Urban

and Rural
Roadway Design
 In this chapter
01 Introduction  5

02 Objectives & general notes  6

03 Design standards  8

04 Design parameters  8

4.1 Design speed  8

4.2 Design vehicles  10

4.3 Visibility for safety  18

4.4 Design for maintenance  23

4.5 Network utilities  23

05 Geometric alignment  24

5.1 Horizontal alignment  24

5.2 Vertical alignment  25

5.3 Longitudinal gradients  26

06 Camber, cross-fall and super-elevation  26

6.1 Introduction  26

6.2 Design considerations  27

07 Standard road configuration  27

7.1 Road reserve and public right of way  27

7.2 Road reserve cross section  28

7.3 Clearance envelopes  28

7.4 Lane widths  30

7.5 Special vehicle lanes  33

7.6 Cycle facilities  33

7.7 Parking  33

7.8 Traffic islands  33

7.9 Medians  34

7.10 Road shoulders  35

7.11 Road safety barrier systems  36

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 Urban and rural roadway design

7.12 Clear zones  38

7.13 Cul-de-sac geometry  38

7.14 Footpaths and berms  39

Kerb and channel  39 08

8.1 Purpose of a kerb and channel  39

8.2 Design requirements  40

Vehicle crossings  42 09
Intersection design & types  45 10
10.1 General principles  45

10.2 Priority controlled intersections  48

10.3 Roundabouts  49

10.4 Signal controlled intersections and crossings  50

10.5 Grade separation  52

10.6 References/guidelines  52

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4 TDM | ENGINEERING DESIGN CODE
 Urban and rural roadway design

01 Introduction
PURPOSE The geometric design of the urban street and rural road
networks is important to ensure that correct operation at the
right road speed occurs in a safe and predictable manner. Design
constraints will vary between projects, especially those within
the rural urban boundary, but the general principles behind good
road design do not change. The purpose of this chapter is to
provide guidance on the issues that need to be considered when
dealing with road geometry in Auckland, whether it is a new
project or a retrofit of an existing road.
Street users should be able to observe the road environment,
decide on safe speed and path to follow, and act upon that.
When interacting with other users, they should be able to
observe them, predict their likely action, decide on their
response, and act. Geometric design should provide enough
time for safe decisions and actions.
DEPARTURES Where any deviations from the standards are necessary, they
must be clearly documented and must follow the AT Departures
from Standard process.
ROADS AND STREETS The Framework sets out the process for planning or altering a
FRAMEWORK (RASF) transport network.
It provides guidance on the strategic types of street and the
functions and features to be expected in each street, together
with modal priorities.
It also describes the process for resolving conflicts for priorities.
This should be used to resolve the common issues around
general traffic provision with other modes of transport.
URBAN STREET AND ROAD This sets out principles for design of the various street types.
DESIGN GUIDE (USRDG) Chapter 1 Design Principles These principles must be
understood by all designers as the basis for decisions, and the
approach to be taken in the design process. In particular, this
sets out how safety must be incorporated in all design work.
Chapter 2 Neighbourhood Design focuses on design aspects
of planned networks, either as a means of designing the
relationship between land use and movement, or for evaluating
the local design context for a specific street or place within a
neighbourhood. It also includes guidance on environmental
design within a neighbourhood.

5
 Chapter 3 Street Users takes each user group in turn, and
describes their needs, specific design principles and the features
that can be provided for them. Having understood principles and
context, this chapter guides the choice of elements for each user
to meet the planned function.
Chapter 4 Design Controls deals with the issues of geometric
design that need to be considered, to ensure that drivers of
vehicles in particular are guided to behave reliably in the way
planned for them, safely and efficiently.
Chapter 5 Street Types and
Chapter 6 Intersections can then be used to put the elements
together in accordance with the design principles into street
and intersection layouts that will effectively deliver the planned
outcomes. Typical layouts are shown, not as finished designs,
but to illustrate the design considerations required to fit
elements together into the design of a whole place.
RURAL ROADS DESIGN GUIDE This is to be developed later, to set principles for design of the
various rural road types.
FOOTPATHS AND The Engineering Design Code - Footpaths and the Public Realm
THE PUBLIC REALM should be used with this chapter to fully define the overall road
cross section. The two documents overlap along the kerb zone
boundary with the Engineering Design Code - Footpath and the
Public Realm acting as an overlay when providing for pedestrians
crossing the roadway
CYCLING INFRASTRUCTURE The Engineering Design Code - Cycling infrastructure deals with
people on bikes within roadway and footpath and the public
realm and is to be used along with these Codes.

02 Objectives & general notes

IMPACTS OF ROAD DESIGN The geometric design of roads has a direct impact on
the following:
• Urban or rural amenity;
• Road Safety;
• Drainage Design;
• Environmental Impact;
• Material quantities and construction costs;
• Operation and Operational Capacity; and
• Maintenance.
FOCUS The design standards generally contained in most roading
standards have traditionally been focused with road safety in mind
and to provide for safe operation at the various design speeds.
With the release of the Auckland Plan, a vision of a compact city
has been established and as such built form and amenity of the
environment is to be considered alongside safety and operation.

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 Urban and rural roadway design

PROVISION FOR The geometric design (and any subsequent alterations) affects
ROAD DRAINAGE the ability for the road to provide adequate drainage for surface
water. It is important to consider the effect of flooding from any
neighbouring watercourses and fix the vertical alignment of the
carriageway at an appropriate level.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS The horizontal and vertical alignment of a road has an impact
on the surrounding environment. Visual and noise impacts
often depend on the elevation of the road, as much as the
choice of surfacing material. The alignment also has an impact
on the number of construction vehicles required to deliver or
remove material from the site and therefore the impact on the
local communities.
MATERIAL QUANTITIES The quantity of material required to be imported, excavated or
AND CONSTRUCTION COSTS moved has a direct impact on the costs required to construct
the new alignment. Geometry has the largest impact on the
requirement for material use and poor alignments, road widths
or elevation can increase the costs substantially.
DESIGN FOR OPERATION The design of the roadway and its alignment including
intersection spacing and methods of control play a significant
role in the safe operational performance of vehicles as well as the
capacity of the roadway.
It is imperative that roadways and the supporting movement
environments are designed in such a way as to reduce impacts
on the surrounding land whilst achieving the movement
objectives as defined in the Roads and Streets Framework.
On high movement corridors, the focus may be on efficiency
of movement and improving capacity or travel times of various
modes safely, while environments with a high place value may
require capacity or speed reductions to ensure that people on
foot or bike are kept safe.
DESIGN FOR MAINTENANCE It is critical when designing the roadway infrastructure to
consider how maintenance of the road environment can be
achieved in a safe and cost effective manner that reduces the
requirements for traffic management and its associated costs
and disruption.
The road or street must remain safe and usable for all modes
while maintaining the network, therefore maintenance
requirements should be built in to the design to ensure that this
can occur.
Early engagement with Auckland Transport’s maintenance teams
is necessary to develop a correct methodology that can be
incorporated in to the design.

7
 03 Design standards
ROADS & STREETS FRAMEWORK This should be used to determine the street type, and the
characteristics required, in order to set Design parameters.
TDM DESIGN TOOL BOX AT publishes various design aids in the TDM Design Tool Box.
These are to be used in all roadway design. They include CAD
tools such as Design Vehicle profiles, software settings for vehicle
tracking, templates for turning heads and intersection corners.
These Tools describe and embed the design rules of this Code.
DESIGN STANDARDS The rules and requirements contained in this code will take
FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN precedence over any other standard unless agreed by departure,
IN NEW ZEALAND however the following geometric standards and advice notes
may be used to supplement this code:
Austroads Guide to Road Design:
• Part 1 Introduction to Road Design
• Part 2 Design Considerations
• Part 3 Geometric Design
• Part 4B Roundabouts
OTHER DOCUMENTS Other documents that are sometimes needed are:
OCCASIONALLY USED
Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Pedestrian and
Cyclist Paths
Austroads Guide to Traffic Management
New Zealand Heavy Haulage Association (NZHHA) Road Design
Specifications for Over-dimensional Loads

04 Design parameters
4.1 Design speed
MAXIMUM SAFE SPEED The design speed of a road is the maximum speed at which a
vehicle can safely travel on that road under good conditions.
DETERMINING FACTORS The design speed is based on the:
• road and street type* (see Roads and Streets Framework)
• conditions of the road itself
• conditions of the surrounding land
• maximum speed allowed by law
• volume of traffic
• operating speed of the road, i.e. how fast traffic actually goes.
* In greenfield situations the road types shall be as agreed through the
structure plan or precinct plan for the land in question in conjunction with
the Roads and Streets Framework.
DESIGN SPEED In the urban environment, as defined by the Auckland Unitary
VS. SPEED LIMIT Plan and in accordance with network plans and Streets
Typologies, the design speed of the road shall be the same or
less than the intended speed limit of the street.

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 Urban and rural roadway design

For rural roads or high speed urban roads with intended speed
limit >60km/h, the 85th percentile speed shall be used with the
design speed being 10km/h higher for the posted speed checks.
However, for rural roads, geometry should be determined
to maintain a consistency along lengths of a particular type
and character.
This design speed is used for alignment and intersection design.
A higher operating speed may need to be used for safety-
related design checks (see Section 4.3). This includes:
• Sight distances
• Clear zones
• Safety barriers
• Separation between users (eg. Buffer width between
traffic lane and footpath or cycle lane, flush median and
turning bays)
AUSTROADS GUIDES Section 3 of the Austroads 2010 Guide to Road Design Part
3: Geometric Design contains detailed information on the
assessment of the 85th percentile speeds and how it can be
derived for rural and urban environments.
CONSISTENCY Roads have to be geometrically consistent, so that drivers
can negotiate them safely. If geographical constraints, road
alignments or the environment cause the operating speed to
vary along the road, the design speed has to change accordingly.
These changes in speed have to be consistent with normal driver
expectations and capability, otherwise drivers will not be able to
react in time.
The design of the whole road environment (horizontal alignment,
intersection spacing and control, adjoining land use and street
activity, speed management features) should combine to present
vehicle drivers with a consistent expectation and through this a
desired speed not greater than the design speed.
Changes should be evident and should not be concealed by
features, such as sharply-decreasing radius within a bend or by a
crest curve.
URBAN ROAD Where the intended Operating Speed is to be kept low for safety
SPEED MANAGEMENT and urban design environment, care needs to be taken that the
combination of road geometry and operating conditions can
ensure that the Operating Speed does not exceed the intended
speed. If this is demonstrated consistently, the Design Speed
may be reduced below 50 km/h.
NOT ALL VEHICLES Design speed does not cover all vehicles on the road, e.g. cars
can travel faster than tractor-trailers. In some areas, e.g. with
steep hills or sharp curves, a slower operating speed may apply
to tractor-trailers. When designing such a road, take care to
allow faster vehicles to safely overtake slower ones.
ROAD SIDE INFRASTRUCTURE When proposing infrastructure that vehicles might conflict with,
designers have to consider the interaction between operating
speeds, visibility and stopping distances and survivable speed.

9
 4.2 Design vehicles
Design vehicles are selected motor vehicles with the weight,
DEFINITION dimensions, and operating characteristics used to establish
highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of
designated classes.
PURPOSE The Design Vehicle is used for the purposes of geometric
design to ensure that the alignment is suited to the expected
vehicle class.
RTS 18:2005 is not to be used for Urban or Rural roads in the
Auckland Region. The guidance contained in this document must
be used instead.
TURNING SPEED Swept path analyses for intersections must be run using a
turning speed appropriate to the context. The setting that
permits steering while the vehicle is stationary may not be used.
Turning speed for buses and Check vehicles should generally be
in the range of 5-25 km/h, giving regard to road design speed
differential and desirable deceleration to the speed for the turn.
For roads with design speed greater than 50 km/h, turning
speed may be increased where deceleration lane space cannot
be provided and no conflict with people on foot or on bikes
will occur.
High differential between turning speed and through traffic
speed can be a significant safety risk. The design turning speed
should correlate with the operating speed. For example, at an
intersection on a 60km/h arterial road, the design turning speed
may be 25km/h.
MANOEUVRE SPEED Some manoeuvres such as parking, reverse turning or using
vehicle crossings will require a lower swept path speed than
intersections. Manoeuvre speed down to 3 km/h may be used.
ACCELERATION AND Particular care needs to be taken with tracking speed when
DECELERATION (BUSES) approaching or exiting bus stops noting that the vehicle is likely
to be decelerating or accelerating. The turning speed used for
tracking needs to account for this.
SWEPT PATH WIDTH The path for design shall be the body width of the vehicle, plus
0.5 m clearance to allow for projections and variability in actual
vehicle paths. Clearance shall be from an adjacent traffic lane or
the face of a kerb (and may include a kerbside channel).
TRACKING PROFILES The design and check vehicle profiles can be downloaded from
the Transport Design Manual home page. Software settings for
intersection and manouevre design should be in accord with AT
Design Tools guidance.
BUSES Bus tracking must use all standard AT bus types as defined as
per the tracking profiles above in each instance where a road is
or could be used by buses.
FREIGHT, OVER DIMENSIONAL Where the road is part of a freight, over-dimensional or over-
AND OVERWEIGHT ROUTES weight route it is a requirement that tracking be undertaken to
show the effect this will have on any proposed design. All freight
routes, whatever street type, require 19.45 m semi as Design
Vehicle and 23m truck & trailer as Check vehicle.

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 Urban and rural roadway design

DESIGN AND CHECK VEHICLES Design vehicles are the largest vehicles that frequently use
FOR EACH ROAD TYPE particular roads. They are expected to be able to remain within
their allotted traffic lane.
Check vehicles are larger vehicles that may be expected to use a
road from time to time. They may not be able to remain within a
traffic lane at all times, but encounters between them and other
Design vehicles must take place in a predictable and safe manner.
The following road types/design vehicles must be used at all
times, unless it can be demonstrated that a different design or
check vehicle is appropriate in a specific case.

Table 1 DESIGN VEHICLES

Vehicle Description

This is more manoeuvrable than the 6.3m van. It should be used as a Check vehicle for all
50%ile car intersections and conflicts to establish a maximum Safe Path speed. This is required for Safe
to Go and Safe Avoidance checks.
85%ile car This is the minimum vehicle size to be used for residential vehicle crossing design.
A car with trailer very closely matches the 6.3m Van (2m wide) therefore it is easier to use
6.3m van
a van for the design vehicle. This is the basic vehicle that all roads should accommodate.
8.3m truck More appropriate than RTS 18 8 m rigid truck.
This vehicle is required for separated waste streams, and is the most frequent check vehicle
10.3m truck for all residential streets. Rear steering axle and body overhang result in significant tailswing
to accommodate. Also necessary for design of turning heads.
12.6m rigid More appropriate than RTS 18 11.5 m rigid truck.
12.6m bus Required bus for all urban bus routes.
Rear-steer axle results in significant tailswing, which should be checked for all current and
13.5m bus
potential bus manoeuvres.
Refer to TDM home page for all bus types to be included in all routes
Other bus
(in or out of service, schools and repositioning) that may be used by buses.
17.9 m semi Largest vehicle for service deliveries to retail (eg. Supermarkets).
19.45m semi General design vehicle for freight routes (HPMV).

23m truck & trailer Check vehicle for freight routes (HPMV, car transporter).

11
 Table 2 DESIGN VEHICLES FOR STREET TYPES

Mid-block

Road Classification Design Vehicle Tracking type Check Vehicle Tracking type

Local (residential or retail) 6.3m Van A 10.3m Truck A, B

Local (Commercial or Light Industrial) 8.3m Truck A 17.9m Semi B

Local (Industrial estate with significant

12.6m Rigid A 23m Truck & Trailer B
freight movement)

Local (Bus route) 12.6m Bus A 13.5 m Bus B

Collector (Residential – no bus route) 8.3m Truck A 10.3m Truck B

Collector (Commercial) 12.6m Rigid A 19.45m Semi B

Collector (Bus route) 12.6 m Bus A 13.5m Bus B

Arterial (first general lane) 19.45m Semi A 23m Truck & Trailer B

Arterial (additional lanes) 8.3m Truck A 23m Truck & Trailer B

Arterial (Bus or Transit lane) 12.6 m Bus A 13.5 m Bus B

Intersections

Road Classification Design Vehicle Tracking type Check Vehicle Tracking type

Local ► Local (residential or retail) 6.3m Van A 10.3m Truck E

Local ► Local (residential – bus route) 6.3m Van A 13.5 m Bus E

Local ► Local (Commercial/Industrial) 8.3m Truck A 17.9m Semi E

Local ► Arterial or Collector As above A As above D

Collector ► Collector
8.3m Truck A 10.3m Truck D
(Residential – no bus route)

Collector ► Collector (Commercial) 12.6m Rigid A 19.45m Semi D

Collector ► Collector
12.6m Bus A 13.5m Bus D
(Residential – bus route)

As Table 2 for As Table 2 for

Collector ► Arterial A D
the Collector the Collector

Arterial ► Arterial 19.45m Semi C, F 23m Truck & Trailer B, C

Table 3 TRACKING TYPE

Remain within marked lane, or allow safe encounter with conflicting Design vehicle where no
A
lane is marked

B Do not cross a marked centreline or flush median to penetrate opposing traffic lane

C May use adjacent lanes in same direction

D Conditions B, C apply on major (or crossing) road, E on minor (or terminating) road

E May use full road width to turn

For multiple turning lanes, Design vehicle and a 8.3m truck must be able to turn together without
F
penetrating opposing traffic lane

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 Urban and rural roadway design

PRINCIPLES FOR SWEPT PATHS Swept paths should be determined for the appropriate range of
design and check vehicle with tracking type controls on lane use,
and at appropriate turning speeds.
• Kerblines should follow swept path closely, with 0.5 m
clearance from wheel track, to minimise risk of wheels
damaging the kerb.
• Where a check vehicle is allowed to penetrate another traffic
lane, there shall be clearance to allow for the swept path of a
design vehicle using that lane.
• If that clearance is not available, encounter between a check
vehicle and a design vehicle must be at a low speed, with
visibility to enable one to stop and allow safe passage for the
other, including for visibility of other users (safe encounter).
OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS If a Design or Check vehicle will not fit all planning cases
effectively, it may be necessary to use an alternative design
vehicle, eg. a local road in a commercial area will require the
tracking of larger vehicles appropriate for a particular industry
served, residential streets providing service & delivery access to a
supermarket or other specific consented land use, or roads leading
to a boat ramp may require design for car and large boat trailer.
• It is acceptable to use variable drive speed to track the vehicle
if it is not the design vehicle (but not turning wheels at stop).
• Considerations must be given for emergency vehicle use at all
times, however they are not required to track fully in their lane.
• Where a body swept path overhangs a kerbline, protection for
path users must be provided, usually by a buffer strip.
• At signal controlled intersections, vehicle swept paths must
have regard to detector location.

4.2.1 SWEPT PATH GRAPHS FOR DESIGN VEHICLES

Graph 1 6.3M VAN - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

6.3m Truck
4
15kh
3.5 30kh
40kh
3
50kh

2.5
Lane width (m)

1.5

0.5

0
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164 174 184 194 204 214 224 234244254264 274 284294

Radius (m)

13
 Graph 2 8.3m TRUCK - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE
8.3m Truck
6
15kh
30kh
5
40kh
50kh
4
Lane width (m)

0
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164 174 184 194 204 214 224 234244254264 274 284294

Radius (m)

Graph 3 10.3m RUBBISH TRUCK - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

10.3m Rubbish Truck
6
15kh
30kh
5
40kh
50kh
4
Lane width (m)

0
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 103 113 123 133 143 153 163 173 183 193 203 213 223 233 243 253 263 273 283 293

Radius (m)

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 Urban and rural roadway design

Graph 4 12.6m BUS - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

12.6m Bus
8
15kh
7 30kh
40kh
6
50kh

5
Lane width (m)

0
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205 215 225 235 245 255 265 275 285 295

Radius (m)

Graph 5 12.6m LARGE RIGID TRUCK - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

12.6m Truck
6
15kh
30kh
5
40kh
50kh
4
Lane width (m)

0
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 185 195
Radius (m)

15
 Graph 6 13.5m BUS - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE
13.5m Bus
8
15kh
7 30kh
40kh
6
50kh

5
Lane width (m)

0
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164 174 184 194 204 214 224 234244254264 274 284294
Radius (m)

Graph 7 17.9m SEMI (RTS18) - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

17.9m Semi (RTS 18)
10
15kh
9
30kh
8 40kh

7 50kh
Lane width (m)

0
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 103 113 123 133 143 153 163 173 183 193 203 213 223 233 243 253 263 273 283 293
Radius (m)

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 Urban and rural roadway design

Graph 8 19.45m SEMI (HPMV) - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

19.45m Semi (HPMV)
10
15kh
9
30kh
8 40kh

7 50kh
Lane width (m)

0
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 103 113 123 133 143 153 163 173 183 193 203 213 223 233 243 253 263 273 283 293
Radius (m)

Graph 9 23.0m T&T - SWEPT PATH NO CLEARANCE

22.0m T&T (HPMV)
12
15kh
30kh
10
40kh
50kh
8
Lane width (m)

0
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 103 113 123 133 143 153 163 173 183 193 203 213 223 233 243 253 263 273 283 293
Radius (m)

17
 4.3 Visibility for safety
DEFINITION Sight distance is the distance along the path that the user takes
from a point of observation to a feature, obstacle, or another road
user. Sight distance can be calculated, based on the geometry of
the road, vehicle assumptions, driver behaviour and observation
of hazards.
For safety, sight distance must be long enough so that users can
react to any change in road condition, expected or unexpected in
a way that avoids harm to users, damage to vehicles and damage
to infrastructure.
Although a sight distance must be calculated and used to confirm
geometric design, it is the time taken to observe, decide and act,
and the time taken to evade, slow or stop, that are critical. Design
measures should ensure that sufficient time is provided, without
distractions, for safe action.
Visibility envelope is the vertical and horizontal line-of-sight
envelope that must remain clear between the observer and the
object, as the observer and/or object move along their paths.
SAFE ROAD USE Three particular road user tasks need to be assessed to ensure
road infrastructure can be used safely by all: –
1. Safe Path Each road user must be able to see the way ahead of
them to identify a safe path to follow, to choose, and to achieve
a safe speed to approach features.
2. Safe to Go When their path brings them into an area that may
conflict with other users such as an intersection or a crossing,
they must be able to see approaching users for long enough to
judge a safe opportunity to enter the conflict area.
3. Safe Avoidance They must be able to see unexpected
stationary or moving hazards that may be in their path, or
about to cross their path, in sufficient time to respond and
avoid collision.
DIFFERENT TYPES Austroads, Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design
OF SIGHT DISTANCE (GRD3); Austroads, Guide to Road Design Part 4A: Unsignalised
and Signalised Intersections (GRD4A); and Austroads, Guide to
Road Design Part 4B: Roundabouts (GRD4B) describe various
sight distances that are normally considered. They are grouped
below according to task type.
GRD3 also provides guidance on applying sight distances to
specific circumstances:
• Sight distances on horizontal curves
• Sight distances on horizontal curves with roadside obstructions
• Headlight sight distance (This should be consulted when
assessing safety on unlit roads)
• Horizontal curve perception sight distance
SAFE PATH Identify where a feature requires a reduction of speed from the
initial design speed. Ensure a Visibility Envelope sufficient for
observation and slowing at d=0.25 (Preferred).

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 Urban and rural roadway design

Confirm ability to stop or give way to a priority user movement

using Approach sight distance (ASD). Object may be varied form
limit line road marking, provided Observation time allows correct
judgement of the intended stop position.
Care should be taken to avoid misleading observation of the
path ahead, such as a bend which becomes tighter beyond the
visibility envelope of the initial observation. Crest vertical curves
can obscure the path ahead.
SAFE TO GO • Minimum gap sight distance (MGSD)
• Crossing sight distance (CSD)
• Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
• Intermediate sight distance
SAFE AVOIDANCE Within Safe Path speed, check Stopping sight distance of cars
and trucks (SSD) for hazards on or suddenly entering the road
On the approach to intersections, crossings or complex conflict
zones, check SSD with added observation time, or increased
coefficient d, rather than simple application of Safe intersection
sight distance (SISD), to show responses to the various
hazard cases.
USER TYPE Generally, safety is to be assessed for car drivers as the Design
Vehicle. Checks for Heavy Vehicles should be made in all cases
where they are a Design Vehicle, and any case where they are
a Check Vehicle and assessment is likely to be significantly
different from the Design Vehicle.
Assessment of speed and stopping characteristics of other User
types should be made using Urban Street & Road Design Guide.
SIGHT DISTANCE The formulas should generally be used as described in GRD3
FOR RURAL ROADS and GRD4A to generate the appropriate sight distances for the
road speed.
SIGHT DISTANCE Safe road use is more complex in urban streets. Opportunities
FOR URBAN ROADS for conflict are more frequent, change of path and speed are
more frequent and it may be necessary to react to a new hazard
while already changing speed or direction.
User tasks need to be identified and assessed in turn and
in combination.
OBSERVER POSITION The observer may be stationary or moving, and eye height will
vary with user type. Parameters from GRD3, GRD4A and GRD4B
should be used for eye height.
Where the observer is stationary, the position should be the
probable safe position, allowing 2.5 m from the front of a vehicle
and 1.0 m from the front of a cycle or pram for a footpath user
or cyclist.
When the observer is moving, the first point of observation
is located along the time path of the observer, using constant
speed, or reducing speed when responding to an intersection,
curve or other feature.
At intersections with limited visibility, the observer may make a
number of decisions to move forward, and observation position
should take account of likely behaviour, and whether this should
be allowed, or discouraged to avoid risk of blocking a conflict area.

19
 OBJECT POSITION Object size and distance must be considered, especially for high
approach speeds. This affects recognition of a hazard likely to
require action to avoid.
Fixed features may be on the ground, or vertical features.
Although calculation for approaching and intersection or
crossing generally requires observation of road markings at a
limit line, the definition of the object may be considered more
comprehensively to choose a speed reduction that will allow a
user to stop where necessary.
Traffic Control Devices should be deemed to supplement the
correct identification of features requiring slowing or stopping,
not substitute for observation of the feature.
A curve, traffic calming feature, intersection or crossing may be
considered as a whole, to assess what a user needs to observe to
correctly identify it and respond in time.
The object may be another road user, and may be moving. The
path of the other user, predictability of behaviour, and the time
taken to reach a point of conflict, must be considered in defining
the period of observation and reaction.
For Safe to Go, the “object” may be a gap in moving traffic.
MGSD requires that the gap must be visible to the observer
for long enough to correctly identify it and choose to proceed.
A correction may be made, to not proceed if the gap is then
judged too small. Safe Avoidance SSD can be assessed, for an
accelerating or constant-speed observer to be able to stop clear
of the priority user path. This should be checked where error
of judgement is likely due to restricted observation time, or
geometry likely to make speed estimation difficult.
OBSERVATION AND This varies for the three tasks, the road conditions and
REACTION TIME capabilities of different users.
A complex environment requires more features and risk areas to
be observed, but also results in greater alertness.
Observation of a moving hazard in the peripheral field of vision
causes a more rapid reaction to avoid harm – if the hazard
is observed.
Some hazards, such as approaching vehicles at a distance on
a straight road, curves passing out of field of vision, complex
intersections, or users who may move, stop or change direction
need more time to be observed and a decision made.
These factors must be considered when selecting times
for calculation.
FRICTION AND VEHICLE The sight distance calculations are greatly influenced by the road
surface coefficient of friction and the correct design vehicle.
Standard friction rates of 0.35 for cars and 0.26 for trucks should
be assumed to allow for variation of surface conditions over
time, and weather conditions.

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High-friction surfaces should be assessed with increased

coefficient of friction for Safe Avoidance only, as this performance
will not affect the choice of Safe Path deceleration rate.
Austroads GRD3 gives guidance for unsealed roads.
HAZARD OBJECT In good conditions, the sideways acceleration acceptable to a
CHECK VEHICLE single-occupant car driver is greater than the design friction
factor. A factor of 0.48g should be used to assess the path speed
of a 50%ile car approaching a Conflict Zone. This is necessary
to allow sufficient observation time of such a vehicle, regarded
as a moving hazard, and to assess the potential collision speed
for survivability.
Path speed is also affected by traffic calming and other
features. For straight, unobstructed roads, Initial speed can be
taken as 10 km/h above posted speed limit, as in conventional
design guidance.
INITIAL SPEED Initial speed is generally taken as the design speed for the road.
This should be adjusted down to the comfort speed on a curved
path, based on sideways acceleration.
Initial speed may be affected by another task already in
progress, such as reducing speed to make a turn. It is then
necessary to find the point along the user’s time path at which
a second calculation is needed such as Safe Avoidance of an
unexpected hazard.
For Safe Avoidance, a check may also be needed for 85%ile
speed, if this is significantly greater than design speed, which it
may be on a straight, wide road.
For Safe to Go, the initial speed may also be calculated from
stopped, as at a limit line or crossing.
DECELERATION RATE Road geometry should not be designed based upon braking
in an emergency. Departure from desirable deceleration may
require mitigation through design. This should generally include
ensuring no other departures locally affect safety.
The deceleration or acceleration rate rate is obtained by
multiplying g (9.81 m/s2) by a coefficient d.
Deceleration rate for Safe Path design should be d = 0.25
(2.5 m/s2).
Deceleration rate for Safe Avoidance assumes stronger braking
and is affected by sideways friction when turning, and by
road gradient.
A check may also be made for the maximum friction rate
available, depending on vehicle and surface, to assess
probability of stopping to avoid collision or reducing speed
sufficiently to avoid harm, if a collision is not completely avoided.
ACCELERATION RATE When considering acceleration of a design car from stationary,
or from an initial speed, for Safe Path or Safe to Go, use the
table below. This may apply to observer, object user, or both.
Coefficient d should be modified by adding 0.005 for each %
grade down, or subtracting 0.005 for each % grade up (0.0025
when speed greater than 50 km/h).

21
 Table 4

Initial speed Acceleration rate Coefficient d

(km/h) (m/s) (km/h/s) (m/s2)

≤40 ≤11.11 4.7 1.3 0.13

50 13.88 4.3 1.2 0.12

60 16.66 3.6 1.0 0.10

70 19.44 3.2 0.9 0.09

80 22.22 2.9 0.8 0.08

90 25.00 2.5 0.7 0.07

100 27.77 2.1 0.6 0.06

110 30.55 1.8 0.5 0.05

FINAL SPEED Final speed may be the comfort speed for a low-radius bend, the
manoeuvring speed for turning at an intersection, or stopped for
a signal control or give way control.
For Safe to Go, the final speed may be the Design speed at the
end of acceleration.
CONFLICT ZONE Identify the area bounded by overlapping user path dimensions.
This is the Zone within which two users may collide, unless
one safely gives way to the other. Sight distance is measured
along the time path of each user on the approaches to the
Conflict Zone.
Safe to Go assessment is made for each user who should give
way to another.
CONFLICT ZONE CLEARANCE Both observer and object may pass through a conflict zone
at different times when assessed for Safe to Go, and no harm
will occur.
However, a user may be blocked or stop and be unable to clear
the conflict zone as intended. Safe Avoidance assessment needs
to be made for this.
COLLISION If a collision is not avoided, design should seek to ensure that it
occurs at a speed that avoids serious injury to users. This may
occur when users do not take safe avoiding action. For this
reason, it is preferable that areas of conflict should be located
where user speed and kinetic energy are lowest.
ROAD/RAIL LEVEL CROSSINGS Specific controls for sightlines for road/rail level crossings are
included in the AUP.
ROAD SIDE Areas within the visibility envelope generated by a particular
CLEARANCE ENVELOPE sight distance must be kept clear of obstructions. Vegetation
must be maintained at a height no greater than 600mm above
ground level.
This is in addition to the clearance envelope for roadside
structures and vegetation to avoid them being struck by vehicles.

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4.4 Design for maintenance

Where utilities, and manholes in particular, have been given a
departure to be in the roadway then chambers and lids must not:
• Be placed in the wheel track
• At the deceleration or acceleration zones of an intersection
• In the middle of an intersection
Consideration must be given and demonstrated that routine
maintenance, such as resurfacing, can be achieved without
excessive traffic management. This will necessitate the review of
the wider network and establishing whether the designed road
widths, lengths, and intersections are appropriate and that full road
closures can be avoided or that any detours are short in length and
follow routes that can accommodate the diverted traffic.

4.5 Network utilities

Network Utility pipework and ducting will only be allowed in the
roadway where it is deemed to be of a transmission style, i.e. no
local connections to adjacent property lots or catch pits. All local
or distribution utilities shall be placed outside of the roadway,
within the space covered by berms and footpaths. Auckland
Transport will only consider a departure to these principles if the
applicant can clearly demonstrate that placing the utility network
within the roadway is a last resort and all over avenues, including
departures from other relevant codes, have been sought and
found to be impracticable.
Utilities that have been agreed by an approved Auckland Transport
Departure from Standard to be within the roadway need to be at a
minimum depth of 1m or outside of the road formation whichever
is greater. Evaluation of depth must include the effect of vibration
from compaction on the formation and the potential damage to
the utility network.
For details on utilities in the footpath and roadside, see the
footpaths and the public realm chapter.

23
 05 Geometric alignment

5.1 Horizontal alignment

Once the design speed has been established, the constraints
that will apply to the developed alignment can be determined.
These could include:
• Level constraints caused by site fronting the road;
• Headroom clearance at structures;
• Overhead and underground services;
• Drainage requirements;
• Neighbourhood planning;
• Land take; and
• Any public commitments
An initial alignment is prepared, taking in to account any pre-
agreed departures and then further relaxations and departures
can be established if required to achieve the best alignment. The
ability to seek departures near intersections is more restricted
and will require more detailed justification.
NOTES • There may be a requirement for curve widening.
• Negative chainage systems should not be used;
start the main alignments before the start of the works.
• Corner kerblines at intersections should have positive
chainages which relate to the minor or side road.
• The ideal alignment across any structure is straight. Avoid
small radii and transitions.
LEGIBILITY Horizontal alignment should be consistent with other roads of
the same Type. Where the Type changes or where a constraint
requires a change such as a tighter radius bend, ensure that
users have time to observe and understand the change and
adopt a Safe Path speed appropriate to the alignment. Avoid an
alignment that obscures a significant feature or hazard around
a curve that invites approaching at a speed too great to observe
and react to the hazard.

5.1.1 Urban Road Alignment

DESIGN SPEEDS For all urban roads with a design speed of 50 km/h or less,
50KM/H OR LESS the horizontal alignment may be based on straights and
circular curves. Lane lines and kerblines shall be determined or
confirmed by the use of vehicle tracking.
Table 2 Design Vehicles for Street Types, with Table 3, defines
controls on tracking to encourage safe encounters.
DESIGN SPEEDS On roads that may continue to have a higher design speed than
GREATER THAN 50KM/H 50 km/h in future, the designer may introduce transition curves
applicable to the higher design speed. Transition curves must be
calculated as outlined in the Austroads Guide to Road Design –
Part 3: Geometric Design.

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LOCAL & COLLECTOR ROADS In addition to the above design approach, the horizontal alignment
may form part of traffic calming measures. See Code of Practice:
Traffic Calming Devices & Local Area Traffic Management.
MINIMUM CURVE RADIUS The minimum radius for curves between intersections must be
calculated as outlined in the Austroads Guide to Road Design –
Part 3: Geometric Design. This requires calculation for Design
speed below 40 km/h.

5.1.2 Rural Road Alignment

SAFE ALIGNMENTS Rural road alignment should remain consistent through the
length of a road, or a change of character and geometry should
have a clear threshold.
Hazards should be made conspicuous, with signs or safety barriers
included where necessary. Bends and intersections should not be
obscured by vertical alignment.
HIGH SPEED RURAL ROADS Where the posted speed is 60kph or greater, then the geometry
should be designed in accordance with Austroads Guide to Road
Design – Part 3: Geometric Design

5.2 Vertical alignment

LEGIBILITY Vertical alignment should ensure that no features such as
bends, intersections or crossings are obscured beyond a crest
curve that cannot be clearly observed and understood by an
approaching user in sufficient time to adjust their approach path
and speed appropriately.
ALL RURAL ROADS For rural roads, the design of the vertical alignment must
be as outlined in Austroads Guide to Road Design – Part 3:
Geometric Design.
URBAN ARTERIAL ROADS > 50KPH The design of the vertical alignment must be as outlined in
Austroads Guide to Road Design – Part 3: Geometric Design.
ALL URBAN ROADS < 50KPH The design of the vertical alignment must be appropriate for the
site location.
Sag / Crest curves: Appropriately designed to achieve at least
the minimum rate of change of gradient for Design speed. Start
with Sag K value of 9 and Crest K value of 10 and reduce if
necessary. In addition, crest curves are to achieve Safe Stopping
Distance visibility.
NOTES Where traffic calming measures are required, refer to Engineering
Design Code - Traffic calming.

25
 5.3 Longitudinal gradients
ROAD DRAINAGE DESIGN The minimum acceptable longitudinal gradient is based on
acceptable road drainage criteria. See Engineering Design Code
- Road Drainage.
As much of the road network as is practicable should not exceed
PREFERRED GRADIENT 5%, to allow maximum accessibility for path users.
Where topography prevents this, a maximum grade over route
length of 8% may be acceptable.
Gradients steeper than 8% will require treatments for pedestrian
routes alongside the road.
These steeper gradients should only be used where acceptable
alternative accessible path routes are provided.
MAXIMUM GRADIENT Gradients should not be steeper than 8%, but may be increased
above 8% where topographical constraints exist.
Maximum gradient with departure from standard should be as low
as possible and may not exceed 12.5% for vesting as public road.

Camber, cross-fall
06 and super-elevation
6.1 Introduction
CARRYING WATER In addition to longitudinal fall, transverse fall is used to carry
rainfall from the road surface to the edge or edges of the road.
Without this, standing water may cause aquaplaning of vehicles
due the blocking of the tyre tread.
CROSS-FALL AND CAMBER Cross-fall and camber describe fall across the width of a road to
remove water from the surface.
• Cross-fall: Surface water is conveyed to one side of the road.
• Camber: Surface water is conveyed from the centre of the
road to the edges of the road. Camber is not a straight fall,
but rather a downward curve from the middle of a road
towards the edges. A road with camber is often referred to as
having a “balanced carriageway”.
TRANSVERSE GRADIENTS Transverse gradient refers to the angles of the fall in a camber or
cross-fall. The amount of upward curvature is rarely specified and
most geometric modelling software have no provision for doing so.
SUPER-ELEVATION Super-elevation refers to the use of transverse fall for safety and
passenger comfort when cars pass through bends – “banking”
to transfer some of the lateral forces of the movement into
downward pressure on the vehicle. Super-elevation should
always be preceded and followed by transition curves.

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6.2 Design considerations

6.2.1 Cambers and cross-falls

MINIMUM Because of Auckland’s high rainfall, minimum transverse

TRANSVERSE GRADIENT gradients of 3% towards the outer edge of the road should
normally be used on all sealed roads. However, where existing
features prevent this, the camber or cross-fall may vary between
2% and 4%. On unsealed roads, minimum transverse gradients of
4% towards the outer edge of the road should normally be used.
MAXIMUM The maximum transverse gradients are 5% for sealed roads and
TRANSVERSE GRADIENT 6% for unsealed roads respectively. Greater transverse gradients
require approved departure from Auckland Transport.

TRANSVERSE GRADIENT IN Transverse gradient steeper than 3% (up to 5%) is preferred on

RELATION LONGITUDINAL GRADIENT steep roads to encourage drainage towards the road channel.
Where longitudinal gradient is less than 1%, crossfall must not be
less than 3%, to encourage sheet flow to road edge.
INTERSECTION At intersections, the camber of the major road should take
priority and the minor road should be designed so that it grades
into the channel line of the major road.
If this cannot be achieved, the crown of the minor road should
not extend into the traffic lane of an arterial or collector road.
ADVERSE CROSS-FALL Adverse cross-fall (fall towards the outside of a bend) will not be
permitted on roads with design speed greater than 50 km/h.

6.2.2 Super-elevation

AUSTROADS GUIDE If super-elevation is to be used, it must be applied as outlined in

the Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design
Section 7.7 Super-elevation.
Super-elevation is not permitted on local or collector roads and
is unlikely to be required on arterial roads within urban areas.
MAXIMUM The maximum super-elevation should be limited to 5% in areas
where pedestrian movements are prevalent.
To achieve the design speed for the road, super-elevation on curves
is required where the longitudinal gradient is steeper than 8%.

07 Standard road configuration

7.1 Road reserve and public right of way
DEFINITION: ROAD “Road” is the legal name given to the strip of publicly owned
land between abutting property boundaries that is specifically
gazetted and vested to become a road. It generally includes the
roadway, as well as footpaths and berms.

27
 UNFORMED An Unformed Legal Road (or paper road) is a legally-recognised
AND PAPER ROADS road that is usually undeveloped but provides public physical and
legal access to a land allotment. Please see Auckland Transport
Unformed Road Policy for information on requirements.

7.2 Road reserve cross section

ELEMENTS The overall cross section of the road reserve is made up of:
• berms (which may include service trenches),
• footpaths and
• roadways.
Berms may include street furniture, vegetation and trees,
stormwater management devices, side slopes and retaining
structures; and landing pads for bus stops.
Footpaths may include cycle paths.
Berms and footpaths together are referred to as Roadside.
Roadways may include cycle lanes facilities, parking bays and
raised medians.
WIDTH The road reserve width is the combined width of all the different
elements and can often include additional unused width for
future capacity upgrades.
CONSISTENCY Street types provide guidance on elements and their
combination. Adjoining streets and lengths of street with similar
function should seek to maintain consistent overall width.
NARROW STREET A proposed carriageway 7.0 m wide or less is considered a
narrow street. If the carriageway is narrower than this, parking
may need to be restricted to only one side of the road. For
expected traffic greater than 50 vph or 500 vpd, on-street
parking bays shall be provided in narrow streets to meet
expected parking requirement and keep two traffic lanes free.
ROAD CROSS SECTION Typical cross sections and standard road reserve widths are
not provided here. These must be derived from the elements
necessary to meet the required level of service for all the design
objectives of the street type.
Where specific site constraints affect the width of road reserve
available, care must be taken to ensure that the width provided
for each element in the design does not create safety or service
deficiencies for any of the users to be provided for.
SEE ALSO Code of Practice Chapters on Pedestrians and the Public Realm,
Road Drainage and Bike Infrastructure.

7.3 Clearance envelopes

PURPOSE Clearance envelopes ensure that infrastructure is placed so that
it is not struck by road users passing by, causing injury, damage
to vehicles or damage to infrastructure.

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STANDARD CLEARANCES Clearance envelopes are shown in Standard Engineering Details

GD0001, GD0002 AND GD0003.
CLEARANCE FROM Vertical and horizontal clearances are shown on GD0001.
FIXED STRUCTURES
Generally, a horizontal clearance of 0.5 m beyond a vertical kerb
or road shoulder will be required to allow for any vehicle or road
user coming adjacent to that edge.
This may need to be increased in places, especially close to tight
bends, intersections, vehicle crossings, parking or loading zones
where the front or rear of a vehicle may overhang the road edge
by more than 0.5 m. Specific vehicle tracking should be used in
places where this effect is not easily defined.
CLEARANCE FROM Vertical and horizontal clearances are shown on GD0002.
VEGETATION
Clearance for vegetation requires an allowance for growth. Where
trimming or pruning may be required to maintain clearance,
this should allow for reasonable operational intervals between
inspection and trimming activities. The allowance should be at
least as shown, and should be increased if appropriate.
Clearance must also take account of deflection of vegetation
under wind and the weight of rain, and the risk of injury or
damage from this.
CLEARANCE ON Double-deck buses place passengers close to the extremity of
BUS ROUTES the clearance envelope. Additional clearance allowance should
be made, especially at intersections and at stops, for front and
rear overhang when turning.
Road crossfall may bring the top of a bus closer to infrastructure.
The camber clearance Design Tool should be used to determine
additional clearance for crossfall at specific locations.
OVERDIMENSION For Overdimension routes, the clearance envelopes must be
VEHICLE ROUTES in accordance with New Zealand Heavy Haulage Association
(NZHHA) Road Design Specifications for Over-dimensional Loads
or as agreed with AT Road Corridor Access. See also GD003.
STREET FURNITURE ZONE See Footpath, pedestrian facilities and the public realm chapter.
The street furniture zone should provide sufficient width for any
street furniture proposed or anticipated to be installed while
maintaining the clearances specified in this section. It may be
necessary to increase the width of the street furniture zone for
any items that require more than the specified minimum width,
to meet clearance requirements.

29
 7.4 Lane widths
VEHICLE LANE Vehicle lane width is measured between the centre of line
markings, and to the edge of road seal. A concrete drainage
channel is not to be included in traffic lane width.
INFLUENCING FACTORS Lane widths should be suitable for the road classification and
expected traffic volumes. They are generally between 2.7m and
4.2m. Lane width has a significant effect on operating speed.
A regional arterial is likely to have a high movement function,
therefore the lanes should be designed to allow vehicles to move
freely and safely.
A local road is more focused on the residents that use the area
to walk and play, so the lane configuration should be one that
creates a slower environment with narrower lanes.
Roads carrying bus routes, or a significant proportion of heavy
vehicles, will require lane widths suitable for the appropriate
Design Vehicles.
Generally, wider than 3.4 m can lead to poor channelling of
traffic, higher speed and reduced safety.
Width greater than the preferred should only be considered for
FTN bus routes or freight routes, or for interface with existing
road widths that cannot be amended.
A lane width greater than 4.2 m can lead to vehicles forming two
lines of traffic and generally should be avoided.
ARTERIAL ROADS For arterial roads, it is expected that the design vehicle shall
track within its lane at all times. The check vehicle shall be used
at curves to ensure that it does not cross the centre line (or lane
line on multilane roads).
URBAN LOCAL AND For local and collector roads, the design vehicle should generally
COLLECTOR ROADS be accommodated in lane unless bypassing an obstruction. The
check vehicle can occasionally track outside of lane and shall be
used to ensure that interactions between the paths of design and
control vehicles will result in safe encounters.
RURAL ROADS–GENERAL Safe clearance distance between the swept paths of vehicles
travelling in opposite directions must be provided, with regard
to visibility and approach speed. Judging the position of an
approaching vehicle on an unlit road at night can be difficult.
RURAL LOW For rural local roads with a design speed of 50km/h or less, the
SPEED LOCAL ROAD design vehicle should generally be accommodated in lane unless
bypassing an obstruction. The check vehicle can occasionally
track outside of lane and shall be used to ensure that interactions
between the paths of design and control vehicles will result in
safe encounters.
ALL OTHER RURAL ROADS Design and check vehicles should be able to remain within the
left side of the road, whether a centreline is marked or not.
CURVE WIDENING Curve widening additional to the lane widths given below may
be required at bends. On roads with bendy alignment, consistent
wider lanes may be preferable.
Minimum curve radius relative to Design Speed for each design
and control vehicle is given in Graphs 1–9 and shall be used for
all curves.

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APPLICATION OF Widening shall be determined for appropriate combinations of

CURVE WIDENING Design and Check vehicles as required in Tables 2 and 3.
Tracking width shall be determined from Graphs 1-9.
Figure 1 Application
of curve widening Clearances shall be added.
The outside kerbline should generally be a circular curve joining
approach and departure kerblines.
Widening should be developed by a straight line, tangential to
the inner radius of each lane. The start of the taper should be
set back from the outer tangent point by the length of the Check
vehicle, for each lane in sequence working inwards.
Reverse curve steering should not be required, except for speed
c
Wo
2c
c management measures or to deal with constraints that cannot
Wi Ri
Rc' be otherwise managed. If constraints require, the Check vehicle
Rc
Ro
may follow a path with reverse curve, but only if this is clearly
legible to the driver on approach.

Table 5 SPEED ENVIRONMENT > 50 KM/H

Rc = Alignment nominal radius
LT Ro = Outer kerb radius
Rc' = Derived centerline radius
Road Lane width Notes
Ri = Inner kerb radius
WL = Lane width on straight (to kerb)
WL WL C = Path clearance
LT 3.5m preferred The minimum width cannot be used
Wo = Outer path width Arterial
Wi = Inner path width 3.0m minimum on a bus or heavy freight route.
LT = Taper length

3.3m preferred Collector roads should rarely have a

Collector
3.0m minimum speed environment > 50 km/h.
Rc = Alignment nominal radius
Ro = Outer kerb radius
Rc1 = Derived centerline radius 3.1 preferred Local road speed environment > 50
Ri = Inner kerb radius Local
2.7m minimum km/h will be rural roads only.
WL = Lane width on straight (to kerb)
C = Path clearance
For speed environment > 50 km/h, shoulder must be provided.
Wo = Outer path width
Wi = Inner path width
LT = Taper lenght Table 6 SPEED ENVIRONMENT 50 KM/H OR LESS

Road Lane width Notes

3.2m preferred
Arterial
3.0m minimum Preferred width increased to 3.5 m on
FTN bus route or designated freight
route. The minimum width cannot be
3.2m preferred used on a bus or heavy freight route.
Collector
3.0m minimum

Preferred width increased to 3.5 m

for freight access to industrial land
3.0m preferred uses. The minimum width cannot be
Local
2.7m minimum used on a bus or heavy freight route.
Parking restrictions may be required
if the minimum width is used.

Note: Designers are required to use the Preferred width. The Minimum
width is a guide for Departure where existing site constraints prevent
achieving Preferred width.

31
 WIDE KERBSIDE LANES Wide kerbside lanes may be required for functions that change
through the day (e.g. a parking lane becomes a clearway at
certain times) or to allow people on bikes to share the lane with
other traffic. Redevelopment of existing roads may need to
address unmarked parking lanes. There are two ways of using
wide kerbside lanes to aid people on bikes.
• Parking prohibited at all times. In this case, the lane has
to be wide enough for motor vehicles to pass people on
bikes safely.
• Parking prohibited for parts of the day or week. The kerbside
lane has to be wide enough for people on bikes to pass parked
cars and to avoid opening doors, but not so wide that traffic
shares the lane with parked cars. (See Clearways below)
Wide kerbside lanes should be between 4.2 and 5.0 m wide.
Traffic lanes should not between 3.5 and 4.2 m wide (except for
specific curve widening).
Any kerbside lane exceeding 5.0 m width should be marked with
a parking shoulder edge line for lane discipline. A separate cycle
facility should be created where practicable.
Clearways can be reasonably safe for confident people on bikes
in the mid-block, but they introduce problems at intersections,
CLEARWAYS as cycle facilities crossing the side streets cannot be marked.
(People on bikes travel in a kerbside position during clearway
operating times, but outside of parked vehicles at other times.)
A more desirable solution is to provide a protected cycleway
where there is a clearway.
Figure 2 Clearway use by
people on bikes with parking
during off-peak periods.

Cyclists ride along the kerb during clearway operations

4.2m
min.

Clearway
operations
Vehicles move within this lane during clearway operation
4.2m
min.

Cyclists ride beside parked cars

outside of clearway operation times

BUS ROUTES Where the road is identified as an existing or potential bus route,
these lanes may have to be wider. Parking behaviour and traffic
composition may affect bus service reliability. Early discussions
with AT Metro are needed to ensure that bus movements are
provided for.

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7.5 Special vehicle lanes

ROADS & STREETS Special Vehicle Lanes have a defined usage and accessibility to
FRAMEWORK limited vehicle types. The criteria for special lanes in Auckland
are described in the Auckland Transport Roads and Streets
Framework. Width of lanes should based on the vehicles
authorised to use them and safe clearances from other traffic lanes.

7.6 Cycle facilities

AUCKLAND CYCLE NETWORK Roads with identified cycle networks must include suitable
facilities for people on bikes. All other roads may form part of
a local cycle network and must have appropriate provision for
people on bikes, including access to nearby cycle routes.
CYCLING Further guidance can be found in the Engineering Design Code -
INFRASTRUCTURE GUIDANCE Cycling Infrastructure.

7.7 Parking
KERB-SIDE PARKING Kerb-side parking can be provided within the road reserve in
different configurations – either parallel to the direction of travel
or perpendicular to the kerb.
A kerbside parking shoulder should be separated from traffic
lanes by parking bay or continuous shoulder markings.
PARKING DESIGN Parking standards applied to on-street car parks or Auckland
Transport owned car parks are described in the Engineering
Design Code - Parking. This includes turning tracks and the
appropriate dimensions.

7.8 Traffic islands

USES Traffic islands are raised features in the road that channel traffic.
They can be used to:
• Create safe zones for turning vehicles.
• Provide a refuge for pedestrians.
• Separate roads that intersect at an acute angle.
• Reduce speed.
• Prevent some movements totally, such as cars cutting a
corner at partially blind intersections.
RESTRICTED PARKING Parking must be restricted on the approaches and exits of traffic
islands so that the traffic lane is not compromised. “No stopping
at any time” should be marked over a length determined by
operating speed, road layout and appropriate sight distances.
VISIBILITY Traffic islands must have Keep-left signs placed at approach
ends and mountable kerbs must be painted with white reflective
paint for visibility when used on OD routes or arterial roads.
ROBUSTNESS Kerbs used to create traffic islands must be keyed into the road
surface by 60mm to prevent lateral shift on impact. Preformed
islands bedded direct to road pavement must be secured with
pins into the road surface.

33
 7.9 Medians

7.9.1 Flush medians

DEFINITION Flush medians are used to segregate traffic, while still allowing
vehicles to turn right into side streets and properties without
slowing the traffic flow. The drawback of flush medians is that
they limit side friction, so can often lead to higher speeds.
USE Flush medians should be provided only where the Roads and
Streets Framework has determined that:
• Separation of opposing road users is desirable for safety;
• right turning traffic is interfering with through traffic on the
arterial roads causing accidents or problems with delays;
• where the carriageway is excessively wide and there are no
other practical solutions.
Flush medians must not be used to encourage right turns across
multiple general traffic lanes, but may be used where this is
unavoidable such as arterials with bus lanes.
TURNING Where a flush median is meant to assist with turning movements,
a minimum width of 2.5m is required to safely accommodate the
design turning vehicle.
However, if the tail of a turning check vehicle will encroach on
the through lane to its left, consider increasing the median width
to prevent this.
If this is not practicable, consider reducing the median width so
that a turning check vehicle occupies through lane and median,
to avoid vehicles passing on the left being at risk from tailswing.
ACCEPTABLE WIDTHS The width of a flush median depends on the environment, as
shown in the table below.

Road Flush median width

2.5m where turning is allowed

Arterial
0.5m for buffer separation

Flush medians are not to be used except

Collector
locally for safety

Flush medians are not to be used at all,

Local Roads
visual narrowings should be provided.

TRAFFIC ISLANDS Traffic islands may be needed within a flush median to avoid the
median being used as a traffic lane.
On the approach to an intersection with a significant right turn
movement, a flush median may be used for extended right-turn
stacking where there is a high proportion of turning traffic. Right-
turn bay marking should be extended to accommodate most
queuing, and a traffic island may be needed to prevent right turning
traffic stacking beyond a point where other movements (e.g.
property access, or an opposing right turn) make stacking unsafe.
Pedestrian refuges may be provided at traffic islands, but
generally only for crossing a single traffic lane each side.

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7.9.2 Raised medians

SEPARATING OPPOSING TRAFFIC Raised medians are a way to segregate opposing traffic lanes
to improve safety and increase traffic flows. This is achieved by
preventing vehicles from turning right into or out of side roads/
private access and restricting access to concentrated points
along the route. Alternative routes should be available for those
needing to turn right or access properties.
WITHIN FLUSH MEDIAN A raised median can be constructed within a flush median should
additional protection be required.
PEDESTRIAN CROSSING Raised medians can also accommodate pedestrian crossing
points. The width must be appropriate for the expected volume
of pedestrians and to accommodate prams, wheelchairs and
where appropriate dismounted bicycles.
RESILIENT NETWORK Carriageways divided by a raised median must provide sufficient
width to deal with incidents such as broken down vehicles and
safe working areas for planned maintenance.
Where a carriageway consists of a single traffic lane, traffic must
be able to divert informally or by planned closure to other roads
that have capacity and are safe to use for the traffic type and
volume displaced by an incident.
A reinforced over-run area may be suitable in some cases for
incident resilience.
PEDESTRIAN Further design advice can be found in the Engineering Design
CROSSING DESIGN Code - Footpaths and the Public Realm.

7.10 Road shoulders

DEFINITION The road shoulder is an extension of the carriageway by a
minimum of 0.5m to provide structural support to the sealed
road. It is often used in conjunction with a clear zone, on
higher-speed or roads.
ACCEPTABLE WIDTHS The table below outlines the acceptable widths in
different situations.

Shoulder width Situation

Only to be used on low-volume rural roads when doing pavement overlays/

0.5 – 1.0m
rehabilitations.

The minimum width next to a safety barrier and the recommended minimum
1.0m
for most situations.

1.5m The preferred width for a sealed shoulder.

For use on higher speed and/or higher volume roads, particularly where
2.0 – 2.5m
vehicles have to be able to stop outside of the running lanes.

PARKING If parking is allowed in the road shoulder, the minimum safe zone
clearances must still be maintained.

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 CYCLING Where shoulders may be used by cyclists on rural roads, see
Cycling Infrastructure chapter
URBAN AREAS In urban areas, road shoulders should not be provided road
unless there is a good safety reason to do so and the Design
speed is 70 km/h or more.

7.11 Road safety barrier systems

ROAD SAFETY BARRIERS IN THE The purpose of roadside barriers is to improve safety for people
URBAN & RURAL ENVIRONMENT and the road or street environment. It serves to reduce the
severity of crashes by dissipating the kinetic energy of errant
vehicles. Barriers, however, in themselves pose a hazard and
provision of them needs to be balanced between the safety
benefits they provide as opposed to the safety hazards
they create.
Where a road safety barrier is required in the urban environment
(i.e. those roads and streets that are within the current urban
boundary as defined by the Auckland Unitary Plan), careful
consideration must be given to the nature and land use context
of the corridor as to whether the barrier and the supporting
terminals should be installed.
In the rural environment, provision of clear zone should be
considered first, and safety barrier limited to hazards that cannot
be protected by clear zone or other safety management.
The primary approach should be to consider whether the local
road or street environment can be managed through speed
management and roadway design changes. The approach
speed can often be reduced to the point that which a barrier is
not necessary and vehicles can safely navigate the environment
without needing additional protection. Speed management can
be achieved through the implementation of local area traffic
management and designed to ensure that drivers can respond to
hazards outside the carriageway in a safer manner.
If the operational speeds along the road cannot be reduced
sufficiently by local speed management controls then the
provision of barriers may be necessary. The provision of barriers
needs to be considered against the adjacent land uses, driveway
positions, accessibility arrangements and urban amenity.
Auckland Transport will not accept barrier installations where
other speed or volume reduction measures have not been
investigated first and it is agreed by Auckland Transport that
barriers are appropriate.
PURPOSE AND STANDARD The design of road safety barrier systems must be compliant
with ‘crash tested design’ or approved under Section 3:
Approval of Road Safety Barrier Systems of NZTA standards
for road safety. Changes to the crash tested, approved design
configuration will render the barrier system non-compliant with
the specification. All road barrier systems must be installed and
maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
STEEL GUARDRAIL Steel guardrail is to comply with the requirements of MASH1.
NZTA M23:2002 lists systems which are deemed to comply

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 Urban and rural roadway design

with this standard and refer to additional systems in AS/NZS

3845:1999. Systems not listed but which comply with MASH 1
are also deemed to comply.
CONSTRUCTION All guardrail installed is to be 2.7mm thick with posts at
1905mm spacings.
‘W’-section guardrails, backing pieces and splice bolts shall
comply with Specification NZTA M/17P for bridge guard rail.
RHS Sections for the posts and cable anchor fittings may be hot
rolled complying with NZS/BS 4848 or cold rolled complying
with AS1163.
Commercial grade nuts and bolts are to be used in the assembly
of the handrail/guardrail components and shall comply with AS
1111.1 and AS 1112.3. The bolts shall be property class 4.6 and
the nuts shall be property class 5.0. Special M20 bolts for cast in
brackets and U bolts shall similarly be of property class 4.6.
Timber posts, boards, bollards and block out piece shall be
Pinus Radiata No1 framing grade in accordance with NZS 3631,
treated to NZMP 3640 Hazard Class H4 after cutting and drilling.
Timber shall not be used unless its moisture content has been
lowered to below 20%, by kiln or natural drying.
AT requires Consultants and Contractors carrying out design
and/or supervision work involving road safety barriers to have
attained the NZTA “Barrier Design & Certification Qualification”
(BDCQ) which is applicable for design and have someone
available within their organisation will this qualification to sign
off road safety barrier designs and/or installations.
OTHER SYSTEMS Guardrail barriers and other systems that are not “pre-approved”
by Auckland Transport (AT), will be considered on a case-
by-case basis depending on the context of their proposed
application. Approval for their use must be obtained from the
Auckland Transport Departures Committee.
END TERMINALS/ Leading end terminals and trailing end anchors are to comply
END TREATMENTS with MASH1.
The appendix to NZTA M23 lists along with NRCHP350, the
current approved generic and proprietary terminal alternatives
and the Contractor shall seek approval from the Auckland
Transport Representative for the use of any proprietary system.
CONCRETE BARRIERS Where individual sections of concrete barriers are to be installed
or replaced the barrier shall be constructed so as to match the
adjoining barrier profile. If a length of barrier is to be replaced
the barrier length shall comply with the requirements of
NZTA M23.
OTHER REQUIREMENTS Road safety barrier systems must be designed and installed in
accordance with the following:
• AS/NZS 3845:1999
• NZTA M/23
• NZTA M/17P
• NZTA RTS5
• NZS 3109: 1997

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 • NZS 3114: 1987
• AUS3: 1997
• AS/NZS 1554.5:1995
• AS/NZS 1554.5:1995 A1
• NZTA’s Bridge Manual SP/M/022
• NZTA Geometric Design Manual, Section 7- Roadside Features
• NCHRP 350
• NZTA, RTS 11 – Urban Roadside Barriers and Alternative
Treatments
• AUSTROADS Guide to Road Safety
• AASHTO – Roadside Design Guide, 4th Edition 2011

7.12 Clear zones

DEFINITION Clear zones allow drivers to attempt to regain control if their
vehicle leaves the carriageway. It should be free of obstacles,
unless they are frangible and can break or collapse on impact.
STATE HIGHWAY Clear zone is measured from the outside edge of the lane and
GEOMETRIC DESIGN MANUAL includes any berms, batters and footpaths adjacent to it. The
required width depends on the site, as set out in the NZTA
State Highway Geometric Design Manual Part 6, section 6.5 The
Clear Zone.
RURAL ROADS All rural roads must have a clear zone as outlined in the NZTA
State Highway Geometric Design Manual.
URBAN ROADS While most urban roads do not require a clear zone, in some
circumstances where there are, higher speeds or a history
of crashes and vehicles leaving the carriageway, a clear
zone may be considered as part of any improvements to the
road. However, such a zone is a last resort if there are no
practical alternatives.

7.13 Cul-de-sac geometry

TO BE AVOIDED Cul-de-sacs should be avoided when designing new extensions
of the public the road network.
REQUIREMENTS If cul-de-sacs are required, pedestrian and cyclist accessways
must be included where possible to improve the permeability of
the transport network.
All cul-de-sac heads require a detailed design, showing levels
and dimensions.
MAXIMUM GRADIENT The maximum gradient in any direction within the turning area of
a cul-de-sac should not exceed 5%.
GEOMETRY Acceptable dimensions for standard turning heads are shown in
Standard Engineering Details GD series. Vehicle tracking is not
required for the design vehicles shown if these layouts are utilised.
An interim turning layout is included for residential local streets
that are to be extended as an approved planned development

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stage. This is not intended to be used as a permanent or long-

term turning head, where extension of that road is uncertain.
Other layouts that vary from these dimensions or are required
for design vehicles other than those given must be designed
with tracking for the appropriate Design vehicles in accord with
Section 4.2.
Parking near cul-de-sac can be provided in various ways, subject
to manoeuvring and safety issues. No Stopping controls must be
marked to the extent shown in the Standard Engineering Details
or sufficient to protect the swept path of Design vehicles used
for non-standard designs.

7.14 Footpaths and berms

ROADS AND STREETS Footpaths should be provided for network objectives described
FRAMEWORK in the Roads and Streets Framework
ROADSIDE DESIGN See the Urban Streets and Roads Design Guide and the
Engineering Design Code - Footpaths and the Public Realm for
requirements outside the roadway.
BERM Outside town centres, a rear berm may be provided next to
footpaths to carry the utility services.
A front berm may also be used as a buffer between footpath and
traffic lanes.
Embankment or cutting slopes may need to be included in
the road reserve, to meet the natural ground surface, unless
constructed and then returned to the adjoining property title.
Where a berm forms a buffer between the footpath and the kerb
and a bus stop is required, the position of the bus stop must
be agreed with AT Metro in advance of construction so that
appropriate platform can be built into the design. Platforms are
necessary to enable safe and efficient boarding and alighting of
customers to and from buses. See the Engineering Deign Code -
Public Transport: Bus Infrastructure.

08 Kerb and channel

8.1 Purpose of a kerb and channel
The primary purpose of a kerb and channel is to provide:
• Storm water control.
• An edge restraint for the pavement.
• A visual definition of the edge of the carriageway.
• A barrier to prevent vehicles crossing onto the footpath
or berm.
KERB AND CHANNEL It is essential that the Auckland Transport Kerb and Channel
GUDELINES Guidelines (PDF 71KB) are read via the embedded hyperlink
before reading the rest of this section.

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 8.2 Design requirements

8.2.1 Urban roads

BOTH SIDES Kerbs and channels or stubs must be provided on both sides of
the full length of all urban roadways, as outlined in the Auckland
Transport Kerb and Channel Guidelines and the appropriate
standard details for the function of the road.
SEE PLANS Standard Engineering Details series KC show standard details of
kerbs and channels.
KERB TYPES Select the type according to the table below.

Kerb
Situation
Type
General use to separate roadway from roadside, where surface water
1 Standard kerb & channel is to be conveyed to a collection point. May not be suitable for design speed >
60 km/h.
Any location where the back of the kerb is not supported its full height
1A Reinforced haunching
by concrete paving or planted berm.
1C On side Only for vehicle crossings that must be trafficked soon after construction.
Where a kerbline may be subject to vehicle strike, unless fully backed
1S, 2S Shear Key
by rigid paving.
2A Battered kerb & channel As Type 1, where it is likely that vehicle tyres may rub.
2B Mountable kerb & channel As Type 1, but where vehicles may occasionally cross the kerbline.
General use to separate roadway from roadside, where surface water
Extruded standard
3 is to be conveyed to a collection point. May not be suitable for design speed >
kerb & channel
60 km/h.
Cut-down of Type 3 where installed continuously where a vehicle
4 Vehicle crossing
crossing is to be constructed.
Extruded mountable
6 As Type 3, but where vehicles may occasionally cross the kerbline.
kerb & channel
Extruded standard As Type 3, but where a channel is not required for surface
7
kerb and nib water conveyance.
Extruded standard Cut-down of Type 3 where installed continuously where a vehicle
7
kerb vehicle crossing crossing is to be constructed.
8 Edging Edging between footpath and planted berm.
9 Edging nib kerb Transition beam at end of Type 12 kerb on bridge.
As Type 1, but where a channel is not required for surface
10 Standard kerb and nib
water conveyance.
Edge of paved areas frequently over-run by large vehicles
11 Traversable kerb
(such as roundabout islands).
Across bridge decks or atop retaining walls, where a vehicle
12 Safety kerb
containment kerb is required.
Kassel Kerbs® should be used for all bus stop, both new and when
13 ‘Kassel’ bus stop kerb
being renewed. See HYPERLINK
14 Cycle path angled kerb At edge of cycle path.
15 Cycle path mountable kerb At edge of cycle path where cyclists frequently cross.
Edge containment for pavement construction where road layout does not require
16 Flat edge beam
vehicle containment or separation of roadway from foot or cycle path.
Mountable Kerb for Specific mountable kerb for use on traffic islands, pedestrian refuges and
17
Over-dimension routes central islands on roundabouts on official Heavy Haulage over-dimension routes.

Note: Alternative designs for special purposes must be submitted as Departure from standard.

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Pre-cast or stone kerbs, or extruded equivalent types, should

be chosen to suit the circumstances of the project, (location,
construction methods, adjoining features that should
be matched).
Stone kerbs are not to extend across vehicle crossings, bike or
pram ramps.
CHANNEL TYPES Channels are to be used only where needed for road drainage
Select the type according to the table below.

Channel
Situation
Type

Standard kerb General use to separate roadway from roadside, where surface water is to be
1
& channel conveyed to a collection point.

Extruded standard General use to separate roadway from roadside, where surface water is to be
3
kerb & channel conveyed to a collection point.

5 Pram Crossing Any location where footpath or cycle path is to cross a roadway

17 V-dish Where Type 1 or 3 kerb is interrupted by parking bays.

Between paved areas that fall towards the channel eg.

18 Deep V-dish
large car parks.

19 Round dish In shared or pedestrian paved areas.

8.2.2 Pram and cycle crossings

At pram and cycle crossings, the kerb must form a V-shaped

channel with raked sections at either side. A flush transition with
no lip must be provided between the footpath and the channel.
The length of any transition kerb will be affected by acceptable
grade of berm or footpath behind the kerb.
TRANSITIONS Where different kerb or channel types meet, transition sections
are required, generally 600 – 1200 mm long.
The shape of the transition should provide for safety of users,
avoid trips or sharp corners that may damage wheels.
Care is needed with surface levels where heights of adjoining
types differ, and so that channel drainage can continue without
ponding or siltation.
When using Kassel Kerbs the specific Kassel transition blocks
must be used as per the manufacturer’s specification, or an
in-situ concrete transition to suit the adjoining kerb profile
if necessary.
FURTHER GUIDANCE The detailing of pram crossings is dealt with in more detail in
Footpath, pedestrian facilities and the public realm chapter.

8.2.3 Kerb extensions and indentations

PARALLEL Kerbs must be parallel to the centreline of the road. The only
exception is transitional angles where the road width changes or
where the kerbs are tied in to the existing kerb line.

41
 USES Kerb extensions and bays may be formed to provide:
• pedestrian crossing points
• local area traffic management
• parking bays
• amenity planting areas
• bus kerb extensions and inset bays
• swales or other storm water control devices.
Kerb extensions must not cause hazards for road users,
particularly for cyclists. Also pay attention to road marking,
signage and lighting as they may need improvement.

8.2.4 Rural roads

Kerbs and channels will generally only be required in rural areas:

• Where grades are steeper than 8%
• In cuttings to minimise earthworks
• In areas of potential instability
• To direct water to suitable discharge points
• At signed or marked bus stops to provide a platform for
passengers to board or alight from a bus.

09 Vehicle crossings
DEFINITION Vehicle crossings provide a way for vehicles to enter and exit land
next to the road boundary. They are located between the edge of
the roadway and the road corridor boundary, across footpaths or
berms. Vehicle crossings must not compromise the design criteria
for existing or future bus facilities, footpaths or cycleways.
UNITARY PLAN Any vehicle crossing must comply with controls in The Auckland
Unitary Plan or hold valid a Resource Consent.
CROSSING TYPES All vehicle crossings must be designed in accordance with
the relevant Vehicle Crossing (VC) drawing contained in the
Engineering Design Code - Standard Engineering Details.
WIDTHS A driveway crossing must be no wider at the boundary than it
needs to be, e.g.
• A two-way driveway in a residential zone that is 5.5m wide
will require the crossing to be 5.5m at the boundary or may
be narrowed to 2.75m if there are passing places with clear
sight lines.
• One way access in a centres/mixed use zone may only need
to be 3m wide.
• Access to a car park or petrol station that also provides truck
delivery access should restrict the width available for car
access by means such as over-run paving, to manage turning
speed, vehicle path and safety of footpath users.
DESIGN VEHICLE Design Vehicles should be selected from Section 4.2 according
to land use.

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The standard design vehicle for residential vehicle crossings is the

85%ile car. Note that a larger vehicle may be desirable, depending
on land-user specific requirements, such as a boat trailer.
Where an oblique change of grade occurs that differs between
the left and right wheel tracks of the Design vehicle, any wheel
of the vehicle must be not more than 120 mm above or below a
plane defined by the surface level at the locations of the other
three wheels.
GEOMETRY Crossing flare should be optimized to produce the minimum
turning speeds and swept paths for the road environment.
PRIORITIES The pedestrian path through route should be continuous in
grade, cross-fall, colour and texture across the driveway, with
no tactile warning indicators; the vehicle crossing and driveway
must be considered subservient to the pedestrian through route.
PATH THROUGH-ROUTE The levels and width of the pedestrian through route should not
be altered, except that the width may be reduced to not less
than 0.9 m where necessary to provide the vehicle ramp down to
the channel line.
Path crossfall should be 1-2% where possible, or within ± 3%
where constrained.
For steep driveways requiring a change in the level of the
footpath through the crossing, footpath ramps either side of the
crossing should not exceed a grade of 8%. If this is not possible,
the grade should not exceed 12% and the level difference at this
Figure 3 Dropped footpath
grade should not exceed 75 mm. Check surface water flow depth
for steep driveway to avoid flood nuisance.

Parallel ramp Landing Parallel ramp

Flare Ramp Gutter

LOCATION Vehicle crossings should be located so that drivers entering

and leaving have adequate sight distances along the adjacent
footpath, cycleway and road.
ROAD CHANNEL Where adjoining kerbline has a drainage channel, the channel
profile shall be continued across the vehicle crossing.
If existing precast concrete kerbing can be removed without
disturbing the existing channel, the channel may be retained for
residential crossings.
In all other cases, existing channel must be removed and the
adjoining road edge reinstated.

43
 INFRASTRUCTURE Infrastructure such as catchpits, poles, fences and manholes
must be at least 1 m from any part of a vehicle crossing. Avoid
affecting existing infrastructure if possible.
Any infrastructure that cannot be avoided will require mitigation
measures If network utilities are affected approval from the
relevant Network Utility Operator is required.
RETAINING STRUCTURES Driveway designs should take all reasonable measures to reduce
the need for retaining structures or level adjustments. However,
should this be considered too onerous, any proposed structure
will be subject to an encroachment notice. In this case, all future
maintenance, renewal, removal costs, etc. must be borne by
the property owner and placed as an encumbrance on the
property file.
GRADE Consideration shall also be given to the grade of the driveway
to help prevent vehicles scraping and storm water entering
the driveway.
If existing road crossfall exceeds 3%, the grade of the 900 mm
ramp from the channel shall be reduced from 15 % so that the
grade change at the channel does not exceed 18%.
STORM WATER CONTROL Vehicle crossings over roadside drains must be designed and
constructed in accordance with Road Drainage chapter
SURFACE WATER FLOW The driveway should ramp down from the footpath across the
kerb line to the channel invert with a freeboard of 200mm (i.e.
height above the channel) to contain storm water within the
road. Development or redevelopment of a vehicle crossing must
not result in changing the flow of surface water in the roadway,
unless alternative drainage is provided. Care should be taken
to avoid flow from the roadway discharging onto property
if it does not currently do so, or from adjoining land into the
roadway. Where surface water discharges from the roadway
onto adjoining land as overland flow, this must not be reduced or
redirected to another property without Resource Consent.
CATCHPITS Catchpits should not be located within the width of a vehicle
crossing. Where a proposed crossing affects an existing catchpit,
the catchpit shall be relocated to the side of the crossing. In
any event the catchpit must be installed in a bus and cycle
friendly manner.
SCOUR AND EROSION Where the vehicle crossing is in a rural environment, no silt,
gravel or debris of any kind may run from the property onto the
roadway or into drains.
PRIVATE DRIVEWAYS Any private driveways must be designed following the
appropriate grades for private driveways in The Auckland
Unitary Plan.
REDUNDANT CROSSINGS If a vehicle crossing is made redundant by the alteration to land
next to the road boundary, the property owner must be required
to give up the licence or permit associated with that crossover.
The crossing should then be replaced to match the existing
footpaths and kerbs.

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10 Intersection design & types

10.1 General principles
USRDG Good intersection design is based on sound geometric design
INTERSECTION PRINCIPLES and user criteria where safety is a primary consideration.
Intersections principles are:
• As compact as possible
• Part of a multi-modal network
• Integrate time and space
• Intersections are shared spaces
• Design for context
See the USRDG for more detail on these.
DESIGN APPROVAL The designer must provide evidence that the design will meet
capacity, safety and turning movements of intended vehicles
and all other road users.
TRAFFIC MODELLING Traffic modelling must show that the design can mitigate
the effects of existing traffic and that generated by new
development unless directed otherwise by Auckland Transport
Planning and Investment Division. Where applicable,
consideration should be given for future network traffic change,
with an appropriate design year to be approved by Auckland
Transport. The assessment could include intersection modelling,
using appropriate software.
INTERSECTION CAPACITY Where AT set target capacities for a route, or intersections
on a route, new intersection design should provide capacity
appropriate for the network locally. Generally, capacity should
be consistent with that of adjoining intersections except where
improvements to these are planned through a network plan,
structure plan or project.
INTERSECTION SAFETY Proposed intersections must be evaluated using the Safe System
Assessment Framework. Intersection type and layout should
ensure survivable conflicts while providing the required Level of
Service for all user types.
CORNER KERBLINES While catering for appropriate design and check vehicles, urban
corner kerblines should be kept compact to minimise vehicle
speeds and pedestrian crossing distances.
Kerblines should be designed to suit the effective swept path of
design and check vehicles, tracking in accord with the Design
Control section above.
The Compound Corner template, contained in the Engineering
Design Code - Design Toolbox shows how corner kerblines
can be designed for many urban local streets, collector and
commercial streets. Urban Arterial streets may require specific
design using the same principles:

45
 • Swept paths should be determined for the appropriate range
of design and check vehicle with controls on which vehicles
must remain within lane constraints, and at appropriate
turning speeds.
• Kerblines should follow swept path, with 0.5 m clearance from
wheel track, to minimise risk of wheels damaging the kerb.
• Body swept path should be used for lane constraints
• Where a check vehicle is allowed to penetrate another traffic
lane, there shall be clearance to allow for the swept path of a
design vehicle using that lane.
• If that clearance is not available, encounter between a check
vehicle and a design vehicle must be at a low speed, with
visibility to enable one to stop and allow safe passage for the
other, including for visibility of other users.
• Where a body swept path overhangs a kerbline, protection for
path users must be provided, usually by a buffer strip.
It is also possible to achieve the compound corner using a smaller
radius circular curve and adjacent roadside features. In this case,
it is a requirement that both intersecting roads have on-street
parking or similar that creates the wider effective radius. See
the Urban Street and Road Design Guide: Chapter 6 Intersection
Geometry - Effective Turning Radius for an example of this.
The drawings show grid lines allowing assessment of
clearance widths.
The compound corner template must be used for all intersection
designs unless a departure from standard has been submitted
and approved.
KERB CROSSINGS Kerb crossings must be provided at each kerb-line at all
intersections as outlined in the Engineering Design Code -
Footpaths and the Public Realm and NZTA RTS 14. They must be
located to ensure adequate sight distances for both pedestrians,
cyclists and drivers. Pram crossings should generally be located
to provide the shortest crossing distance, but also in a location
where visibility is not restricted by parked vehicles, buildings,
walls or vegetation. Tactile indicators must be provided at all
pram crossings, and also guide indicators where needed to lead
to all safe and universally-accessible crossings.
RAISED TABLE CROSSINGS Raised table crossings may be used:
• Where footpath or cycleway users have priority over
turning traffic
• Where there are large numbers of path users and low turning
traffic volume
• Where corner kerblines and road widths do not provide
desired turning speed control
Their use must consider differential design speeds of through
and turning traffic, effect on through traffic capacity, visibility
and safety of path users.
It is expected that raised tables are to be installed on all local side
streets that connect to collector or arterial street types. See Code
of Practice: Local Area Traffic Management for further details.

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PARKING NEAR INTERSECTIONS Line markings for No stopping at any time must be provided
over sufficient length to ensure parking does not occur within
the swept paths of design or check vehicles.
It is preferable that corner kerblines should define traffic lanes,
and that parking should have indented bays with kerbline return
to the traffic lane.
Where existing streets have continuous parking shoulders
without returns near intersections and only where the existing
kerbline cannot be altered, the swept path of design and
check vehicles must be kept clear by No Stopping At Any Time
markings and the corner kerbline must be designed to match the
swept path. This will generally be a small radius curve.
LEFT TURN SLIP LANES In an urban location, left turn slip lanes should only be provided
where there is clear traffic and/or safety justification. They should
be avoided where there are high pedestrian volumes. If provided,
a left-turn slip lane must be designed considering pedestrian
safety and convenience and appropriate sight distances must
be achieved. A zebra crossing should usually be provided to
give priority to pedestrians. A one-way table must be used to
emphasise the crossing and manage vehicle speeds.
DESIGN FOR MAINTENANCE This requires:
• understanding maintenance activities; routine, renewal and
utility access
• designing for safe and economical activities
• designing for efficient Traffic Management
• resilience of network during maintenance.
Infrastructure, especially access chambers and pole-mounted
assets, should be located to minimise exposure to damage and for
safety of workers and road users.
SELECTION OF Each new or upgraded intersection should be evaluated to
INTERSECTION CONTROL determine the most appropriate form of intersection control.
A robust assessment of all options is necessary, giving due
consideration to effects on the wider road network. Level of
service for all road users must be considered, and performance
in traffic conditions on different days and times of day. The
Safe System Assessment Framework must be used to ensure
potential conflicts are survivable while providing the required
Level of Service for all user types.
AUSTROADS GUIDE Designers are referred to the Austroads Guide to Traffic
Management Part 6 – Intersections, Interchanges and Crossings,
which provides guidance on selecting the type of intersection
and their functional design.
TRAFFIC CONTROL Legislation for intersections in New Zealand is covered by the
Land Transport Rule: Traffic Control Devices 2004 (TCD rule).
Further requirements for signs and markings are provided in the
Traffic Control Devices Manual.

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 10.2 Priority controlled intersections
AUSTROADS GUIDE The rules and requirements contained in this code will take
precedence over any other standard unless agreed by departure,
however Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 4A: Unsignalised
and Signalised Intersections may be used to supplement this code.

10.2.1 Geometry

SIGHT DISTANCE Sight distances at intersections must comply with Sight

distances in Design parameters above. Any existing intersection
to be altered must comply, or must seek approval for Departure.
INTERSECT AT 90° Intersections must be designed so that the side road enters the
through road at preferably 90° and generally no less than 80°.
Where constraints prevent this, a specific design to meet General
principles must be developed.
COMPOUND CORNERS The use of narrow traffic lanes and design for safe speeds in the
urban environment means that circular arc corners are seldom
satisfactory. Speed is often unacceptably high for 50%ile car,
crossings for people on foot or on bike are too long or too far
into the side street and kerbs are subject to vehicle damage. The
compound corner templates in GD004 have been developed to
suit urban intersections for the design and check vehicles most
commonly using them. Where these templates are used for
the conditions and vehicles specified, no tracking drawings are
required. Tables 1, 2 and 3 should be used. Traffic lane widths
can determine which compound elements are required.
Staggered intersections must be offset by at least 15m from
centre line to centre line, and the offset should be increased to
accommodate anticipated vehicle movements (e.g. bus, truck
swept paths; turning traffic queues). Offset direction should
preferably be left onto main road then right into side road. Offset
may need to be increased to ensure vehicles follow safe paths at
safe turning speeds.
Crossroad intersections on high-speed or high-volume roads
should be avoided.
CURVES Intersections on curves should be avoided, particularly where the
side road is on the inside of the curve. Specific geometric design for
vehicle tracking is required, based on compound corner principles.

10.2.2 Sign control

TRAFFIC CONTROL The Traffic Control Devices Rule applies under all circumstances,
DEVICES RULE as does the design guidance of the Traffic Control Devices
Manual, which currently includes the Manual of Traffic Signs
and Markings (MOTSAM). Stop control must be provided where
required and as directed in these documents.
STOP SIGN CONTROL Stop signs are required:
• at blind intersections where lack of visibility makes it unsafe*
to approach the intersection at a speed greater than 10 km/h;
• at intersections of an unusual layout or unusual traffic pattern
where it is essential to give one controlled approach priority
over another controlled approach.
Stop sign control must be resolved by the Traffic
Control Committee.

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*Note: Deemed unsafe if, from a point 9 metres from the intersection
limit line on a controlled approach, a driver cannot see a vehicle on an
uncontrolled approach at a distance (in metres) of 1.2 times the 85%ile
operating speed (in km/h) of vehicles on the priority route.

CROSSROADS All crossroad intersections must have a stop or give way control
as a minimum.
OTHER INTERSECTIONS All other intersections must be controlled by give way signs
and markings as a minimum, except where all of the following
criteria apply:
• The priority road has less than 2000 vehicles per day.
• The adjoining road has less than 500 vehicles per day.
• The approach visibility meets safe intersection sight
distance standards.
* Note that this does not apply to rural situations.

10.3 Roundabouts
DESIGN GUIDE The rules and requirements contained in this code will take
precedence over any other standard unless agreed by departure,
however the following geometric standards and advice notes
may be used to supplement this code:
• Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 4B: Roundabouts,
• NZTA Guidelines for marking multi-lane roundabouts
• NZTA Manual of Traffic Signs and Markings.
SAFETY Generally speaking, a well-designed roundabout is safer than
other forms of intersection. This is particularly true in high-speed
environments, as roundabouts can reduce vehicle speeds.
When designing urban roundabouts, extra care must be taken to
ensure vehicle speeds are at or below 25 km/h.
Entry speed on all arms should match closely to circulating
speed and not be significantly greatre than the slowest users
(cyclists, buses or trucks), and reduction from approach speed to
entry speed should be managed in stages if necessary.
URBAN ARTERIAL ROADS If well implemented, roundabouts can be an appropriate form
of control at urban arterial intersections, but all options must
be assessed.
DESIGN SPEED An appropriate design speed is critical to ensure safe operation
of a roundabout. Current Austroads guidelines advise lowering
entering speeds to match circulating speeds. Speed on the
approach and exit of a roundabout is typically controlled by
horizontal deflection, but in certain circumstances vertical
deflection can be used. The appropriate form of speed control
must be evaluated for each site.
SIGHT DISTANCE Decision-making by drivers and other road users is critical to
safe operation. Time to point of conflict is affected by speed, so
ensuring low speed improves safety by reducing required sight
distance. Consideration must be given to the number of potential
hazards to be observed, and the direction of sight to those
hazards, to simplify the decision to proceed. Meeting safety
criteria for visibility may also improve capacity performance in
safe gap acceptance.

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 SIZE The size of a roundabout has a significant role in
capacity performance.
Generally, larger roundabouts provide greater capacity.
Roundabouts can be signalised or metered to aid management
of traffic flow. However, it may not be possible to retrospectively
signalise some smaller roundabouts.
Existing roundabouts can often be improved in both capacity
and safety by increasing island diameter.
CYCLISTS AND PEDESTRIANS Cyclist safety and pedestrian amenity can be compromised
at multi-lane roundabouts and these users require
special consideration.
Single-lane roundabouts should be used unless capacity requires
multi-lane design.
In town centre environments or near schools, particular
attention should be given to ensure crossing points are designed
conservatively to take into account vulnerable users. These
pedestrians may be less mobile and/or less able to judge traffic
speed and driver intentions.
Options for pedestrian crossing facilities at roundabout include:
• Pedestrian refuges
• Zebra
• Signalised crossings
• Raised table crossing points. These help to minimise vehicle
speeds and reduce the risk of crashes. They should always
be considered on multi-lane approaches and exits. But not
on bus routes.
Where desire lines to serve the local network for cyclists and
pedestrians can be moved away from a roundabout, a mid-block
crossing may be effective at a safe distance from the roundabout.

10.4 Signal controlled intersections

and crossings
GEOMETRY Use Tables 1, 2 and 3 to determine vehicle path requirements.
Geometry should be designed as 10.2.1 but with additional
considerations for signal phasing. Vehicles cannot cross into
lanes that will be occupied by stationary vehicles held by signals.
DESIGN APPROVAL The process for design, review and approval of a traffic signals
design is documented in the Auckland TMU Traffic Signal Design
Review Guidelines.
KEY REFERENCE DOCUMENTS The Auckland Transport Traffic Signal Specification covers the
requirements of all signal equipment including: local signal
controller and cabinet, detectors, lanterns, target boards, visors,
poles and push-button assemblies. This specification also covers
the installation and commissioning of traffic signals, ducting and
associated equipment including the supply of all materials, tools,
plant, labour and supervision for the works as outlined in the
contract specification and any relevant basis of payment.
DESIGN GUIDE Traffic signal controlled intersections must be designed as
outlined in:
• Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 4A: Unsignalised and
Signalised Intersections

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• NZTA Traffic Control Devices Manual

National Traffic Signal Specification dated November 2012;
Revision 3.
AUCKLAND TRANSPORT The National Traffic Signals Specification (NTSS) shall be varied
SPECIFICATION VARIATIONS as follows:
• NTSS R3 2.3.1: All new traffic signal controllers must be RMS
specification TSC4 compliant.
• NTSS R3 2.7: All traffic signal poles must be painted, not
powder coated.
• NTSS R3 2.7: Finial caps of metal are not acceptable.
• NTSS R3 2.7: Finial caps must be fastened so that they cannot
be removed if fastening bolts are loose.
AUCKLAND TRANSPORT In addition to the above key reference documents, Auckland
DESIGN GUIDELINES Transport’s specific requirements are currently based on the
TMU Traffic Signal Design Guidelines dated August 2010 V3.0
with the following variations:
• 3.2: All overhead lanterns must be 300mm in diameter.
• 3.2: Lantern bodies can be of aluminium or
polycarbonate construction.
ADDITIONAL • All new traffic signals are to be provided with a
AUCKLAND TRANSPORT communications link to SCATS.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS • All new traffic signal controlled intersections will require a
CCTV camera and associated equipment to connect to the
Auckland Traffic Operations Centre (ATOC).
• All new traffic signal controlled intersections will require
an ADSL/VDSL connection to the Auckland Traffic
Operations Centre.
• Alignment is important and intersections must be sited such
that the side road enters the through road preferably at 90°
and generally no less than 80°.
• Pedestrian crossing facilities must be provided on each leg of
intersections located in town centres, and should be provided
on each leg in other situations.
• Pedestrian countdown timer lanterns may be used at
signalised mid-block crossings and at intersections operating
an exclusive pedestrian or ‘Barns Dance’ phase. They are
not to be used on two stage pedestrian crossings, or at
intersections that do not operate with an exclusive pedestrian
phase. They should be used in town centres, near public
transport interchanges, near schools or at any other location
with high pedestrian movement. The use of countdown timers
requires approval from the Delegated Manager.
• In areas where high pedestrian demand is expected (such as
town centres and near schools), new signals shall be designed
to operate at a cycle time of no more than 100s. If operating
at cycle times higher than 100s phasing shall be designed so
that all pedestrian movements can be called twice per cycle.
GUARANTEE Any new equipment supplied and installed by the contractor
must be guaranteed against defective materials and
workmanship for 12 months from the date of installation. The
exception is LED modules of vehicle and pedestrian lanterns
which must be guaranteed for 5 years. The guarantee must also
cover the installation of the equipment supplied.

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 During the guarantee period, the contractor is responsible for
making good any defects at no charge to Auckland Transport.
Auckland Transport is entitled to recover any costs it incurs in
rectifying faulty equipment, materials or installation during the
guarantee period.
The contractor’s guarantee must not become invalid as a result
of an alternative contractor servicing the equipment.

10.5 Grade separation

USE Grade separated intersections are occasionally necessary to
provide adequate capacity at major intersections. This form
of intersection provides maximum vehicle throughput and
minimises vehicle delays. However, this can be at the expense of
pedestrian and cyclist amenity.
APPROVAL Any proposal for a grade separated intersection needs approval
from the Auckland Transport Chief Engineer.
DESIGN GUIDE Grade separated intersections must be designed as outlined in
Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 4C: Interchanges.

10.6 References/guidelines
• Austroads Guide to Road Design, in particular the
following parts;
o Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design
o Guide to Road Design: Part 4 Intersections and
Crossings – General
o Guide to Road Design Part 4A: Unsignalised and
Signalised Intersections
o Guide to Road Design Part 4B: Roundabouts
• Austroads Guide to Traffic Management Part 6:
Intersections, Interchanges and Crossings
• NZTA Manual of Traffic Signs and Markings (MOTSAM)
• NZTA Traffic Control Devices Manual (TCD Manual)
• NZTA Road and Traffic Standards Series parts;
• RTS 1 Control at Crossroads
• RTS 14 Guidelines for facilities for blind and vision-impaired
pedestrians- NZ Transport Agency
• RTS 18 New Zealand on-road tracking curves for heavy vehicles
• TMU Traffic Signal Design Guidelines dated August 2010
Version 3.0 (PDF 1MB) or later revision
• National Traffic Signal Specification dated 1 September 2005;
Revision 2 (PDF 665KB), which is available via the
embedded hyperlink.
• Transfund Road Safety Audit Procedures for Projects.

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