to maintain the optimal TSR where the power coefficient (Cp), which
represents the efficiency of converting wind energy into mechanical energy, is maximized.
This is achieved by adjusting the rotor speed according to the wind speed, which can be
measured directly or estimated.

Rω
The optimal TSR ( λ opt ) is given by: λ=
v

Where 𝑅is the rotor radius, ω is the rotor angular speed and v is the wind speed.

Control Mechanism: The control system continuously monitors the rotor speed and wind
speed. It adjusts the generator torque or pitch angle of the blades to maintain the rotor
speed such that the optimal TSR is achieved.

Advantages:

 Efficiency: TSR control ensures the wind turbine operates at maximum efficiency by
maintaining the optimal TSR.

 Responsiveness: The method allows for quick adjustments to changing wind

speeds, optimizing power capture.

Challenges:

 Wind Speed Measurement: Accurate and reliable measurement of wind speed is

essential, which can be challenging and costly.

 System Complexity: Implementing TSR control requires precise sensors and

control systems, increasing the system's complexity and cost.

Existing Research on Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) Control

Li and Chen (2008) implemented TSR control in MATLAB/Simulink for a DFIG-based wind
turbine to enhance power output by maintaining the optimal TSR, where the power
coefficient (Cp) is maximized. The study involved developing a simulation model that
included the wind turbine, DFIG, power electronic converters, and the TSR control
algorithm. By continuously measuring the wind speed and rotor speed, the control
algorithm adjusted the rotor speed to maintain the optimal TSR through varying the
generator torque. The simulation results indicated that TSR control effectively maintained
the optimal TSR across different wind speeds, resulting in significant improvements in
power capture efficiency and overall turbine performance [20].

2. P&O Method

The P&O method is an iterative algorithm that perturbs the system's operating point and
observes the resulting change in power output to find the maximum power point. The P&O
method does not require prior knowledge of the wind turbine's characteristics, making it
highly adaptable to changing wind conditions.

 Algorithm Steps:

1. Perturb the rotor speed slightly (increase or decrease).

2. Measure the change in power output.

3. If power increases, continue perturbation in the same direction.

4. If power decreases, reverse the direction of perturbation.

Advantages:

 Simplicity: The P&O method is simple to implement and does not require complex
calculations or models.

 Adaptability: It can adapt to sudden changes in wind speed effectively, making it

robust under varying conditions.
Challenges:

 Oscillations: The method can introduce oscillations around the maximum power
point, especially under rapidly changing wind conditions.

 Slow Response: In some cases, the algorithm may be slow to converge to the
maximum power point, especially in low wind speed scenarios.

Existing Research on Perturb and Observe (P&O) Method

Mohamed et al. (2011) applied the P&O method for MPPT in a DFIG wind turbine system
using MATLAB/Simulink, focusing on evaluating its effectiveness under varying wind
conditions. The P&O algorithm perturbs the rotor speed by small increments and observes
the changes in power output, adjusting the direction of perturbation based on whether the
power increases or decreases. The iterative process ensured the system operated close to
the maximum power point. The study demonstrated that the P&O method effectively
tracked the maximum power point, adapting robustly to sudden changes in wind
conditions and maintaining optimal power output. The simplicity and adaptability of the
P&O method were highlighted, confirming it as a viable solution for MPPT in DFIG wind
turbines [21].

Chapter 3

3.0 DFIG Mathematical Model and Control Algorithm Design

3.1 DFIG Mathematical Model

The Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is a critical component in modern wind energy
conversion systems, particularly due to its ability to operate efficiently under varying wind
speeds. The dynamic behavior of the DFIG is often analyzed using the dq-frame model. This
model transforms the stator and rotor quantities into a rotating reference frame aligned
with the stator or rotor flux, simplifying the analysis and control design by decoupling the
stator and rotor flux linkages [22][23].

3.1.1 dq-Frame Dynamic Model

The dq-frame model is derived by applying the Park transformation to the three-phase
stator and rotor quantities. This transformation converts the three-phase quantities into
two orthogonal components (d and q axes), rotating synchronously with the stator or rotor
flux [24]. This approach effectively reduces the complexity of the system and provides a
clearer understanding of the DFIG's dynamic performance [10].

Figure 4 Equivalent d-q model of DFIG in synchronous frame

In the dq-frame, the stator equations are expressed as: [26-32]

d ⋋sd
v sd =r s i sd + −ω s ⋋sq (1)
dt

d ⋋ sq
v sq=r s i sq + −ωs ⋋sd (2)
dt

Here:
v sd , v sq are the d-axis and q-axis stator voltage.

i sd , i sq are the d-axis and q-axis stator currents.

r s is the stator resistance.

⋋sd , ⋋sq are the d-axis and q-axis stator flux linkages.

ω s is the synchronous speed.

Similarly, the rotor voltage equations in the dq- frame are:

d ⋋rd
v rd =r r i rd + −(ω s−ω r )⋋rq (3)
dt

d ⋋rq
v rq=r r irq + −(ω s−ωr ) ⋋rd (4)
dt

Where:

v rd , v rq are the d-axis and q-axis rotor voltage.

i rd , i rq are the d-axis and q-axis rotor currents.

r r is the rotor resistance.

⋋rd ,⋋rq are the d-axis and q-axis rotor flux linkages.

ω s is the rotor angular speed.

The flux linkage equations in the dq-frame are critical for understanding the magnetic
coupling between the stator and rotor [31].

⋋sd =Ls i sd+ Lm i rd (5)

⋋sq=L s i sq + Lm i rq (6)

⋋rd =Lr i rd + Lm i sd (7)

⋋rd =Lr i rq + Lm i sq (8)

Where:

Ls is the stator inductance.

Lr is the rotor inductance.

Lm is the mutual inductance between the stator and rotor.

The key model equations are derived by substituting the flux linkage equations into the
voltage equations. The equations are essential for the development of control algorithms
and for analyzing the dynamic performance of the DFIG. This derivation shows how the
voltage and currents are influenced by the rotor and synchronous speeds.

Stator voltage Equations:

d (L s i sd + Lm i rd )
v sd=r s i sd + −ω s (Ls i sd + Lm ird ) (9)
dt

d (Ls i sq+ Lm i rq )
v sq=r s i sq + + ω s ( Ls i sd+ Lm i rd ) (10)
dt

Rotor Voltage Equations:

d (Lr i rd + L m i sd )
v rd =r r i rd + −(ωs −ωr )(Lr i rq + Lm i s q ) (11)
dt

d (Lr irq + Lm i sq)

v rq=r r irq + +(ω s−ωr )(Lr i rd + Lm i sd ) (12)
dt

The stator and rotor currents can be calculated by solving the voltage equations for i sd , i sq
(stator currents) and i rd, i rq (rotor currents) respectively. Which are important for analyzing
the performance and control of DFIG.

Stator Currents:

1 d ( ⋋sd )
i sd= (v sd − +ω s ⋋sq) (13)
rs dt
 1 d ( ⋋sq )
i sq = (v sq − −ω s ⋋ sd ) (14)
rs dt

Rotor Currents:

1 d ( ⋋rd )
i rd = (v rd − +(ω s−ω r )⋋rq ) (15)
rr dt

1 d ( ⋋rq )
i rq = (v rq − −(ω s−ω r)⋋rd ) (16)
rr dt

The power and electromagnetic torque are essential for understanding the energy
conversion process from mechanical to electrical forms. Deriving the active power (P),
reactive power (Q) and electromagnetic torque (T e ) from the voltage equation respectively
for both the stator and rotor.

Rotor active and Reactive Power:

3
Pr = (v rd i rd + v rq i rq ) (17)
2

3
Qr = (v rq i rd −v rd irq ) (18)
2

Stator Active and Reactive Power:

3
Ps = (v sd i sd +v sq i sq ) (19)
2

3
Q s = (v sq i sd −v sd i sq ) (20)
2

These equations describe the power exchange between the stator and the grid, also the
between the rotor and the converter. The active power represents the real power being
transferred, while the reactive power represents the power associated with the magnetic
fields.
The electromagnetic torque (T e) produced by the DFIG can be expressed in terms of the dq-
axis currents and flux linkages.

3
T e = p (⋋sd i sq−⋋sq i sd ) (21)
2

Where:

P is the number of pole pairs.

⋋sd , ⋋sq are the d-axis and q-axis stator flux linkages.

i sd , i sq are the d-axis and q-axis stator currents.

The mechanical power ( Pm) converted to electrical power in the generator can be
calculated from the electromagnetic torque (T e) and the rotor speed (ω r).

Pm=T e ωr (22)

Using the torque equation, the mechanical power can also be expressed as:

3
Pm= p (⋋sd i sq−⋋sq i sd)ω r (23)
2

From the dq-axis analysis, torque and flux can be controlled independently, as expressed in
the following equations.

The rotor current (i r (d ,q ) is given by:

⋋r ( d , q )−L m I s ( d , q )
I r ( d ,q )=
Lr

The stator flux linkage (⋋s (d , q) ¿ can be written as:

⋋ r ( d , q )−Lm I s ( d , q )
⋋s ( d , q ) =Ls I s ( d , q ) + Lm
Lr
Considering the stator EMF (e d , q ¿ in terms of the stator voltages and neglecting derivative
terms, the stator voltage equation becomes:

V s ( d , q ) =Rs I s ( d , q )+ jωs σ Ls I s ( d , q ) +e (d , q)

Where:

2
Lm
σ =1− , and the EMFs are given by:
Ls Lr

Lm
e d =−ω s ψ qr
Lr

Lm
e q=ωs ψ ⅆr
Lr

To determine the stator EMFs derivatives, we substitute the rotor voltage derivative terms
in the equations. The derivatives of the stator EMFs are:

ⅆ ed Lm
=¿ ω s ( R r I qr −V qr ) + s r ωs e q
ⅆt Lr

ⅆ ed
ⅆt
=¿ −ω s
Lm
Lr
Lm
( Rr
)
Rr I qs +V qr − e d +¿ sr ω s e q
Lr Lr
(21)

ⅆ eq Lm
=¿ ω s ( V dr−Rr I dr ) −s r ω s ed
ⅆt Lr

ⅆ eq
ⅆt
=¿ ω s
Lm
Lr (
Lm Rr
)
Rr I ds +V dr − e q−s r ω s e d
Lr Lr

By replacing the rotor fluxes in the rotor voltage equation, we derive the rotor EMFs ( Ed , E q
) which reflect the stator flux impact on rotor voltages. Therefore, the rotor voltage
equation becomes:
 Lr ⅆ
V s ( d , q ) =Rs I s ( d , q )+ ¿ e (d , q) + js r ωs σ Lr I r ( q , d ) + E(d ,q)
L m ω s ⅆt

Lm
Ed =−sr ωs ψ
Lr qs

Lm
Eq =sr ω s ψ
Ls qs

In vector control, these equations are used to compute the dq-axis rotor voltages. This
approach is important for the dynamic modeling of DFIGs, accounting for the effects of both
rotor and stator EMFs.

Figure 5: c p−¿ λ Curve.[25]

The rotating part of the turbine has a mechanical dynamic expressed as

ⅆ
J Ω =T −T −f Ω (23)
ⅆt r ⅇm r r r

Where:

J is the moment of inertia of the rotating part.

f r is the coefficient of friction.

Ωr is the generator speed.

T r is the generator torque.

T ⅇm is the electromagnetic torque which is a function of d – q components of rotor current

and stator flux and can be represented as [25][32]:

M
T em=P L ( ⋋sq I rd −⋋sd I rq ) ,
s
(24)

If a reference frame is chosen that is aligned to the d – axis of the stator flux orientation,
then we have:

⋋sd = ⋋S , ⋋Sq = 0, (25)

Where:

⋋S is the flux vector amplitude ~

⋋ s [30].

Electromagnetic torque equation can also be written as

MVs
T em=P I (26)
Ls ω s rq

Assuming the phase stator resistance is neglected, the vector of the stator voltage will be
consequently in advance quadrature when compared to the vector of the stator flux,
therefore we have:

V Sd =0 , V sq=V s ¿ ⋋ S ωs (27)

Where:

V s is the amplitude of voltage vector of stator ~

V s [30].

The stator reactive and active power as well as the rotor voltages can be expressed due to
rotor current as [33-37]:

¿ (28)
{
2
MVs V MVs
Ps= I rq∧¿Q s= s − I
Ls Ls ω s Ls rd

(29)

Where:

P
M ω S −ωr ω s− ω m
σ =1− , S= = 2 (30)
Ls Lr ws
ωs

P is the number of poles.

ω m is the mechanical frequency of the generator [rad/s].

when generator convention is used, The slip of the generator is represented by S and σ is
the leakage coefficient [34] or Blondel dispersion factor [36]

Connections and Controls of DFIG System

A Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) system is widely used in wind energy

applications due to its efficiency and ability to operate over a range of wind speeds. The
DFIG's unique connection and control mechanisms enable optimal energy capture and
stable power output.

In a DFIG system, the stator is connected directly to the grid, while the rotor interfaces with
the grid through a partially scaled back-to-back power converter [38]. The key technology
enabling the connection of a DFIG to the grid is the control strategies for both the rotor-side
and grid-side converters [39].

Typically, DFIGs are controlled using a reference frame model with two axes, known as the
dq model. This model simplifies the control of the rotor current by separating the control of
active and reactive power: the d-axis controls the active power, and the q-axis controls the
reactive power [42]. However, due to the high penetration level when connected to the grid,
these controls need to be stabilized. To achieve this, a frequency control using the rotor's
kinetic energy is introduced [40]. This topology allows for higher energy yield, wider
controllability of both reactive and active powers, simplified pitch control, and reduced
power output fluctuation [41].

Another effective topology is the coil control algorithm [42]. Although many control
strategies have been proposed, the most commonly employed technology for controlling
DFIG in WECS is known as Oriented Vector Control [35]. This control technique is divided
into two parts:

 Grid-Side Converter (GSC) control

 Rotor-Side Converter (RSC) control

Figures 19 and 20 illustrate the connections and control strategies for these two parts,
respectively [44]. The control technique maintains a constant DC bus voltage [45].

Today, various control strategies aim to maximize energy capture from the wind. One such
strategy involves controlling the DFIG's electromagnetic resistance torque through the
control of its output active power, indirectly controlling the wind turbine's speed
[30].components [46]. This approach enhances the efficiency and responsiveness of the
DFIG system, making it a preferred choice for modern wind turbines [47].

Figure 6 : Configuration of variable speed wind turbine with DFIG [55]

  Control of Rotor-Side Converter (RSC)

The Rotor-Side Converter (RSC) plays an important role in controlling the Doubly-Fed
Induction Generator (DFIG) by applying voltage to the rotor windings [28]. This function is
essential for efficiently harnessing mechanical power from the wind turbine and
maintaining unity power factor at the stator [28][48]. The RSC also regulates the active and
reactive power delivered to the grid terminals. By appropriately selecting the d-axis in the
reference frame model, it becomes feasible to decouple and independently control active
power (P) and reactive power (Q) through the control of currents l Sd and l sq respectively [28]
[31]. Moreover, the instantaneous values of stator active and reactive power output from
the DFIG to the grid side can be calculated [49].

s s
Ps + jQ s=−1 ⋅5 V sαβ + I sαβ (31)

Ps =−1⋅5 ( u sα i sα +u s β i sβ ) (32)

Qs =−1⋅5 ( u sβ i s α −u sα i s β ) (33)

When Ps > 0, the DFIG operates as a generator; otherwise, it functions as a motor. Positive
Qs indicates export of inductive reactive power to the grid, while negative Qs signifies export
of capacitive reactive power.

The excitation frequency supplied by the Rotor-Side Converter (RSC) varies according to
wind speed conditions. Control of the induction machine occurs in a synchronously rotating
dq-axis frame, where the d-axis aligns with the stator-flux vector—an approach known as
Stator-Flux Orientation (SFO) vector control. Alternatively, Stator-Voltage Orientation (SVO)
is frequently used in DFIG vector control.

In the widely accepted Park's model for induction machines, the motor convention is
employed in a static stator-oriented reference frame, neglecting saturation. The voltage
vector equation under this convention is expressed as:

~
~v =R i~ + ⅆ ψ s (34)
s s s
ⅆt
 ~
~v =R l~ + ⅆ ψ r − jω ~
ψr (35)
r r r
ⅆt

Where:

~v represents the stator voltage, it is regulated by the grid, while the rotor-side converter
s

adjusts the rotor voltage to control the generator operation.

The flux vector equations are :

~ ~ ~
ψ s=Ls i s + Lm ir (36)

~ ~ ~
ψ r=Lm i s + Lr i r

Where:

Lr is the rotor self-inductance

Ls is the stator self- inductance.

Lr =Lm+ Llr , Ls =Lm+ Lls .

In dq-axis component form, under stator-flux orientation, equations for the stator flux are:

ψ s =0

ψ sq=L s i sd + Lm i rd =Ψ s =Lm i ms (37)

2
M Lm
σ =1− while looking at the leakage factor, it can also be written as σ =1−
Ls Lr Ls Lr

Where the equivalent inductance can be written as

2
Lm
Lo = (38)
Ls

The rotor vector and flux equations are:

¿ (39)
{
2
Lm
ψ rd = i + σ Lr i rd ∧¿ ψ rq =σ Lr i rq
L5 m

(40)

Where ω slip=ωs −ωr which is the slip angular speed.

Calculating for the angle of the stator flux :

¿ (40)

θ s=tan
−1
( )
ψ sβ
ψ sα

Where:

θ s is the position of the stator-flux.

The control strategy implemented in the RSC employs two cascaded PI controllers. Figure 7
illustrates how the reference Q-axis rotor current i rqis derived from either an outer speed
control loop or a torque reference applied to the machine [9]. These modes are commonly
referred to as torque control mode or speed control mode, emphasizing rotor current
regulation over direct active power control. In speed control mode, adjusting the speed
error signal involves one of the outer PI controllers for Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) [24]. Additionally, another PI controller adjusts the reference signal of the d-axis
rotor current component i rd to manage the required reactive power of the generator. If the
stator provides all necessary reactive power, i rd can be set to zero. The control system
requires measurements of rotor and stator currents, mechanical rotor position, and stator
voltage. Assuming the stator resistance has minimal effect and is directly connected to the
grid, the stator magnetizing current i ms can be considered constant [9]. By regulating rotor
voltage, control over rotor excitation current is achieved. PI controllers process the error
signals for i rdand i rqto generate v rq and i rd , respectively [9].
Figure 7: RSC control strategy of the DFIG [55]

From the rotor voltage equation

' ⅆ i rd ' ⅆ i rq
v rd =R r i rd + σ Lr ∧¿ v rq=R r irq +σ Lr ∧¿
ⅆt ⅆt
¿
(41)

' '
To accurately track the rotor dq-axis currents, compensation times for v rq and v rd should be
❑ ❑

added to determine the reference voltage [27].

¿ ' ¿ '
v rd =v rd −ω slip σ Lr i rq∧¿ v rq =v rq +ω slip ( L m i ms +σ Lr i rd ) ∧¿
¿
(42)

Then the electromagnetic torque will be:

−3 p Lm ℑ ( ψ sαβ X ψ rαβ ) = −3 p I ~
s s
~¿ −3
T em= m {ψ s i r } = p I o i ms irq (43)
2 σ Ls Lr 2 2
The above equation approximates stator voltage-oriented control. For stator flux
orientation, the stator flux current i msis almost constant relative to the stator voltage.
Torque control is typically performed in an open-loop method because measuring torque
directly is challenging. Instead, torque is controlled by using the rotor current i rqof the q-
ref
axis component. Thus, the q-axis reference current i rq can be determined from the
ref
reference torque T em [27].

ref ref
ref −2 T em −2 T em
i =
rq = (44)
3 p Lo i ms 3 pψs

 Control of Grid-Side Converter (GSC)

The grid-side converter (GSC) is crucial for managing the flow of active and reactive power
to the grid through the grid interface inductance. The primary objective of the GSC is to
maintain a constant dc-link voltage, regardless of the direction and magnitude of the power
coming from the rotor [9]. This is essential for the stability and efficiency of the wind
energy conversion system. By using a vector control method with a reference frame
oriented to the stator voltage vector, the GSC can independently control active power (real
power flowing to the grid) and reactive power (voltage support and grid stability) [50]. In
this method, the d-axis current component ( I cd) regulates the dc-link voltage, while the q-
axis current component ( I cq) manages reactive power [24]. The PWM converter in the GSC
is current-regulated, meaning the switching of the IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors) in the converter is controlled to maintain desired current levels, which control
voltage and power flow [51].
Figure 8: structure for Vector control in the grid-side converter [27-28]

In the synchronous rotating dq-axis reference frame, the voltage equations are expressed as

ⅆ i cd ⅆ i cq
v cd =R i̇ cd + Lchoke −ω e Lchoke i cq ∧¿ v cq=R i̇ cq + Lchoke +ω e Lchoke i cd ∧¿
ⅆt ⅆt
¿
(45)

The grid voltage angular position can be calculated with θe = ∫ ωe ⅆt ¿ tan

−1
( )
v cβ
v cα

Where v cβ and v cα represent the components of the converter grid side voltage frame. The
angular position θe of the grid voltage is aligned with the d-axis reference frame [52].

These equations describe the dynamics of the currents in the dq reference frame, allowing
precise control of the GSC. The error signals for I cq∧I cd are processed by their respective PI
controllers to generate the reference voltages v cq and v cd, which are then used to control the
converter [52]. The control system requires accurate measurements of rotor and stator
currents, mechanical rotor position, and stator voltage. Since the stator resistance has a
minimal effect and the stator is directly connected to the grid, the stator magnetizing
current ( I ms) is considered constant [50], simplifying the control strategy and focusing on
rotor currents.

Since maintaining a constant grid voltage amplitude is essential for stability and efficiency.
When the grid voltage amplitude is constant, the direct-axis component of the voltage ( v cd)
also remains constant, while the quadrature-axis component ( v cq) becomes zero. This
relationship simplifies the control of power flows, as the active power is directly
proportional to the quadrature-axis current (i cq), and the reactive power is directly
proportional to the direct-axis current (i cd ).

For a grid-side transformer connected in a star (wye) configuration, the active (𝑃) and
reactive (Q) power flow of the converter can be expressed as follows:

¿ (46)

These equations proofs that the active power flow (P) is a function of the direct-axis
current (i cd ), while the reactive power flow (Q) is a function of the quadrature-axis current (
i cq) [24]. By controlling these current components through the GSC, it is possible to regulate
both active and reactive power independently, ensuring efficient energy transfer and grid
stability [52].

To achieve decoupled control in a GSC, compensation terms are introduced into the control
equations. These compensations help in managing the interactions between active and
reactive power control, ensuring that each can be regulated independently.

¿ (47)

¿ ¿
The reference voltages in the direct and quadrature axis ( v cd and v cq) are obtained from the
¿
control loops. To convert these reference voltages into the three-phase voltage signals ( v abc
), an inverse Park transformation is applied.
 [ ]
cos ⁡(θ) −sin ⁡(θ)

[]
¿
v a
¿
v =
b
cos θ− (
2π
3 ) (
−sin θ−
2π
3 ) [ vv ¿
cd
¿
] (48)

( ) ( )
¿ cq
v 2π 2π
c
cos θ+ −sin θ+
3 3

This transformation converts the d-axis and q-axis components back into the three-phase
system, which is necessary for generating the appropriate Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
signals to switch the IGBTs in the converter [24].

Chapter 4

4.0 Design of WECS Wind Farm Using DFIG.

In wind farms, doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) are a common variable speed
generator. By increasing system efficiency, lowering converter rating, and reducing acoustic
noise, DFIG enables wind systems to function in a variety of wind ranges [56]. Double-fed
induction generator wind turbines consist of a wound rotor induction generator and an
AC/DC/AC PMW converter with an IGBT base. The stator winding is connected directly to
the 60Hz grid, and the rotor is fed at a variable frequency via the AC/DC/AC converter.

 AC/DC/AC converter

An AC/DC/AC converter, also called a back-to-back converter, includes a rectifier, a DC-

link, and an inverter. The rectifier changes AC power to DC power using IGBTs
 controlled by PWM [11]. The DC-link stabilizes the DC voltage [8], while the inverter
converts DC back to AC power using PWM [59]. This setup allows the wind turbine to
operate at varying speeds, improves power quality by managing harmonics and reactive
power, and ensures grid stability [54]. The rotor-side converter (RSC) controls rotor
currents, managing active and reactive power [60], and the grid-side converter (GSC)
stabilizes the DC-link voltage and manages power flow to the grid [61].

Figure 9: Wind Farm-DFIG Wind Turbines connected to a transmission line.[1]

Figure 9 depicts the design structure that is simulated for this project. It comprises
assessments of a 9 MW wind farm connected to a 30 km transmission line via transformers
T1 and T2. The wind farm consists of six 1.5MW, 575V and 60Hz DFIG generator-turbines.
These turbines are connected to a 25kV feeder, which in turn serves a 120kV grid at a wind
speed up to 15m/s. The wind turbine's reactive power is kept at 0 Mvar, the speed is 1.2 per
unit (pu) of the generator's synchronous speed, and a torque controller was used in the
control system. The objective of the design is to observe and analyze the dynamic response
of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) to voltage sag caused by a remote fault on the
120 kV system, its steady performance, and its maximum power extraction capabilities.

4.0.1 Simulation of Wind Farm - Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG).

This simulation adopted the Wind Farm-DFIG Detailed model DEMO in

MATLAB/SIMULINK, with some modifications applied to the model. The model block was
selected from the Simulink library, with the initial state vector regenerated to avoid
Simulink error when the model was run as shown in figure 10. The detail model accurately
depicts harmonics and dynamic response that arises from the interaction between control
and power systems. To achieve an acceptable accuracy with the 1620 Hz and 2700 Hz
switching frequencies used in this DEMO, the model was discretized at a relatively small-
time step (5 microseconds). [57]. When compared with the average model, the waveforms
results were nearly the same. The marginal difference occurs at the DC-link voltage during
the voltage dip (appendix 3).

Figure 10: Wind Farm-DFIG Simulation.[2]

4.0.2 Simulation Results and Discussions.

The simulation was performed for 2secs, and the steady state results were represented in
Figure 11 below. However, in the first 0.2 seconds of operation, the wind turbine system
voltage (as seen in Figure 11) operates in steady state for 0.03 seconds before a three-
phase to ground fault was introduced at terminal of 120kv/25kv transformer. This triggers
electromagnetic transient which led to the rotor side converter being deactivated and the
converter protective circuit was activated to avoid overcurrent flowing through it. In this
condition, the generator functions like an induction motor and the three-phase
asymmetrical fault was cleared about 0. 13s. On the other hand, it took the rotor-side
converter approximately 0.003 seconds to activate and the protection circuit to deactivate.
As a result, the system continues to steady state, as seen in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Steady state waveform of DFIG Simulation.

As shown in Figure 12, there was a voltage dip in stator voltage at busbar 575V of the DFIG.
because of the three phase to ground fault. The voltage reduced to 0.5pu from 0.04secs to
0.13secs. However, the voltage increased to 1pu after the fault was cleared.
Figure 12: DFIG Wind turbine Stator voltage waveform.

In Figure 13, the turbine current is presented. This is a representation of the current
passing via the rotor side converter. The signal indicates that the fault only caused a brief
(in microseconds) surge in current when it was introduced and when it was cleared;
nonetheless, the output of current per unit remained constant both during and after the
fault was fixed.

Figure 13: DFIG Wind turbine RSC current waveform.

Figure 14 depicts the behavior of the active power injected into the grid. It shows how
active power performs both in steady state and under fault conditions. It also shows the PI's
response to tracking the reference power for 0.2secs. The PI is employed as a power
regulator in the control loop of rotor current. When the three-phase asymmetrical fault was
introduced into the system, the PI had impact on the change in system performance. The
reference q-axis rotor current is the output of the PI, whereas the real power error input
signal is its input. When there is no fault, PI operates as Figure 14 illustrates, but when a
fault is introduced into the network, there is minimal increase in the power output. The
pitch angle mechanism reacts by limiting the projection, which in turn regulates the active
power produced in the turbine. The introduced fault distorts the effort to balance the active
power, causing it to drop to about 5MVar before rising once more and stabilizing at around
9MVar from 0.2secs. Grid-side real power data indicates that before voltage dips occurred,
the system was balanced and stable. Power decreased upon fault occurrence, but it
immediately increased and stabilized once the fault was cleared.

Figure 14: DFIG active power supplied to the grid waveform.

Figure 15 shows the generated waveform for the reactive power delivered to the grid.
When the fault occurred, the signal fluctuated to some extent just after and could not
maintain unity power factor. This does not result in huge damage because the value of the
power factor reduction is not significant. The reactive power delivered to the grid attained
a steady state within the transient period.
Figure 15: DFIG reactive power supplied to the grid waveform.

However, Figure 16 shows that the DC-Link voltage (Vdc) fluctuates throughout the voltage
sag period and could not maintain a consistent value. The PI controller promptly reduced
this fluctuation, protecting the capacitor from damage. In addition, if the voltage sag is a
major fault condition much of the power would have passed through the rotor and may
have damaged the converter. Hence, the rotor safety protection circuit will be triggered to
deactivate and safeguard the rotor-side converter. As shown in Figure 16, the operation is
stabilized to reach steady state by the use capacitor between the RSC and GSC after the fault
has been cleared. This capacitor smoothens the ripples from the rectified voltage output.
This phenomenon is called Low-Voltage Ride Through (LVRT), it is designed to obtain the
optimal control strategy by having its capacity dependent on the DC-link voltage (Vdc). This
is further enhanced by the protective circuit for the rotor side converter.
Figure 16: DC Link Voltage waveform.

It was observed that during voltage drops period, the rotor angular speed increases due to
reduced electrical torque. This increase is not on the generator speed but the angular speed
whose response was because it cannot maintain value within 1.2 pu as shown in figure 17.

Figure 17: DFIG wind turbine generator speed.

Figure 18 shows the voltage at the grid side in pu value. When it is operating in normal
condition, there is a limited voltage drop below its rated voltage, but greater than zero
because its flux is proportionate to the stator voltage. Hence, experienced the same voltage
dip.

Figure 18: The transformer Voltage (pu).

As shown in Figure 19, this waveform represents the current of the transformer at the fault
point. The voltage dip experienced due to the three-phase-to-earth fault resulted in current
spike but was controlled to protect the rotor side converter. However, the grid voltage
maintained a steady state performance within a short period after the fault was cleared.
Figure 19: The transformer Current (pu).

Recently, the commonly used protective methods when rotor currents of the doubly fed
generator or DC bus voltage exceed their rated value in the case of grid fault is a crowbar
protective circuit to create a short circuit at the rotor winding, during a three-phase-to-
earth fault. As Figure 20 illustrates, this provides a part-way for this excess current and
voltage to safeguard the rotor-side converter when a grid fault causes the rotor to suffer
excessive current in a DFIG, or DC busbar. For the crowbar protection system to meet the
grid code, new active crowbars with active switches such as IGBT and GTO, are projected to
protect the system [58].
Figure 20: DFIG Based WECS rotor Side converter Protection. [58]

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Appendix 1: Dynamic and Steady state waveform of DFIG Detailed Model Simulation.
Appendix 2: Steady state waveform of DFIG average Model Simulation.
Appendix 3: DFIG wave form comparison between the detailed and average Model
Simulation