PHYSICS STD XII

12. ATOMS Conclusions:

Lecture 12.1 (1) Nearly 99% of α-particles pass
(Rutherford’s experiment & Model, undeflected through the gold foil.
Equations for radius, Energy & Bohr’s (2) Only 0.14% of α-particles get scattered at
Postulates) angles more than 1°.
(3) 1 out of 8,000 α-particles gets scattered at
J J Thomson gave the watermelon model 90°.
(Plum-pudding model) in 1898, which said (4) 1 out of 15,000 α-particles gets scattered
that the positive charge of the atom is at 180° (i.e. it comes back).
uniformly distributed throughout its volume
and the negative charge (electrons) are
embedded in it like the seeds of a
watermelon.

Rutherford’s conclusion:
 The one α-particle that comes back
Around 1911, Rutherford performed the experiences large repulsion from some
alpha-particle scattering experiment. positive charge at the centre.
 He said that all the positive charge and
most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated at the centre of the atom,
which he called the ‘nucleus’.
 The negatively charged electrons move
around the nucleus in circular orbits.
(Similar to the Planetary model).
 The size of a nucleus is 1015 m, while the
size of an atom is nearly 1010 m.
 An atom is nearly 10,000 to 1,00,000
Alpha-particles emitted by a 214
83 Bi radioactive times bigger than a nucleus.
source were collimated into a narrow beam
by their passage through lead bricks. The Illustration 1:
beam was allowed to fall on a thin gold foil In the Rutherford’s nuclear model of the
of thickness 2.1 x 107 m. The scattered tom, the nucleus (radius about 1015 m) is
alpha-particles were observed through a analogous to the sun about which the
rotatable detector consisting of zinc sulphide electron move in orbit ( radius  1010 m)
screen and a microscope. like the earth orbits around the sun. If the
dimensions of the solar system had the
Geiger-Marsden’s experiment: same proportions as those of the atom,
They plotted a graph of the number of α- would the earth be closer to or farther
particles scattered versus the angle of away from the sun than actually it is? The
scattering.
radius of earth’s orbit is about 1.5×1011
m. The radius of sun is taken as 7×108 m.

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PHYSICS STD XII
Solution: Size of atom = 1010 m, Illustration 2:
Size of nucleus = 1015 m In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, what is
Size of atom 1010 the distance of closest approach to the
  15  105 nucleus of a 7.7 MeV α-particle before it
Size of nucleus 10 comes momentarily to rest and reverses its
Let’s compare this idea with Earth around the direction?
Sun. Solution: KEα = 7 MeV, Z = 79, d = ?
Size of Sun = 7 x 108 m. 1 2 Z e2
If this model is assumed correct, then the size We have, KE 
of Earth’s orbit should be 105 times the size 4 0 d
of Sun. 1 2 Z e2
d 
Assumed orbit of Earth = 105 x 7 x 108 4 0 KE
= 7 x 1013 m.
(2)(79)(9.0 109 )(1.6 1019 ) 2
Whereas, d 
actual size of Earth’s orbit = 1.5 x 1011 m. (7.7 106 )(1.6 1019 )
Thus, assumed orbit size is 100 times greater = 29.5 x 1015 m = 29.5 fm.
than actual orbit size. As compared to the
Solar system, the atom has much more empty Rutherford’s model:
space.  At the centre of the atom, lies the nucleus,
which contains all positive charge & most
Some important terms: of the mass.
(1) Impact parameter (b):The perpendicular  The electrons revolve around the nucleus
distance between the central line through the in circular orbits.
nucleus and the line of action of the α-particle
is called ‘impact parameter’. Consider a hydrogen atom. A single electron
More is b, less is the angle of scattering (θ). revolves around the nucleus, which contains a
When b = 0, θ = 180°. single proton.

Centripetal force = Coulombian attractive

(2) Distance of closest approach (d): force between +ve nucleus & -ve electron
The α-particle doesn’t strike the nucleus, but mv 2 1 (e)(e)
gets deflected back from a certain distance 
infront of the nucleus. r 4 0 r 2
At point P, 1 e2 e2
Kinetic energy Potential energy of mv 2   r … (1)
4 0 r 4 0 mv 2
of α-particle = nucleus & α-particle
1 (2e)( Ze) 1 2 1 e2
KE  Now, KE , K = mv  … (2)
4 0 d 2 8  0 r
2 Z e2 1 (e)(e)
 KE 
1 PE, U 
4 0 d 4 0 r

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PHYSICS STD XII
1 e2 e2
 U  … (3) Also, r 
4 0 r 4 0 mv 2
So, total energy of electron is , E = K + U e2 e
 v2  v
e2  e2  4 0 mr 4 0 mr
E  K U    
8 0 r  4 0 r 
(1.6 1019 )
2 2 v 
e 2e (4)(3.14)(8.85 10 12 )(9.1 10 31 )
 
8 0 r 8 0 r
(5.29 1011 )
e2
 E … (4) 1.6  1019
8 0 r v  27
 0.00218 108
73.15 10
Tips:
 v  2.2 106 m / s
(1) KE, K =  E
e2 e2 U
(2) E     According to Rutherford’s model, the
8 0 r 2 (4  0 r ) 2
electron revolving around the nucleus was in
So, PE, U = 2 E accelerated motion and according to
electromagnetic theory, an accelerated charge
Numerical 4: emits em waves, so, its energy should
The ground state energy of hydrogen atom continuously decrease. The electron would
is –13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and spiral inward and eventually fall in to the
potential energies of the electron in this nucleus. Thus, such an atom cannot be stable.
state? So, Rutherford’s model couldn’t explain the
Solution: E =  13.6 eV, K = ?, U = ? stability of the atom.
KE, K =  E =  ( 13.6)
= 13.6 eV. Bohr’s postulates:
PE, U = 2 E = 2 ( 13.6 ) (1) The electron revolves around the nucleus
=  27.2 eV. in such orbits from where it doesn’t give out
any energy. Such orbits are called stationary
Illustration 3: or stable orbits.
It is found experimentally that 13.6 eV (2) The angular momentum of electron in
energy is required to separate a hydrogen stable orbits is an integral multiple of h/2π.
atom into a proton and an electron. nh
 L … (1)
Compute the orbital radius and the 2
velocity of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
i.e, angular momentum is quantized.
Solution: E =  13.6 eV, r = ?, v = ?
(3) When an electron goes from one orbit to
e2 another, it emits em wave of frequency υ
We have, E  
8 0 r such that Ei  E f  h … (2)
e2 e2 Equations for radius and energy using Bohr’s
r 
8 0 E 2 (4 0 ) E ideas:
(9 109 ) (1.6 1019 ) 2 We know, L  m vn rn 
nh
  0.529  1010
(2)(13.6 1.6 10 ) 19 2
nh
 r  5.3 1011 m  vn  … (1)
2  m rn

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PHYSICS STD XII
We have,
e2 e2 4 2 m 2 r n 2
rn  
4 0 m vn 2 4 0 m n 2 h 2
n2 h2  0
 rn  … (2)
 m e2
Total energy of electron is
e2
En  
8 0 rn
e2  m e2
 En  
8 0 n 2 h 2 0
m e4
 En   … (3)
8  02 h 2 n 2
For an element having atomic number Z,
m Z 2 e4
En   … (4)
8  02 h 2 n 2
Put values of m, e, h and ε0, we get
21.79 1019
En   J
n2
13.6
En   2 eV … (5)
n

Numerical 3:
A difference of 2.3 eV separates two energy
levels in an atom. What is the frequency of
radiation emitted when the atom makes a
transition from the upper level to the lower
level?
Solution: Here, E = 2.3 eV, υ = ?
Energy, E = h υ
E 2.3 1.6 1019
   34
 5.6 1014 Hz
h 6.63 10

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PHYSICS STD XII
Lecture 12.2 (2) At n = ∞, energy is zero, i.e., the electron
(Bohr’s energy levels, proof of 2nd has become free.
postulate using de Broglie’s idea)
Ionization energy:
Energy Levels: The energy required to be given to an
We know, energy of electron in nth orbit, electron to send it to n = ∞ state (i.e., to make
13.6 it free) is called ionization energy.
E n   2 eV 1st ionization energy = E∞  E1
n
Put n = 1 (ground state) = 0 – ( 13.6) = 13.6 eV.
E1   13.6 eV 2 ionization energy = E∞  E2
nd

= 0 – ( 3.4) = 3.4 eV.

Put n = 2 (1st excited state)
13.6
E2   2   3.4 eV Excitation energy:
2 The energy required to be given to an
Put n = 3 (2nd excited state) electron in ground state (n = 1) to send it to
13.6 any excited state is excitation energy.
E3   2   1.51 eV
3 1st excitation energy = E2 – E1
Put n = 4 (3rd excited state) =  3.4 – ( 13.6) = 10.2 eV.
13.6 2nd excitation energy = E3 – E1
E4   2   0.85 eV =  1.51 – ( 13.6) = 12.09 eV.
4
Put n = 5,
E5   0.54 eV Numerical 6:
(a) Using the Bohr’s model, calculate the
Put n = ∞, speed of the electron in a hydrogen atom in
13.6
E   2 the n = 1, 2 and 3 levels.
 (b) Calculate the orbital period in each of
E  0 eV these levels.
Solution: (a) vn = ? for n = 1, 2, 3.
(b) Tn = ? for n = 1, 2, 3.
(a) The velocity of electron in nth orbit is
e2
vn 
2 0 h n
2.18 106
vn  … (1)
n
Put n = 1,
v1  2.18 106 m / s
Put n = 2,
2.18 106
v2 
2
v2  1.09 106 m / s
Note: Put n = 3,
(1) As n increases, the difference in energies 2.18 106
between any two successive levels will v3   0.73 106
3
decrease.

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PHYSICS STD XII
v3  7.3 105 m / s Bohr’s 2nd postulate using de Broglie’s
idea:
(b) Distance = (speed)(time) According to de Broglie, the electron in orbit
⸫ 2π rn = vn Tn moves as a wave, i.e., it performs wave
2 rn motion in orbit.
Tn  … (2)
vn The condition is that there has to be an
We know, integral number of waves in the orbit.
n2 h2  0 In an orbit of radius rn, there are n integral
rn   5.3  1011 n 2 waves.
 m e2
e2 2.18 106
vn  
2 0 h n n
2 (5.3  1011 n2 )
 Tn 
2.18  106
n
 Tn  1.527  1016 n3 … (3)
Put n = 1,
T1  1.527  1016 s According to de Broglie,
2  rn  n  … (1)
Put n = 2,
T2  1.527  1016  (2)3  12.22  10 16 Also, de Broglie wavelength,
h h
 T2  1.22  1015 s    … (2)
p m vn
Put n = 3, Put (2) in (1),
T3  1.527  1016  (3)3  41.23  1016 nh
2 rn 
 T3  4.12  1015 s m vn
nh
m vn rn  … (3)
Tip: 2
When an electron goes from initial state ni This is Bohr’s 2nd postulate.
(having energy Ei) to another state nf (energy
Ef), it emits electromagnetic radiation of Illustration 4:
frequency υif, such that According to the classical electromagnetic
h i f  Ei  E f theory, calculate the initial frequency of
the light emitted by the electron revolving
13.6  13.6 
  2  around a proton in hydrogen atom.
ni2  n  Solution : υ = ?, v = 2.2 x 106 m/s,
 f 
r = 5.3 x 1011 m
 1 1 
h  13.6  2  2  … (1) Distance = (speed) (time)
if n ni  ⸫ 2π r = v T
 f
2 r
T 
v
1 v
Frequency,   
T 2 r

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PHYSICS STD XII
2.2  106 speed 3  104 m / s . (mass of earth =
  11
 0.066  1017
2  3.14  5.3  10 6  1024 kg )
   6.6  1015 Hz Solution: n = ?, r = 1.5 x 1011 m,
v = 3 x 104 m/s, M = 6 x 1024 kg
nh
Numerical 5: Angular momentum, l = m v r 
2
A hydrogen atom initially in the ground
mv r  2 
level absorbs a photon, which excites it to  n
the h
n = 4 level. Determine the wavelength and 6 10  3 104 1.5 1011  2  3.14
24

frequency of photon. 
6.63 1034
Solution : Here, n = 1 to n = 4, υ = ?, λ = ?
 n  25.5 1073  2.6 1074
We have, hυ = E4 – E1
hυ =  0.85 – ( 13.6)
Numerical 7:
12.75  1.6  1019
  The radius of the innermost electron orbit
6.63  1034 of a hydrogen atom is 5.3  1011 m . What
   3.07  1015 Hz are the radii of the n = 2 and n = 3 orbits?
Also, c = υ λ Solution: r1 = 5.3 x 1011 m, r2 = ?, r3 = ?
3  108 n2 h2  0
  
c
 0.977  107 m We know, radius, rn 
 3.07  10 15  m e2
   97.7 nm h2  0
Put n = 1, r1   5.3  1011 m
 me 2

Numerical 8: (2) 2 h 2  0
Put n = 2, r2   4 r1
A 12.5 eV electron beam is used to  m e2
bombard gaseous hydrogen at room = 4 x 5.3 x 1011 m = 21.2 x 1011 m
temperature. What series of wavelengths
will be emitted?
 r 2  2.12  1010 m
Solution : E = 12.5 eV, λ = ? Put n = 3, r3  9 r1  9 (5.3  1011 )
Energy, E 
hc = 47.7 x 1011 m
 r3  4.77  1010 m
hc 19.89  1026
  
E 12.5  1.6  1019
= 0.994 x 107 m
⸫ λ = 994 Å
This wavelength is smaller than that for
visible light. This belongs to Ultraviolet
light (UV). This is Lyman series.

Numerical 9:
In accordance with the Bohr’s model, find
the quantum number that characterizes
the earth’s revolution around the sun in an
orbit of radius 1.5  1011 m with orbital

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