4.

5 Electromagnetic effects

Electromagnetic Induction

Induced EMF

● An EMF will be induced in a conductor if there is relative movement between the conductor and
the magnetic field
● It will also be induced if the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic field
● For an electrical conductor moving in a fixed magnetic field
○ The conductor (e.g wire) cuts through the fields lines
○ This induces an EMF in the wire

Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce an EMF

When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing an EMF

1
For a fixed conductor in a changing magnetic field

● As the magnet moved through the conductor (e.g. a coil), the field lines cut through the turns on
the conductor (each individual wire)
● This induces an EMF in the coil

A magnet moved towards a wire creates a changing magnetic field and induces a current in the wire

● A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced EMF
● If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the conductor
○ This can be detected by an ammeter

2
Lenz's Law

● Lenz Law states:

The direction of an induced e.m.f always opposes the change that produces it

● This means that any magnetic field created by the potential difference will act so that it tries to
stop the wire or magnet from moving

Demonstrating Lenz's Law

● If a magnet is pushed north end first into a coil of wire then the end of the coil closest to the
magnet will become a north pole
● Explanation
○ Due to the generator effect, an e.m.f will be induced in the coil
○ The induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
○ The coil will apply a force to oppose the magnet being pushed into the coil
○ Therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a north pole
○ This means it will repel the north pole of the magnet

Magnet being pushed into a coil of wire

3
 ● If a magnet is now pulled away from the coil of wire then the end of the coil closest to the magnet
will become a south pole
● Explanation:
○ Due to the generator effect, a potential difference will be induced in the coil
○ The induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
○ The coil will apply a force to oppose the magnet being pulled away from the coil
○ Therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a south pole
○ This means it will attract the north pole of the magnet

Magnet being pulled away from a coil of wire

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

● When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the induced EMF can be worked
out by using the Right Hand Dynamo rule

4
Demonstrating Induction

● An EMF can be induced either when:

○ A conductor, such as a wire, cuts through a magnetic field
○ The direction of a magnetic field through a coil changes
● Electromagnetic induction is used in:
○ Electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
○ Transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
● This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated with a magnet and a coil

Experiment 1: Moving a magnet through a coil

● When a coil is connected to a sensitive voltmeter, a bar magnet can be moved in and out of the
coil to induce an EMF

A bar magnet is moved through a coil connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

The expected results are:

● When the bar magnet is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
○ When the bar magnet is held still inside, or outside, the coil, there is no cutting of
magnetic field lines, so, there is no EMF induced
● When the bar magnet begins to move inside the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter
○ As the bar magnet moves, its magnetic field lines ‘cut through’ the coil
○ This induces an EMF within the coil, shown momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter

5
● When the bar magnet is taken back out of the coil, an e.m.f is induced in the opposite direction (a
result of Lenz's law)
○ As the magnet changes direction, the direction of the current changes
○ The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign
● Increasing the speed of the magnet induces an e.m.f with a higher magnitude

● The direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is such that it opposes the
change that produces it
○ This is Lenz's law.

An e.m.f is induced only when the bar magnet is moving through the coil

6
Factors that will increase the induced EMF are:

● Moving the magnet faster through the coil

● Adding more turns to the coil
● Increasing the strength of the bar magnet

Experiment 2: Moving a wire through a magnet

● When a long wire is connected to a voltmeter and moved between two magnets, an EMF is
induced
● The pattern of a magnetic field in a wire can be investigated using this set up
○ Note: there is no current flowing through the wire to start with

A wire is moved between two magnets connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

The expected results are:

● When the wire is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
○ When the wire is held still inside, or outside, the magnets, the rate of change of flux is
zero, so, there is no EMF induced
● As the wire is moved through between the magnets, an EMF is induced within the wire, shown
momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter
○ As the wire moves, it ‘cuts through’ the magnetic field lines of the magnet, generating a
change in magnetic flux
● When the wire is taken back out of the magnet, an EMF is induced in the opposite direction
○ As the wire changes direction, the direction of the current changes

7
 ○ The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign
● As before, the direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is such that it
opposes the change that produces it
● Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f are:
○ Increasing the length of the wire
○ Moving the wire between the magnets faster
○ Increasing the strength of the magnets

Factors Affecting EM Induction

● The magnitude (size) of the induced EMF is determined by:

○ The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
○ The number of turns on the coils of wire
○ The size of the coils
○ The strength of the magnetic field
● The direction of the induced potential difference is determined by:
○ The orientation of the poles of the magnet

1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:

○ Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut
○ This will increase the induced potential difference

2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:

○ Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the potential
difference induced
○ This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the total potential
difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting the magnetic field lines

8
3. The size of the coils:

○ Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential difference induced
○ This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines

4. The strength of the magnetic field:

○ Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the potential difference induced

5. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:

○ Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved

Exam Tip

When discussing factors affecting the induced potential difference:

● Make sure you state:

○ “Add more turns to the coil” instead of “Add more coils”
○ This is because these statements do not mean the same thing
● Likewise, when referring to the magnet, use the phrase:
○ “A stronger magnet instead of “A bigger magnet”
○ This is because larger magnets are not necessarily stronger

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Simple A.C Generators

● The generator effect (electromagnetic induction) can be used to generate a.c in an alternator
● A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in
the form of alternating current

An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to slip rings

Note: The brushes are known as Carbon brushes. In some diagrams, there is an axle in the middle of the
coil, connected to a handle (for rotation)

● A rectangular coil (armature) ABCD, that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field
● The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that press on two metal slip rings
○ The slip rings and brushes provide a connection between the coil and the meter
● When the coil turns in one direction:
○ The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
○ This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and an EMF, and therefore
current, is induced in the coil
● The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit repeatedly changes
direction as the coil spins
○ This is because the induced EMF in the coil repeatedly changes its direction
○ This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction
● The induced EMF and the current alternate because they repeatedly change direction

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Exam Tip

Motors and generators look very similar, but they do very different things.

When tackling a question on either of them, make sure you are writing about the right one! A motor takes
in electricity and turns it into motion. A generator takes in motion and generates electricity.

Graph for A.C. Generators

● The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and direction as the coil rotates
● The size of the induced EMF depends on the number of field lines it cuts
○ The induced EMF is greatest (maximum value) when the coil is horizontal, or parallel
with the field lines, as in this position it cuts through the field at the fastest rate
○ The EMF is smallest (0) when the coil is vertical, or perpendicular with the field lines as
in this position it will not be cutting through field lines

Graph of induced emf against time, viewed from AB perspesctive

**Note: Position 1 (θ = 0°), Position 2 (θ = 90°), Position 3 (θ = 180°), Position 4 (θ = 270°)

11
 ● When the magnet is in position 1 (refer to above note**), the magnetic field lines of the magnet
do not cut the coil
○ This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
● When the magnet is in position 2 the magnetic field lines of the magnet are at 90° to the coil
○ This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
● When the magnet is in position 3 the magnetic field lines of the magnet do not cut the coil
○ This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
● When the magnet is in position 4 the magnetic field lines of the magnet are at 90° to the coil
○ This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
○ As the poles of the magnet are reversed compared to position 2 the induced EMF will also
be in the opposite direction compared to position 2
○ This means that the graph will show a negative trace

Magnetic Field Around Wires & Solenoids

● When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the wire
○ A conducting wire is any wire that has current flowing through it
● The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting compasses
○ The compasses would produce a magnetic field lines pattern that would like look the
following

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

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 ● The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles
○ A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire has
no poles
● As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
○ This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets weaker as the
distance from the wire increases
● The right-hand grip rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field

The right-hand grip rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the direction of the
magnetic field around the wire

● Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the direction of
the magnetic field

13
 Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field produced

● If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
● Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength of the
magnetic field
○ This means the field lines will become closer together

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Magnetic Field Around a Solenoid

● When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of the coil,
passing through the centre of it

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil

● To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled to form a
solenoid
● The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet

Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

15
● The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform
● One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the
south pole
○ To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed from the end
○ If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is the south pole
○ If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is the north pole
● If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed
● If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic field produced
around or through the solenoid

Poles of a Solenoid

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Magnetic Effects of Changing Current

● A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet by adding a soft iron core

● The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through the coils
○ The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will create a much
stronger magnet overall
● The magnetic field produced by the electromagnet can be switched on and off
○ When the current is flowing there will be a magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet
○ When the current is switched off there will be no magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet

An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

● Changing the direction of the current also changes the direction of the magnetic field produced by
the iron core

Factors Affecting Magnetic Field Strength

● The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
○ Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
○ Increasing the number of coils
○ Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils
● The strength of an electromagnet can be changed by:
○ Increasing the current will increase the magnetic field produced around the electromagnet
○ Decreasing the current will decrease the magnetic field produced around the electromagnet

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Applications of the Magnetic Effect

● Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

○ Relay circuits (utilised in electric bells, electronic locks, scrapyard cranes etc)
○ Loudspeakers & headphones

Relay Circuits

● Electromagnets are commonly used in relay circuits

● Relays are switches that open and close via the action of an electromagnet
● A relay circuit consists of:
○ An electrical circuit containing an electromagnet
○ A second circuit with a switch which is near to the electromagnet in the first circuit

When a current passes through the coil in Circuit 1, it attracts the switch in Circuit 2, closing it
enables a current to flow in Circuit 2

● When a current flows through Circuit 1, a magnetic field is induced around the coil
○ The magnetic field attracts the switch, causing it to pivot and close the contacts in Circuit
2
○ This allows a current to flow in Circuit 2
● When no current flows through Circuit 1, the magnetic force stops
○ The electromagnet stops attracting the switch
○ The current in Circuit 2 stops flowing
○

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 ● Scrapyard cranes utilise relay circuits to function:
○ When the electromagnet is switched on it will attract magnetic materials
○ When the electromagnet is switched off it will drop the magnetic materials
● Electric bells also utilise relay circuits to function:

Electric bells utilise relay circuits. As the current alternates, the metal arm strikes the bell and drops
repeatedly to produce the ringing effect

● When the button K is pressed:

○ A current passes through the electromagnet E creating a magnetic field
○ This attracts the iron armature A, causing the hammer to strike the bell B
○ The movement of the armature breaks the circuit at T
○ This stops the current, destroying the magnetic field and so the armature returns to its
previous position
○ This re-establishes the circuit, and the whole process starts again

19
Loudspeakers & Headphones

● Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound

○ They work due to the motor effect
● A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a permanent
magnet

Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

● An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker

○ This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
● As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will be
constantly changing
● The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent magnet
● The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
○ The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s left-hand rule
● As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will
constantly change direction
○ This makes the coil oscillate
● The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
○ This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

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Investigating the Field Around a Wire

● The magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids can be investigated
using:
○ A thick wire
○ A solenoid (a wire wrapped into a coil) - for example, a metal slinky
○ Cell, ammeter, variable resistor and connecting wires
○ Cardboard with holes (the holes must be large enough for the wire to fit through)
○ Clamp stand
○ Iron filings or a compass
● Spread the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard and place the magnetic needle on the board
● Tap the cardboard slightly and observe the orientation of iron filings

When the current direction is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite direction showing that the
direction of the field reverses when the current reverses

Experiment 1: Plotting the magnetic field around a wire

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole in the middle of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp
stand
○ Secure the wire vertically so it sits perpendicularly to the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and ammeter on
either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

21
 1. Place plotting compasses on the card and draw dots at each end of the needle once it settles
○ Make sure to draw an arrow to show the direction of the field at different points
2. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process above
3. Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots on the card
4. Then remove the compass, or compasses, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will be the
magnetic field line
5. Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines

Using iron filings:

1. If using iron filings, simply pour the filings onto the cards and gently shake the card until the
filings settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around the wire

22
Experiment 2: Plotting the magnetic field around a solenoid

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole on one side of the cardboard and loop it through a hole on the
other side of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp stand
○ Secure the wire so it forms a circular loop around the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and ammeter on
either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Follow the procedure outlined in Experiment 1

○ Note: this can be carried out using a solenoid, but since a solenoid is essentially many
circular loops, the pattern around a circular loop can be extended to give the pattern
around a solenoid

Using iron filings and a solenoid:

1. Take a solenoid (a metal slinky works well for this) and thread it through pre-made holes in a
piece of card
2. Pour the filings onto the card and gently shake the card until the filings settle in the pattern of the
magnetic field around the solenoid

23
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

● A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field

○ When interacting with an external magnetic field, it therefore will experience a force
● A current-carrying conductor will only experience a force if the current through it is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines
○ A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform magnetic field
○ When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a force which makes it
move

A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed through it

● Two ways to reverse the direction of the force (and therefore, the copper rod) are by reversing:
○ The direction of the current
○ The direction of the magnetic field

This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as 'the motor effect'. The direction of the force is determined
by Fleming's left-hand rule.

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Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

● The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire depends on the direction of
the current and the direction of the magnetic field
● All three will be perpendicular to each other
○ This means that sometimes the force could appear to be acting either into or out of the
page
● The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule:

Fleming's left-hand rule can be used to determine directions of the force, magnetic field and current

25
Worked example

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is placed into the magnetic field
between the poles of the magnet, as shown below, there will be a downwards force acting on the wire.

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

○ Start by pointing your first finger in the direction of the (magnetic) field.

Step 2: Determine the direction of the current

○ Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the second finger points in the
direction of the current

Step 3: Determine the direction of the force

○ The thumb will now be pointing in the direction of force

○ Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

26
Exam Tip

Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South and current is always in
the direction of a positive terminal to a negative terminal.

Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field

● When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if the wire is
perpendicular
○ This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron flowing
through the wire
● Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert a force on
the particle, causing it to deflect
○ The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field
lines
○ The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
● In the case of a electron in a magnetic field the second finger points in the opposite direction to
the direction of motion
○ Conventional current is said to flow opposite to the direction of flow of electrons
○ The finger represents current
○ An alternative is to use the right hand to work out directions for charged particles

27
 When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by the field

● If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:

○ It will experience the maximum force
● If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
○ It will experience no force
● If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
○ It will experience a small force

Exam Tip

Remember that the direction of current is the direction of positive charges. Therefore, if a particle has a
negative charge (such as an electron), then the second finger (current) must point in the opposite
direction to its direction of travel.

The DC Motor

● The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
● The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) positioned in a uniform
magnetic field:

28
 A simple d.c. electric motor

● This causes the coil to rotate since it experiences a turning effect

● The turning effect is increased by increasing:
○ The number of turns on the coil
○ The current
○ The strength of the magnetic field

Operation of a DC Motor

● When the current is flowing in the coil at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field:
○ The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
○ The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field produced by the
magnets
○ This results in a force being exerted on the coil
○ The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-hand rule
○ As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the force produced
from the magnetic field will push one side of the coil up and the other side of the coil
down
● This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in the vertical position
○ In the vertical position momentum keeps the coil turning until the magnetic force takes
over again

29
 ● The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil
○ This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing every half turn
○ This keeps the current leaving the motor in the same direction (d.c)
● Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which the forces are acting
○ As a result, the coil will continue to rotate

Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current

● The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
○ This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is flowing

Factors Affecting the D.C Motor

● The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:

○ Increasing the current
○ Use a stronger magnet
● The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
○ Reversing the direction of the current
○ Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the magnet
● The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
○ Increasing the current in the coil

30
 ○ Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
○ Adding more turns to the coil

Worked example

A d.c motor is set up as shown below.

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines

○ These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet

31
Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils

○ Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal

Step 3: Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each side of the coil

○ Start by pointing your first finger in the direction of the (magnetic) field

32
 ○ Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the second finger points in the
direction of the current
○ The thumb will now be pointing in the direction of the force.

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

○ The coil will be turning clockwise

Transformer

33
● A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the potential
difference of an alternating current (voltage transformations)
○ This is achieved using the generator effect

● A basic transformer consists of:

○ A primary coil
○ A secondary coil
○ A soft iron core

● Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

Structure of a transformer

34
 Transformer

Operation of a Transformer

● An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil

● The current is continually changing direction
○ This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the primary coil
● The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field passes through it
● As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary coil
○ This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces a potential difference
● As the magnetic field is continually changing the potential difference induced will be alternating
○ The alternating potential difference will have the same frequency as the alternating
current supplied to the primary coil
● If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating current to flow

Step-up & Step-down Transformers

● A transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil

○ The primary coil is the first coil
○ The second coil is the second coil
● A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source
○ A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil (Ns
> Np)
● A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source
○ A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
(Ns < Np)

Transformer Calculations

● The output potential difference (voltage) of a transformer depends on:

○ The number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
○ The input potential difference (voltage)

35
 ● It can be calculated using the equation:

● This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

● Where
○ Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
○ Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
○ Np = number of turns on primary coil
○ Ns = number of turns on secondary coil

Worked example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil. The input potential
difference across the primary coil is 500 V.

a) Calculate the output potential difference.

b) State what type of transformer this is.

36
Transformer Efficiency

● An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient

○ Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of
conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output
● If a transformer is 100% efficient:

Input power = Output power

37
 ● The equation to calculate electrical power is:

P=V×I

● Where:
○ P = power in Watts (W)
○ V = potential difference in volts (V)
○ I = current in amps (A)
● Therefore, if a transformer is 100% efficient then:

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

● Where:
○ Vp = potential difference across primary coil in volts (V)
○ Ip = current through primary coil in Amps (A)
○ Vs = potential difference across secondary coil in volts (V)
○ Is = current through secondary coil in Amps (A)
● The equation above could also be written as:

Ps = Vp × Ip

● Where:
○ Ps = output power (power produced in secondary coil) in Watts (W)

Worked example

A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V ac mains electricity supply to the 230 V needed for a
hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer. Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient,
calculate the current drawn from the mains supply.

Step 1: List the known quantities

○ Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 115 V

○ Voltage in secondary coil, Vs = 230 V
○ Current in secondary coil, Is = 5 A

38
Step 2: Write the equation linking the known values to the current drawn from the supply, Ip

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

Step 3: Substitute in the known values

115 × Ip = 230 × 5

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find Ip

Step 5: Calculate a value for Ip and include the correct unit

Ip = 10 A

High-Voltage Transmission

● Transformers have a number of roles:

○ They are used to increase the potential difference of electricity before it is transmitted
across the national grid
○ They are used to lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines to the lower
voltages used in houses
○ They are used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages used by many
electronic devices

Advantages of High Voltage Transmission

● When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the wires heats them, resulting
in energy loss
● To transmit the same amount of power as the input power, the potential difference at which the
electricity is transmitted should be increased
○ This will result in a smaller current being transmitted through the power lines
○ This is because P = IV, so if V increases, I must decrease to transmit the same power
● A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being produced in the wire
○ This will reduce the energy loss in the power lines

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 Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in the cables

Calculating Power Losses

● When a current passes through a wire, the current creates a heating effect which means the wires
warm up
● This means they lose electrical energy as heat, which reduces the efficiency of the transformer
○ This is due to electrical resistance which is present in all wires
● The power (energy per second) lost in the wire is given by the following equation

P = I2R

● Where:
○ P = power in watts (W)
○ I = current in amps (A)
○ R = resistance in ohms (Ω)
● Since the power is the energy lost per second, the total energy lost in a time t will be:

E=P×t

● Where:
○ E = energy in joules (J)
○ t = time in seconds (s)

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 ● A step-up transformer may be used to increase the voltage of a power supply from the power
station to the transmission wires
● The number of turns and voltage for the transformer is related by the following equation:

● Where:
○ Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
○ Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
○ np = number of turns on the primary coil
○ ns = number of turns on the secondary coil
● A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil, Ns, than on the primary coil, Np
● Since a transformer cannot output more power than is put into it, increasing the voltage must
result in the current being lowered

IpVp = IsVs

● Where:
○ Ip = current in the primary coil in amps (A)
○ Is = current in the secondary coil in amps (A)
● Lower current results in less power and energy loss in the cables
○ This makes the transfer of electrical energy through the wires more efficient

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O) a.k.a Oscilloscope

● A Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument used to display, measure and analyse

waveforms of electrical circuits
● An A.C. current on an oscilloscope is represented as a transverse wave. Therefore you can
determine its frequency and amplitude

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● The x-axis is the time and the y-axis is the voltage (or y-gain)

Diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope display showing wavelength and time-base setting

● The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base. This is how many seconds each
division represents measured commonly in s div-1 or s cm-1
● Use as many wavelengths shown on the screen as possible to reduce uncertainties
● Dividing the total time by the number of wavelengths will give the time period T (Time taken for
one complete oscillation)
● The frequency is then determined through 1/T

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Worked example

A cathode-ray oscilloscope(c.r.o.) is used to display the trace from a sound wave. The time-base is set at
7 µs mm-1.

What is the frequency of the sound wave?

A 2.4 Hz B 24 Hz C 2.4 kHz D 24 kHz

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Applications of C.R.O
(1) Measuring Voltage

When the time base is off, CRO can actually be used as a voltmeter.

The voltage to be measured is applied to the Y-plates via the Y-input terminals. By doing so, an electric
field is set up between the Y-plates, and the electron beam would sweep towards the positively charged
Y-plate. The deflection of an electron beam by an electric field is proportional to the applied voltage.

By adjusting Y-gain, the height of the trace can be magnified so that its magnitude is easily read off.

2) Measuring Short Intervals of time

When time base is on, C.R.O can be used to measure a short interval of time. One of the examples is to
measure the time taken for sound to travel a distance and hence find the speed of sound.

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Procedure:

● Setup the apparatus as shown.

● The microphone first produces a pulse of sound (first pulse on C.R.O), and this pulse is
reflected by the wall and is again received by the microphone (second pulse on C.R.O).
● The distance t between two pulses on C.R.O is actually the time taken for the sound to
travel from the microphone to the wall and back.
● Thus, speed of sound = 2d / t

Note: The height of the second pulse is smaller than that of the first pulse because some energy is lost to
the medium and the reflecting wall.

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