MIDTERM REVIEWERS

BSED 1A

READING IN THE PHILIPPINE HISTORY

LESSON NO.3

Historical Sources – are materials used to study and interpret the past. It draws conclusions about humanity has
evolved over time.

Note: It is crucial for all Historians to observe the sources used to avoid fraud.

Primary Materials – may have undergone various degrees of deterioration due to age.

TWO TYPES OF HISTORICAL SOURCES

Primary Sources – are original materials and provide direct evidence of historical events or perspectives.

Secondary Sources – these are interpretations and offer context of historical information derived from primary
sources.

TWO TYPES OF CRITICISM IN PRIMARY SOURCES:

External Criticism – the process of verification of authorship; where, when, why, and by whom a document was
written.

Function: to avoid bias and unfairness.

Internal Criticism – is used to determine whether the document contains errors or lies; trace of forgery or not.

Function: finds out if the message carries a genuine message.

QUESTIONS FOR EXTERNAL CRITICISM

- Is this authentic?
- When written?
- Where was written?
- Why did it survive?
- Who was the real author?

QUESTIONS FOR INTERNAL CRITICISM

- Meaning in the Context?

- Eyewitness?
- Why was it written?
- Literal Meaning?
- Internal Consistency?

LESSON 4:

Names given for Philippines:

Long before the coming of Magellan, Philippines was already known to the early Chinese traders and geographers.
Various records and artifacts antedate Sino- Philippines contacts to 3rd Century A.D., they gave the names for
Philippines as:

• "Ma-yi" - appears in Sung Dynasty sources in 982 A.D.

• Chau-Ju-Kua, a Chinese trader Official gave a detailed account of his trip to various islands in the Philippines in the
year he called the as - Ma-i.
1225, wherein country

• Another Pre-Hispanic Sino Writer, Wang-Ta- Yuan in 1349, who wrote his travels to "Ма- i", "Mintolang"
(Minda Manil ); "Sulu and Pishoye"
nao), "Malilu" ( (Visayas). Ma-i is generally accepted to refer to the island of
a Mindoro in Luzon, because of its gold and proximity to the mainland China.
The official name "Filipinas" was given to the archipelago in 1543 by the ill-starred
Spanish explorer Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, in honor of Prince Felipe (Philip) of Asturias, who later became King Philip
II, the greatest King of Spain.

The name first appeared in the rare map published at Venice in 1554 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, an Italian
Geographer in the most popular collection of early travels and voyages at the time.

Until it was later Anglicized to "Philippine Islands" during the American Colonial regime, and then to the name of
"Republic of the Philippines" after the decolonization in 1946.

Other Names given for Philippines:

a. Gems of the East

b. Treasure Islands of the Pacific

c. Isles of Fear

d. Isles of Hope

e. Orphans of the Pacific

f. Land of the Morning

g. Pearl of the Orient

Origin of the Filipinos:

1. The Friar - Historians Ideas

• The ancestors of the Filipinos sprang out of the soil like wild plants.

• They were created by the sun.

• They were produced from the base metals by the magic act of ancient alchemists (herbalists).

2. Myths and Legends

3. The "Dawn Man" and the "Migration Theory"

• The cave-man, "dawn-Man" type who was similar to the Java Man, Peking Man, and other Asian homo Sapiens of
250,000 years ago - this is the theory of H. Otley Beyer.

• The aboriginal pygmy group, or the Negritos, who came between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago.

The Sea-faring tool-using Indonesian group, who came about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago.

The Sea-faring more civilized Malays who brought the Iron Age culture and introduced new industries like iron metal
smiting, pottery-making, cloth- weaving by loom, and jewelry making.

4. Core Population Theory:

• According to this theory, people of the prehistoric Southeast Asia belonged to the same racial unit.

Origin of the Philippines

1. The idea of the theologians during the Spanish era, such as:

• Fr. Colin, Fr. Sta. Ines and Fr. Delgado advancing the Theological View that Philippines is part of God's creation.

2. Legends and Myths

LESSON 5: ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCER IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

THE EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND FIRST SPANISH CONTACT

- Studying early Philippine societies requires a variety of sources beyond written documents, including
artifacts, epics, and ethnographies, to create a comprehensive understanding of the period.

- Pre-sixteenth century sources are scarce and primarily consist of Spanish documents collected and
translated by Blair and Robertson in their 55-volume work, The Philippine Islands.

- The closest accounts of early Philippine society come from Spanish observations during first contact.
Additional information has been uncovered in foreign archives, while historians also utilize archaeology and
oral traditions.

- Key written records include the Laguna Copperplate Inscription from the tenth century, a 1225 document
on Philippine trade, and Pigafetta's earliest Spanish account of the Philippines.

THE LAGUNA COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTION

- The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI), discovered near Laguna de Bay, is the oldest written source of
Philippine history, dating back to 900 CE.
- The LCI's language is predominantly Old Malay, closely related to Old Tagalog, with elements of Sanskrit and
old Javanese.

- The LCI mentions distinguished names and places, with some names found in the 1849 Catalogo Alfabetico
de Apellidos.

- The LCI reflects the political and social structures of early Philippine society and provides significant insight
into its history.
CHAU JU-KUA'S CHU FAN CHI

- Chau Ju-kua's Chu Fan Chi, published in 1225, describes trade between South China and early Filipinos,
particularly focusing on the country of Ma-i.

- Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese nobleman and customs inspector, documented this trade in his work "Records of
Various Barbarous Nations.“

- Ma-i, located north of P'o-ni, had over a thousand families living along both banks of a creek. The natives
wore cotton cloth or sarongs, and bronze images of gods were scattered in the wilderness.

- San-sii (Three Islands), Pai-p'u-yen, P'u-li-lu, and Li-kin-tung. The region's products were yellow wax, cotton,
pearls, tortoiseshell, betel nuts, and yu-ta cloth. In exchange, foreign traders brought porcelain, gold, iron,
censers, lead, colored glass beads, and iron needles.

- The San-su islands, part of Ma-i, had tribes with similar customs, living in lofty, rugged terrain and building
wattled huts.

- Another tribe, Hai-tan, lived in tree nests, were small in stature with curly hair and round, brown eyes, and
were known for ambushing passers-by with arrows.

ANTONIO PIGAFETTA’S FIRST VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD BY MAGELLAN

- Antonio Pigafetta's First Voyage Around the World by Magellan is a seminal account of the pre-colonial
Philippines, providing firsthand observations from Magellan's circumnavigation.

- Pigafetta recounts the fleet's arrival at the Ladrone Islands (now the Marianas Islands), describing the
inhabitants as poor but ingenious and skilled thieves. Ten days later, the fleet reached the isle of Zamal (now
Samar), but landed on a nearby uninhabited island for safety.

NATIONAL SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM (CWTS)

NATIONAL SECURITY POLICY

WHAT IS NATIONAL SECURITY?

The concept of national security has evolved over time, now encompassing all aspects of national life and
nation-building. Economic development and security are interconnected, with prosperity leading to social peace
and stability, and vice versa. For the Philippines, national security is defined as a state where people's welfare, well-
being, government, territorial integrity, sovereignty, and core values are enhanced and protected.

THE PILLARS OF NATIONAL SECURITY

The first pillar is safeguarding the Philippines' national unity, its democracy and its social institutions. The most
important foundation of national unity is that all citizens share one national identity that is, being Filipinos
regardless of their ethnic, religious, cultural and ideological orientations.
The second pillar of national security is ensuring the security of the State and preserving and protecting its
sovereignty, territorial integrity, and institutions. This is clearly provided in the Constitution, to wit:

The third pillar is the protection of properties, infrastructures and keeping the people safe from all forms of threats,
both here and abroad, and to the extent possible, creating jobs in order to bring back home overseas Filipino
workers where their physical safety can be fully guaranteed by our government.

VISION OF NATIONAL SECURITY

The government is implementing a National Security Plan (NSP) to address national development and security issues.
The plan aims to improve democratic institutions, society, agriculture, infrastructure, industrial outputs, rural
economies, and military and police forces. The goal is to create a secure and prosperous nation by 2022, ensuring
people's welfare, well-being, and territorial integrity.

This aligns with Executive Order No. 5 of 2016, which envisions a stable, comfortable lifestyle for all by 2040. The NSP
focuses on political, economic, socio-cultural, technological, environmental, informational, diplomatic, and military
aspects, which are crucial for nation-building.

THE EIGHT NATIONAL SECURITY INTERESTS

1. Public Safety, Law and Order and Justice

The State's primary duties include ensuring public safety, maintaining law and order, and delivering social justice,
based on democratic principles. The Government strengthens the criminal justice system through participatory
governance, involving all sectors in a collaborative partnership to build a safer society, focusing on protecting human
lives, private property, public assets, and critical infrastructure.

2. Socio-Political Stability

This is a condition where peace prevails even in diversity and where cooperation and support exists between the
Government and the people under an atmosphere of mutual respect and empathy, bound (Obliged) by a strong
notion of nationhood and a sense of duty to respect the rule of law and serve the common good.

3. Economic Solidarity and Sustainable Development

The Philippines' developmental plans aim to build a strong economy, reduce poverty, create equal opportunities, and
distribute development benefits to all segments of society. They also emphasize developing a stakeholder mindset,
encouraging community groups to organize around solidarity and self-reliance to address their problems.

4. Territorial Integrity

The Philippine Government maintains intact and inviolable territory within its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and
continental shelf, exercising sovereign rights over land, aerial domain, and maritime territories, and protecting land,
marine, and sub-marine features from invasion and exploitation.
 5. Ecological Balance

Economic growth and industrialization in the Philippines are transforming society but also causing environmental
damage. The country faces severe global warming and climate change impacts due to harmful industrial practices. To
ensure sustainable development, the Philippines must maximize natural resource rewards while conserving and
protecting them for future generations.

6. Cultural Cohesiveness

National unity is crucial for nationhood and survival. Filipinos must embrace their values, beliefs, moral standards,
traditions, and cultural heritage to work for the common good. The government must harness these attributes to
strengthen the Filipino family, promote harmony, and keep patriotism and pride alive in the hearts and minds of
every Filipino.

7. Moral and Spiritual Consensus

The component highlights Filipinos' moral consensus on the national vision, fostering trust and confidence in the
government's commitment to lead the nation towards peace and development through active participation in
governmental programs.

8. International Peace and Cooperation

The Philippines, a democratic nation, is dedicated to global peace, development, and humanitarianism, enhancing its
security through cooperation with nations and strategic partnerships, while maintaining constructive relations with
all peoples.

INTERNAL & EXTERNAL THREATS – The Two types of Threats in NSP

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

LAW AND ORDER AND ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE

The Philippines faces a significant peace and order problem due to its high crime rate, which is one of the highest in
Southeast and East Asia. The police's ability to solve crime has decreased due to corruption and patronage politics.

To ensure public security and enforce the rule of law, the government must undertake reforms aimed at cleansing
and strengthening the five pillars of the criminal justice system: law enforcement, courts, prosecution, correctional
institutions, and the community.

1. Community: The community serves as an informal component. Its role includes responding to the needs of
the community, redirecting offenders, and fostering a peaceful environment.

2. Law Enforcement: Responsible for crime prevention, enforcing laws, and gathering evidence for prosecution.
Police officers and other law enforcement agencies fall under this pillar.

3. Prosecution: Investigates criminal complaints and prosecutes alleged offenders. They play a vital role in the
criminal justice process.

4. Courts: Adjudicate cases and render judgments. The court system ensures due process and fairness.
 5. Corrections: Oversees prisons, jails, probation, and parole. This pillar focuses on rehabilitation, punishment,
and reintegration of offenders into society

INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICTS

The Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army (NPA), continue to pose
significant peace and order issues in the country, with an estimated 30,000 lives lost since the 1960s. The NPA, with
fewer soldiers, still retains support among the poor in the rural Philippines. The government is working to end the
fighting and decentralize power to address internal conflicts, such as poverty, social injustice, economic inequity,
poor governance, political abuse, and marginalization of cultural communities. The Local Government Code of 1991
aimed to empower regions and extend essential government services.

TERRORISM AND TRANSNATIONAL CRIME

International terrorism and transnational crime pose a direct threat to the security of individual countries and to
international peace and prosperity. These twin problems are a persistent global threat that know no borders,
nationality or religion, and operate outside the rule of law. Transnational terrorists and crime syndicates are usually
well-organized internationally and domestically. They are well-resourced, have access to the latest technologies and
skills, and will use unlimited or any form of violence to achieve their goals and objectives.

Republic Act No. 11479, officially known as The Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020, aims to prevent, prohibit, and penalize
terrorism in the Philippines. It replaced the Human Security Act of 2007 and emphasizes protecting life, liberty, and
property from terrorism

ECONOMIC & SOCIAL THREATS

Poverty in the Philippines remains high, with 21.6% of the population living in poverty in 2015, and subsistence rates
at 8.1%. Income inequality between the rich and poor and urban and rural areas persists, with the poorest 20%
owning less than 5% of the country's total income. Unemployment and underemployment rates remain steady at 6%
and 18%, respectively. Economic and social development, demographic pressures, and demographic migrations
contribute to hunger, malnutrition, homelessness, and migration from rural to urban areas. Infectious diseases,
particularly HIV/AIDS, are also on the rise, particularly among overseas Filipino workers and business process
outsourcing workers.

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

OVERLAPPING TERRITORIAL CLAIMS AND MARITIME DOMAIN ISSUES

The Philippines must address maritime disputes to ensure national security and regional peace. It must develop
maritime domain awareness and response force capabilities to address threats like pirates, terrorists, and illegal
fishers.
The country must protect its maritime interests in the Benham Rise, Batanes, and ZambaSulTa islands. The West
Philippine Sea dispute remains a major security challenge, and the government is negotiating with neighboring
countries to define maritime borders and enact laws for national defense and international law compliance.

GLOBAL AND REGIONAL GEOPOLITICAL ISSUES

In addition to the WPS issue, there are other inter- and intra-states flashpoints of immediate concern to the
Philippines.
These include the intensifying conflicts in the Middle East and Africa (MENA region), persisting tension in the Korean
Peninsula, unresolved territorial disputes in Northeast and Southeast-Asia, unsettled Sabah issue, China-Taiwan
conflict, and other power rivalries where the hegemony of the United States is contested and threatened.

US and ASEAN's Global Presence and Influence

• The US maintains a strategic presence in the Asia Pacific region, strengthening its influence through the
"pivot/rebalance policy."

PIVOT It focused on building relationships in East Asian and Southeast Asian countries to counter China’s rise as a
potential superpower.

• The US is the sole defense treaty ally of the Philippines, with the Mutual Defense Treaty strengthened under
the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) of 2015.

• The current Trump Administration's actions towards Asia are uncertain, but the Philippines is expected to
continue working with the US on significant security and economic issues.

CHINA'S RISE AND POLICY CONCERNS

• China's rise as the world's second-largest economy has generated policy concerns among developed countries and
ASEAN nations.

• China's active presence in the WPS is driven by growing food needs, energy demands, and nationalism.

ASEAN's Development and Cooperation

• ASEAN upholds principles of consultation and consensus in resolving inter-state misunderstandings and conflicts.

• The organization is building a Political-Security Community, an Economic Community, and a Socio-Cultural

Community to promote regional integration and strengthen ASEAN centrality.

Japan's Security Relations

• Japan, an economic powerhouse in Asia, seeks closer security relations with other regional states due to new
security challenges.

• Japan has entered into a strengthened strategic partnership with the Philippines to boost political, security,
and defense ties.

Other Regional Players

• Other extra-regional powers like South Korea, Australia, Russia, and India are crucial in contributing to the peace,
stability, and prosperity of the East Asian region.

GLOBAL UNCERTAINTIES AND PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

Increased Global Economic Uncertainties

• The potential for global economic recessions has increased, impacting countries like the Philippines.
• Slowdowns in major economies like the US, China, and EU could affect Philippine exports, foreign investments, and
business climate.

• Despite these challenges, the Philippines has remained resilient, despite these challenges.

Global Security Issues and the Welfare of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)

• Conflicts abroad pose a direct threat to OFWs, who contribute significantly to the national economy.
• The government must promote and protect the rights and welfare of OFWs, particularly victims of illegal
recruitment, human trafficking, ill-treatment, and unfair labor practices.

• Global disruptions from armed conflicts, political or social instabilities, economic or financial crisis, pandemics,
health emergencies, or natural disasters can harm OFWs abroad.

Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction

• Rapid technological advancements and increased access to scientific knowledge are creating new threats, including
the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).

• Nine nations currently possess WMDs, and concerns are growing that WMDs and related technologies could
spread to more states and non-state terrorist networks.

• The Philippines supports the global call for greater international collaboration to control the proliferation and use
of
WMDs.

Cybercrime:

• PWC's Global Economic Crime Survey reveals cyber crime as the fastest-growing economic crime.

• Criminals exploit the internet's speed, convenience, and anonymity to commit various crimes, including credit card
fraud, ATM theft, call center scams, and identity theft.

• New trends in cybercrime are emerging, with estimated costs to the global economy running to billions of dollars.

• The Philippines needs to develop its cyber capabilities, especially in law enforcement and security sectors, to
combat cyber-based crimes.

Climate Change:

• The Philippines is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

• Rising global temperatures have already impacted the earth's climate threshold, predicting extreme temperatures,
more intense rains, and more disastrous tropical cyclones.

• Climate change increases the risk of armed conflict, especially in areas sensitive to poverty and economic shocks.

• Climate change could affect security through threats to the well-being of vulnerable communities, economic
development, uncoordinated coping strategies, the viability of sovereign states, and availability of natural
resources.

Urgent Institutional Concerns:

• Modernizing and professionalizing armed services.

• Strengthening the judicial system.

• Enhancing legislative oversight on security agencies.

• Improving the national security and intelligence community.

• Stamping out corruption and professionalizing bureaucracy.

• Removing institutional obstacles to research and development.

• Improving government's auditing rules and regulations.

• Enhancing the government's ability to deliver basic services.

NATIONAL SECURITY PLAN (NSP) GOALS AND STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES

• NSP provides a mission for government institutions to realize the security vision by 2022.
• It promotes transparent, unified, and measurable approaches for effective and sustainable implementation.

• NSP identifies national security priorities based on realistic assessment of domestic and global security
environment.

• Goals and strategic objectives for government and private sector to secure the Filipino nation.

Strengthening Public Safety, Law and Order, and Justice Administration

• Government's responsibility to ensure public safety and stability.

• Implementing holistic programs to combat illegal drugs, criminality, and transnational crimes.

• Strengthening and reforming the five pillars of the criminal justice system.

• Empowering citizen organizations to participate in governance and public policy implementation.

• Pursuing peace and security legislations to strengthen security sector governance.

Sustaining and Enhancing Socio-Political Stability

• Healing nation's rifts through participatory governance and synergies of executive, legislative, and judiciary
branches.

• Promoting peace processes to end internal armed conflicts.

• Pursuing a new form of government conducive to economic, political, and social development.

• Strengthening the integrity of national institutions through transparent, participatory, and accountable
governance.

• Pursuing policies that win the hearts and minds of those with grievances and retain the allegiance of the rest of the
citizenry.

Philippine Economic Development and Security Strategy

Bolster Solidarity-Based and Sustainable Economic Development

• Aims to triple real per capita incomes and eliminate hunger and poverty by 2040.
• Aims to promote full employment, a rising standard of living, and improved quality of life.

• Strategic Objectives include ensuring a peaceful environment, contributing to sustainable growth, promoting global
competitiveness, and strengthening cyber security.

Safeguarding Territorial Integrity and Sovereignty

• Develops defense capability to protect the Philippines' territory, sovereignty, and interests.

• Pursues international support for a rules-based regime in the SCS/WPS and respect for the Permanent Court of
Arbitration.

• Implements the Declaration of Conduct (DOC) and concludes a legally-effective Code of Conduct (COC).

• Pursues maritime boundary delimitation with adjoining countries and the enactment of laws on Maritime Zones
and Archipelagic Sea Lanes.

Protecting and Preserving Ecological Balance

• Enhances the security sector's capability for humanitarian assistance and disaster response.

• Promotes the preservation of the country's ecosystems, biodiversity, and genetic resources.

• Institutionalizes climate change adaptation and risk reduction measures.

• Promotes sustainable use of environmental resources and alternative energy sources.

Advance Cultural Cohesiveness

• Strengthens the National Commission for Culture and the Arts to promote cultural programs and projects.

• Promotes social safety measures and protection programs for all.

• Enhances Filipino ways of life through greater participation in cultural programs and community development.

Promote Moral-Spiritual Consensus

• Promotes interfaith and intercultural dialogue.

• Raises public awareness about national security and promotes Filipino unity, nationalism, and teamwork.

• Pursues programs that would instill national pride, patriotism, and love of country.

Contribution to International Peace

• Pursues constructive and cordial relations with all nations and peoples.

• Promotes amity and cooperation with all nations, expands engagements with regional and international
organizations, and expands security, defense, social, and economic diplomacy.

12-POINT NATIONAL SECURITY AGENDA SUMMARY

1. Human and Political Security:

• Respond to complex security threats to ensure Filipinos' safety, welfare, and dignity.

• Protect core human lives and institutions to enhance peace, unity, freedom, democracy, and people's dignity.

2. Health Security:

• Enhance quality of life by preventing and mitigating effects of infectious diseases and interdicting illegal and
hazardous agents.

2. Economic and Financial Security:

• Harness science and technology for global competitiveness and promote multi-resource economy.

• Develop infrastructure and tourism attractiveness.

• Enable people to innovate and upgrade their capabilities to protect their livelihood and resources.

2. Food and Water Security:

• Promote food security by addressing food shortages and low agricultural productivity.

• Safeguard access to quality water to preserve ecosystems and sustain livelihoods.

2. Military and Border Security:

• Achieve self-reliance in defense and strengthen national sovereignty.

2. Socio-Cultural Security:

• Heighten consciousness and pride on Filipino heritage and values.

• Strengthen and preserve them from unintended destructions and violence.

2. Environment and Disaster Security:

• Guarantee the right to live in green and environment-friendly conditions.

• Enhance disaster preparedness through preventive and mitigating mechanisms.

2. Energy Security:

• Secure and protect energy supply throughout the country.

• Support economic enterprises and households and contribute to global efforts to address climate change.

2. Maritime and Airspace Security:

• Ensure safety of life and protection of trade and marine resources against piracy, poaching, illegal intrusion,
terrorism, and human and drug trafficking at sea.
 2. International Security:

• Maintain an independent foreign policy and ensure a stable and secure international environment.

2. Informational and Cyber Security:

• Safeguard classified action plans and programs, sensitive government intentions, and state secrets from espionage
and other hostile actions.

2. Transportation and Port Security:

• Strengthen the integration and modernization of multi-modal transport systems.

RESOURCE GENERATION FOR NATIONAL SECURITY IN THE PHILIPPINES

• The government should utilize the Philippines' human resources as a key driver of economic growth and national
power.

• Other factors vital to the success of the National Security Strategy (NSP) include the legal framework for national
security, defense spending and modernization, and strategic industries for sustainability and self-sufficiency.

Human Capital Development

• The government should invest in youth and make good education accessible.

• The government should invest in science and technology education, promote technological and industrial skills,
and inculcate good moral and socio-ethical values.

• The National Defense College of the Philippines (NDCP), the Philippine Public Safety College (PPSC), the Foreign
Service Institute, and other military and police training schools should collaborate to build up and expand the pool
of national security practitioners.

Legal Framework for National Security

• The government should work towards the enactment of appropriate legislations to address the country's complex
national security challenges and protect the nation's interests.
• The government will work for the early passage of pending bills in Congress pertaining to national security
concerns.

Defense and Law Enforcement Spending and Modernization

• The government should focus on developing a credible defense and law enforcement capability.

• The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and the Philippine National Police (PNP) modernization programs should
focus on modernizing the uniformed services.

Strategic Industries/ Flagship Projects

• The government should pursue strategic projects under Public-Private Partnership (PPP) or as National Security
Industries and Flagship Projects.
• The following industries should be pursued: Agriculture and Fishery Industry, Aircraft Industry, Bio-Technology
Industry, Construction Industry, Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Risk Reduction Industry, Electronics Industry,
Environment Industry, Land Combat System and Munitions Industry, Modern Mining Industry, Renewable Energy
Industry, Robotics Industry, Information and Communications Technology Industry, Shipbuilding Industry, Satellite
Systems and Space Industry, Strategic Materials and Resource Industry, and Transportation Industry.

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION MANAGEMENT (DRRM)

Disaster - Is an event that occurs suddenly/unexpectedly in most cases and disrupts the normal course of life in
affected area.

Disaster Risk - It is the result of combination of exposure to hazards, vulnerability, and lack of preventations to
different types of hazards.

Hazard - Is an event that has potential for causing injury/loss of life or damage to property/environment.

Exposure - The location attributes, and value of assets that are important to communities (people, buildings,
factories, farmland, etc.) and that could be affected by hazard.

HOW TO REDUCE EXPOSURE?

o Prevention o Mitigation
o Adaptation

Vulnerability - The Likelihood that assets will be damaged/destroyed affected when exposed to a hazard.

FOUR TYPES OF VULNERABILITY

1. Physical Vulnerability - Infrastructure and population.

2. Social Vulnerability - Refers to the inability of people, organizations due to characteristics inherent in social
interactions, institutions and system of cultural values.
3. Economic Vulnerability - Socio-economic factors
4. Environmental Vulnerability - Natural Resources depletion and resources degradation are key aspects of
environmental vulnerability.

WHAT IS HAZARD?

- A Hazard is a potential source or situation that could cause harm such as human injury, property damage,
environmental damage, or a combination of both. A hazard profile provides a comprehensive overview of a
potential risk, including its location, severity, historical occurrences, and the likelihood of future occurrences.

- EARTHQUAKES: Metro Manila, Central Luzon, Davao City,

- LANDSLIDES: Benguet Province, Southern Leyte, Naga City, and Cebu.

TYPES OF HAZARDS

■ NATURAL HAZARDS- hazards that result from earth’s natural processes.(e.g. Volcanic eruption, earthquakes).
■ SECONDARY HAZARD- are hazards that resulted or consequence of other hazards.( e.g. landslides, tsunamis).
■ TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS- man-made hazards. (e.g. Radiation leaks, toxicity of land due to pesticides).
■ QUASI-NATURAL HAZARDS- hazards that result from the interaction of natural processes and human
activities .(smog,desertification).
The Philippines is one of the countries covered by the Ring of Fire, and we are one of them. Some of the highest
figures in our country are afraid of the results that surely can affect us and suffer from the disasters that will surely
bring about economic consequences, destructions, and even calamities.

Our country is also subject to the world record of typhoons every year, so this is the main reason why philippines is
one of the ranked nations that belong to the one of the most have Hazard profiles in the world it's because our
nation faces different kinds of disasters and in every place.

Pacific Ring of Fire

■The Ring of Fire encircles several tectonic plates.it is a complex system encompassing various tectonic plates, many
of which are subducting beneath the continental plates they border. The Ring of Fire is a 40,000 km long tectonic
belt containing 750-915 active or dormant volcanoes, two-thirds of the world's total.

Pacific Ring of Fire

■It is a geological structure created by the subduction of different tectonic plates at convergent boundaries around
the Pacific Ocean. The exact number of volcanoes within the belt depends on which regions are included. About 90%
of the world's earthquakes occur within the belt.The Philippines is facing a historic earthquake, "The Big One," with
a 7.2 magnitude predicted to strike on the West Valley Fault (WVF) and potentially kill at least 34,000 people. The
country has a history of colossal earthquakes, with 6,158 deaths between 1599 and 2020. However, there is no
reliable technology to predict the exact time, date, and location of large earthquakes. The WWF's most recent
movement occurred in 1658, suggesting a potential for another major fault movement.

DIS+ ASTRE”= “BAD STAR”

A disaster is the consequence of an event, a critical disturbance in the daily operations of a community or a society.

CAUSES SIGNIFICANT LOSS TO HUMAN LIVES AND PROPERTY

- Is a significant disruption to a community’s or society’s regular activities.

- It can result in losses to material and financial resources, as well as widespread fatalities and injuries.
- Additionally, it can cause environmental degration, such as the breakdown of an ecosystem.

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

- being prepared helps in achieving goals and in avoiding potential disasters negative outcomes.The
knowledge and capacity of the government and other concerned from the effects of a hazardous event
-
HAZZARD

- ‘ HASARD’ in French and ‘AZ-ZAHR’ in Arabic

- “ a source of possible danger or destruction or a dangerous condition or event that threat or have the
potential for causing injury to life or damage to property or the environment.

RISK
- The chances that a person or an area will be harmed or injured, aims to protect an organization from
potential losses or threats.

POSSIBILITY and PROBABILITY

- the likelihood of something
- the happening
probable if it
consequences happens
“Risk occurs where factors and processes are sufficiently measurable for believable probability distributions to be
assigned to the range of possible outcomes”

VULNERABILITY
- Latin vulnerabilis, from Latin vulnerare’ to wound’ from vulnus “wound”
- The trait of a community that makes it exposed to higher chances of being harmed or damaged.

SUSCEPTIBILITY – being likely or liable to be influenced

RESILIENCE- the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

- Many people do not believe in impending danger besetting them even though an alert for an incoming
hazard has already been raised. These early warning signs are meant to save lives, and to signal the need to
evacuate as much as possible while there is still time.

- Is it possible to ascertain our level of safety from hazards, risks, or disasters? This can be achieved through
hazard profiling. However, before we learn how to profile hazards, we shall understand its meaning first.
What is it? Why is it important for our safety?

HAZARD PROFILE
- A hazard profile is an account, report, and analysis of a particular type of calamity or risk. It describes the
said hazard with the purpose of analyzing and planning for disaster management in the future (Hazard
Profile - California Hazard Profile & Mitigation Plan Critique, 2020).

TYPES OF HAZARD
- The goal of this activity is for each group to conduct researches on the different hazards that are present in
our country. Let your teacher facilitate the division of the class into five groups. After groups are formed,
conduct research on the definitions of the hazards found in the box below.
- Additionally, look for previous disaster occurrences to include as examples for each hazard; do not forget to
write opposite each incident the year when it occurred. You may use library and/or internet resources to
complete this group output. Finally, after completing the task, proceed to answering the succeeding guide
questions individually.

1. Hydrological or meteorological hazards (sometimes called as hydrometeorological hazards) could come in

the form of thunderstorms, typhoons, or super typhoons, enough to create catastrophic floodings and storm
surges or to saturate surrounding lands and mountains.
2. Geological hazards, as the term connotes, are hazards that occur on land and are related to the constant
movement of land masses and to persisting underground geological activities.
3. Human-induced hazards come from human activities: they can be in the form of armed conflicts in
countries and regions, or of environmental degradation brought about by air, water and land pollutions, not
to mention global warming.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

BIODIVERSITY, SPECICIES INTERACTION AND POPULATION CONTROL

BIODIVERSITY
– Biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi.
While Earth’s biodiversity is so rich that many species have yet to be discovered, many species are being
threatened with extinction due to human activities, putting the Earth’s magnificent biodiversity at risk.
 – Biodiversity is a term used to describe the enormous variety of life on Earth. It can be used more specifically
to refer to all of the species in one region or ecosystem. Biodiversity refers to every living thing, including
plants, bacteria, animals, and humans. Scientists have estimated that there are around 8.7 million species of
plants and animals in existence.

How do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to Changing Environmental Conditions?

–Communities are able to respond by making changes in the time and I location of activities, by using different
species, by developing or using new technologies, and by organizing themselves internally or in networks. The
possible responses a community can make on its own constitute the autonomous response space.

SPECIES INTERACTION

– Species interaction refers to direct and indirect interrelationship or association between different organisms,
which could be between:

1. Plants and plants,

2. Plants and animals and
3. Animals and animals as well as micro organisms like Bacteria, fungi and the like.

–Species interact and thus affect one another. Species interactions can be direct or indirect, and have positive or
negative effects.
–Species interactions affect the size of species populations and thus the biomass and productivity of an ecosystem. --
Species interactions also drive evolutionary changes that affect their ability to survive and reproduce over many
generations.
–A species interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other.

How do species interact?

–Species interact with one another in many ways, which helps in the functioning and maintenance of ecosystems.
The main forms of interactions are: Competition, Predation, Commensalism, Mutualism and Parasitism. While some
of these interactions are harmful in nature, others are beneficial.

•Competition
– can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the
presence of another.

•Predation
–one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. Predators are adapted and often highly
specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or smell.

•Parasitism
–is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host,
causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life (Poulin 2007).

•Mutualisms
–is an interaction between two or more species, where both species derive a mutual benefit. One or both species
involved in the interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot survive in the short or long term without the other
species

•Commensalism
–benefits one organism while the other organism neither benefits nor is harmed.
POPULATION CONTROL

–Population control is the practice of artificially maintaining the size of any population. It simply refers to the act of
limiting the size of an animal population so that it remains manageable, as opposed to the act of protecting a species
from excessive rates of extinction, which is referred to as conservation biology.

What Limits the Growth of Populations?

–Population growth is influenced by various limiting factors that prevent indefinite expansion. These can be broadly
categorized into biotic and abiotic factors:

Biotic Factors
1. Predation - Predators reduce the number of prey animals, thus limiting population growth.
2. Competition - Individuals compete for limited resources like food, water, and shelter, leading to slower growth.
3. Disease and Parasites - High population densities can lead to the rapid spread of diseases and parasites, reducing
population numbers.

Abiotic Factors
1.Climate and Weather - Extreme weather conditions such as droughts, floods, and temperature extremes can limit
population growth.
2. Natural Disasters - Events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and hurricanes can drastically reduce populations.
3. Availability of Resources - The scarcity of essential resources like food, water, and habitat space limits population
growth.

Carrying Capacity
The environment’s carrying capacity is the maximum population size that it can sustain over time. Once a population
reaches this limit, growth rates slow down and may stabilize or decline due to resource depletion and increased
competition.

Human Impact
Human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and urbanization can also limit population growth by destroying
habitats and altering ecosystems.

THE HUMAN POPULATION AND URBANIZATION

What is the Human Population?

“Human population refers to the number of individuals in a particular area.”

Additionally, the term is used to describe the inhabitants, but in most cases, the term would mean numbers. Early
humans is not known to us. But it is assumed there would have been only a few thousand humans when they
emerged several years ago.

The population exploded since the Industrial Revolution began and half of the present population grew since 1950.
The developing countries have the maximum population.

Human populations have tended to increase over time. As more people were born, small groups of individuals found
reasons to come together to form groups and, with the advent of agriculture, small sedentary communities. A small
number of these settlements grew into what we now call cities. This kind of growth often corresponds with a shift
from one way of organizing labor to another.
URBANIZATION

is the process through which cities grow, and higher and higher percentages of the population come to live in the
city.

Urbanization, driven by industrialization and economic growth, has significantly increased the global urban
population over the past few centuries

The increase in urban population has led to the rise of megacities (cities with over 10 million inhabitants), some
surpassing even 40 million residents like Tokyo, Japan. Urbanization has also caused urban sprawl, where city
populations spread over larger areas, converting former agricultural land into urban areas and increasing demand for
transportation infrastructure due to longer commuting distances

NUMBER OF POPULATION IN EVERY CONTINENT

1. ASIA - 4.7 billion

2. AFRICA - 1.4 billion
3. EUROPE - 742.2 million
4. LATIN AMERICA & THE CARIBBEAN - 664.9 million
5. NORTHERN AMERICA - 378.9 million
6. OCEANIA – 45.5 million

NUMBER OF PEOPLE THAT THE EARTH CAN SUPPORT?

The earliest estimate was by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek, inventor of the microscope, in 1679. He estimated that the
world could support 13.4 billion people. Estimates in the last half of the 20th century ranged from less than 1 billion
to more than 1,000 billion.

Population estimates, ranging from 4 billion to 16 billion, are influenced by both scientific data and political agendas,
with higher figures downplaying growth concerns and lower ones highlighting overpopulation issues

FACTORS INFLUENCE THE SIZE OF THE HUMAN POPULATION

1. Birth and Death Rates: High birth rates can increase population size, while high death rates can decrease it.

2. Immigration and Emigration: Immigration (organisms moving into an area) can increase population size,
while emigration (organisms moving out of an area) can decrease it.

3. Availability of Resources: The availability of food, water, and other necessary resources can limit population
growth if they are scarce.

EFFECTS OF POPULATION'S AGE STRUCTURE ON ITS GROWTH OR DECLINE

The age structure is closely related to the birth rate, death rate and migration of a population. In the region with
high birth rate, the proportion of children tends to be higher, whereas in the region with low birth and death rate,
the percentage of elderly population tends to be higher.

MAJOR URBAN RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Urban environmental problems are mostly inadequate water supply, wastewater, solid waste, energy, loss of green
and natural spaces, urban sprawl, pollution of soil, air, traffic, and noise.
EFFECTS OF TRANSPORTATION TO URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Through the emissions from combustion of fossil-derived fuels, transportation systems contribute to degraded air
quality, as well as a changing climate. Transportation also leads to noise pollution, water pollution, and affects
ecosystems through multiple direct and indirect interactions.

HOW CAN CITIES BECOME MORE SUSTAINABLE AND LIVEABLE

Build more Green Spaces

When a city builds more green spaces, there are so many benefits. They provide a place for people to relax and enjoy
nature, they help to improve air quality, and they can even help to reduce crime rates. By creating more green
spaces, cities can make themselves more sustainable and livable places for everyone.

Improve Public Transportation

Another way to make a city more sustainable is to improve public transportation and reduce the use of cars

Reduce Waste
Reducing waste and increasing recycling and composting programs are a great way to help meet a city's sustainability
goals. Making it easy for businesses and residents to work together on reducing their waste will ensure the new
programs are integrated quickly.

Install Renewable Energy

Utilizing renewable energy reduces the need for dirty fossil fuel choices. This improves the surrounding area by
reducing smog, improving air and water quality, and improving the lives of community residents.

As we move into the 21st century, the world population will likely continue to increase. Urban centers will also
continue to expand as long as the population does. Continuing development poses challenges of complexity as one
prepares for the cities of the future. How we manage urbanization today will leave a lasting legacy on our world for
generations to come.

BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

How Climate Effects Biodiversity

● Habitat Loss: As temperatures rise, many species' natural habitats are altered or destroyed.
● Migration and Adaptation: Some species can migrate to cooler areas or adapt to changing conditions, but others
cannot. This leads to shifts in species distributions and, in some cases, extinction.
● Ecosystem Disruption: Changes in climate can disrupt ecosystems, altering food webs and interactions among
species. ● Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and severe storms, droughts, and wildfires can directly harm
species and habitats.
How Biodiversity Effects Climate
• Carbon Sequestration: Healthy ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2
from the atmosphere and helping to mitigate climate change.
• Albedo Effect: Forests, ice, and other ecosystems affect the Earth's albedo, or the amount of sunlight
reflected back into space. Changes in vegetation can alter local and global climate patterns.
• Resilience to Climate Change: Ecosystems with high biodiversity are generally more resilient to climate
change. They can recover more quickly from disturbances and continue to provide essential services, such as clean
air and water.
• Human Impact: Human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and the burning of fossil fuels, contribute
to both climate change and biodiversity loss. Protecting biodiversity can help mitigate climate change, and
addressing climate change can help preserve biodiversity

BIODIVERSITY: THE SPECIES APPROACH

WHAT IS SPECIES?
A species is a fundamental unit of biological classification. It refers to a group of organisms that can
interbreed and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions. Members of the same species share
common genetic traits and are reproductively compatible.

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, encompassing all living organisms—plants, animals,
fungi, and microorganisms.

Biodiversity encompasses the variety and variability of life on Earth. It can be measured across different
levels:

1. Genetic Biodiversity: Refers to the diversity of genes within a population or species.

2. Species Biodiversity: Involves the variety of different species present in an ecosystem.
3. Ecological Biodiversity: Considers the diversity of ecosystems and habitats

SUSTAINABLE BIODIVERSITY
Sustainable biodiversity refers to maintaining a healthy and diverse range of species and ecosystems over time. It
involves balancing human needs with the preservation of natural habitats and species.

Conservation Strategies
• Protected Areas: National parks and wildlife reserves, like Yellowstone National Park, conserve
habitats and species.
• Restoration Projects: Wetland restoration improves water quality, wildlife habitat, and reduces
flooding.
• Sustainable Practices: Crop rotation, organic farming, and agroforestry maintain soil health and
biodiversity.
• Conservation Programs: Species reintroduction restores ecological balance.
• Biodiversity Hotspots: Focusing conservation efforts on high-endemic areas like the Amazon
Rainforest protects numerous species.
• Community Involvement: Local communities participate in conservation efforts, ensuring sustainable
practices and protection of biodiversity.
• Legislation and Policies: Enacting and enforcing laws protect endangered species and habitats, like
the Endangered Species Act in the USA.

WHAT IS EXTINCTION?
Extinction occurs when a species or group of organisms ceases to exist. It means that no living
individuals of that species remain. Extinctions can happen naturally over geological time or be
accelerated by human activities.

1. Background Extinction
• Definition: The standard rate of extinction in Earth’s geological and biological history before humans
became a primary contributor to extinctions.
• Characteristics: Occurs gradually over long periods due to natural causes like climate change, natural
disasters, and competition between species.
• Example: The gradual extinction of certain species of plants and animals over millions of years.

1. Mass Extinction
• Definition: A widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth, where a significant
percentage of all life forms go extinct in a relatively short period.
• Characteristics: Typically caused by catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, asteroid impacts,
or rapid climate changes.
• Example: The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event that led to the demise of the dinosaurs about
66 million years ago1
. The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event occurred 66
million years ago, causing global climate change and mass extinction of 75% of plant and animal
species. Caused by asteroid impact and volcanic activity, it marked the end of the Mesozoic Era.

1. Anthropogenic Extinction
• Definition: Extinctions caused by human activities.
• Characteristics: Includes habitat destruction, pollution, overhunting, introduction of invasive species,
and climate change.
• Example: The extinction of the passenger pigeon in the early 20th century due to overhunting and
habitat loss2
.
1. Functional Extinction
• Definition: When a species’ population becomes so low that it no longer plays a significant role in
ecosystem function or cannot sustain a viable population.
• Characteristics: The species may still exist in small numbers but is no longer ecologically relevant.
• Example: The northern white rhinoceros, with only a few individuals left, is functionally extinct3
.
1. Local Extinction (Extirpation)
• Definition: The disappearance of a species from a particular area, while it still exists elsewhere.
• Characteristics: Can lead to changes in local ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Example: The gray wolf was locally extinct in many parts of the United States but has been
reintroduced in some areas4

1. Coextinction
• Definition: The extinction of one species leads to the extinction of another species that depends on
it.
• Characteristics: Often occurs in mutualistic or parasitic relationships.
• Example: The extinction of a host species leading to the extinction of its specialized parasites

ROLES OF HUMAN IN THE PRIMATURE EXTINCTION OF SPECIE

1. Habitat Loss: The top threat to species on land is habitat loss. Approximately 75 percent of Earth’s land has
been severely altered by human actions, such as urbanization and agricultural expansion. Old-growth
forests, wetlands, and grasslands have been transformed, leaving species with fewer places to live.
2. Overfishing the Oceans: Our relentless fishing practices have depleted marine ecosystems. Many fish
species are overexploited, leading to declines in their populations and disrupting the balance of marine life.
3. Climate Change: Failing to address climate change quickly enough exacerbates species extinction. Rising
temperatures, altered weather patterns, and habitat shifts directly impact various organisms.
4. Environmental Pollution: Continued pollution of air, water, and soil harms species. chemical pollutants,
plastic waste, and toxic substances affect both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
5. Invasive Species: Human migration has introduced invasive species to new environments. These invaders
outcompete native species, disrupt ecosystems, and contribute to extinctions.

WHY SHOULD WE CARE ABOUT PREVENTING SPECIES EXTINCTION?

Preventing species extinction is crucial for several reasons:

1. Ecological Services: Species provide essential services like pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control.
Bees, for instance, pollinate crops, contributing to food security.
2. Ethical Responsibility: As stewards of the planet, we have an ethical duty to protect other forms of life.
Species have intrinsic value beyond their utility to humans.
3. Scientific Knowledge: Studying species helps us understand evolution, genetics, and ecological
interactions. Losing species means losing valuable scientific insights.
4. Aesthetic and Cultural Value: Species inspire art, literature, and cultural practices. Their existence
enriches our lives and connects us to nature.
 5. Economic Impact: Ecosystems generate economic benefits (e.g., tourism, fisheries). Species loss affects
livelihoods and economies.

HOW CAN WE PROTECT WILD SPECIES FROM PREMATURE EXTINCTION?

1. Habitat Conservation: Preserve natural habitats and restore degraded ones. This includes protecting
forests, wetlands, grasslands, and marine ecosystems. National parks, wildlife reserves, and protected
areas play a vital role.
2. Species Recovery Programs: Implement targeted efforts to save endangered species. These programs
involve captive breeding, habitat restoration, and reintroduction into the wild.
3. Combat Illegal Wildlife Trade: Enforce strict regulations against poaching, trafficking, and illegal trade of
wildlife products. Educate communities about the importance of conservation.
4. Reduce Pollution: Minimize pollution of air, water, and soil. Sustainable practices in agriculture, industry,
and waste management are essential.
5. Climate Action: Address climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Protecting species
requires global cooperation to limit temperature rise and mitigate its effects.
6. Education and Awareness: Educate the public about the value of biodiversity and the impact of human
actions. Foster a sense of responsibility and stewardship.
7. Invasive Species Control: Prevent the spread of invasive species that harm native ecosystems. Monitor
and manage their presence.

SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY: THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the diversity of species, ecosystems, and genetic
variations.

Ecosystem Approach
The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the management of land, water, and living resources that promotes
conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.

PRINCIPLES

Holistic Management
Treating ecosystems as wholes rather than focusing on individual species or resources

Sustainability
Ensuring that the use of resources does not lead to long-term degradation.

Adaptive Management
Flexibility to adjust strategies based on monitoring and feedback.

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

Ecosystem Services
Recognizing and valuing the benefits ecosystems provide, such as provisioning (e.g., food, water), regulating (e.g.,
climate regulation), supporting (e.g., nutrient cycling), and cultural services (e.g., recreation).

Ecosystem Management
Implementing practices that maintain or enhance the health of ecosystems, considering their natural dynamics and
external pressures.

Stakeholder Involvement
Engaging local communities, businesses, and governments in decision-making processes to ensure inclusive and
effective management.
BENEFITS OF ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

Enhanced Conservation
By focusing on whole systems, the approach helps protect interconnected habitats and species.

Improved Resilience
Diverse ecosystems are better able to withstand and recover from environmental changes and stresses.

Sustainable Development
Balances ecological health with human needs, promoting long-term economic and social benefits.

THREE MAJOR THREATS TO FORESTS

Deforestation refers to the decrease in forest areas across the world that are lost for other uses such as
agricultural croplands, urbanization, or mining activities.

Climate Change refers to significant and lasting changes in the Earth's climate and
weather patterns over time.
Illegal Lagging occurs when timber is harvested, transported, processed, bought or sold in violation of national or
international laws.

SOLUTIONS

Mitigation Efforts
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy and energy efficiency initiatives.

Enforce Existing Laws

Strengthen the enforcement of existing laws against illegal logging and increase penalties for violations.

Reforestation and Afforestation

Planting trees in deforestedareas and establishing newforests.

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING FOREST

involves a variety of practices aimed at preserving
forest ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, and
ensuring that forests can continue to provide
resources and benefits for future generations.

FOUNDATION OF SOCIAL STUDIES

LESSON 3: PSYCHOLOGY

ETYMOLOGY AND DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

“Psyche” – Life
“Logos” – Explanation
 - It is the scientific study of mind (mental process) and behavior.

THE FATHER OF PSYCHOLOGY

Wilhelm Wundt – in 1879 he opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology (first laboratory) in the University of
Leipzig in Germany.

- He separated Philosophy and Psychology with the emphasis being on objective measurement and control.

PSYCHOLOGISTS

- They work in a forensic field, provide counselling and therapy for people in distress.
- They also work in research laboratories, hospitals, schools and businesses.

METHODS USE BY PSYCHOLOGISTS TO UNDERSTAND HUMAN BEHAVIOR.

1. Observations
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Laboratory Studies

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Description – it identifies and classifies behaviour as accurately as possible.

2. Explanation – Proposing reasons for behavior or mental processes.
3. Predictions – Offering hypothesis of how a given condition will affect mental processes.
4. Influence – using the result of research to solve practical problems involving mental processes.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Basic Research – to seek new knowledge; explores nature of memory, brain functions, motivations, and emotional
expression.

Applied Research – solving practical problems. Focuses on finding methods to improve memory and to decrease
distress. Concerned with the Fourth Goal of Psychology (Influence).

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Behaviourism/ Behaviorism – This school redefined psychology as “Science of Behavior” this school
confines itself to the study of behavior – observable, measurable, objective and scientific; determined
primarily by factors in the environment.

John Watson (1878 – 1958) – a psychologists that looked Psychology as defined by Structuralist and Functionalist.

Psychology as the Behavior Views it (1913) – The article where Watson proposed a radical approach to psychology –
one that rejected the subjectivity of both structuralism and functionalism.

2. Psychoanalysis - is a set of psychological theories and therapeutic techniques that aim to explore the
unconscious mind to understand and treat mental disorders. It was founded by Sigmund Freud.

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) – Psychoanalysis Theory; mental life is like an ice berg; individual do not consciously
control their thoughts, feelings, and behavior, instead these are determined by unconscious forces.
Ice Berg Theory - the visible part represents conscious mental experiences while the underwater represents
unconscious impulses, wishes and desires.

3. Humanistic Psychology – reject with equal vigor: Behavorist View and Psychoanalytic Approach. It focuses
on the uniqueness humans and their capacity to choose, grow, and psychological health.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (1902 – 1978) they contrast Freud’s Theory from his disturbed patient – humanist
emphasize a much more positive view of human nature; people are innately good and possess free-will.

4. Cognitive Psychology – grew and developed partly in response of strict behaviorism, especially in the US
(Robins, Gosling, and Craik 1999); sees human as active participants who seek out experiences, and use
mental processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive development.

5. Evolutionary Psychology – focuses on how the human behaviors required for survival have adapted in the
face of environmental pressures over the long course of evolution. (Archer 1996)

Theory of Natural Selection – by Charles Darwin, member of a given species possess characteristics that help them
survive are the most likely to pass on the genes to sub sequent generations.

6. Biological (Physiological) Psychology – look for links between specific behavior and particular biological
factors that often help explain individuals differences; it studies the structures of brain and central nervous
system.

7. The Sociocultural Approach – emphasizes social and cultural influences on the behavior and stresses the
importance of understanding those influences when interpreting the behavior of others.

LESSON 4: PSYCHOLOGY: LEARNING

WHAT IS LEARNING?

- Life is a learning process. It involves the interaction of a person from childhood and the total situations that
he will find himself into; it makes man become better that any other beings.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

1. Maturation and Readiness – readiness will power to learn is a great deciding factor of his results in learning.
If an individual has will to learn, then he will find ways for effective learning.
2. Intelligence – positively related to learning ability of children; what one learns, how well one learns, and
ways engaging in learning tasks. In operational term, it is a capacity for problem solving, thinking, reasoning,
dealing with emotions, developing interest, and sense of right and wrong.
3. Motivation – regarded as something that prompts, compels and energize and individual to behave in a
particular manner; also defined as internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behavior.
4. Environment – occur with special reference to the cultural context of an individual; Social Constructivist
View – learning is culturally guided and oriented.
5. Health of the Learner – can play a havoc with the process and products of learning; a person who does not
maintain satisfactory physical health, have to suffer in terms of gains in learning.
6. Emotional Factors – are the feelings that colours our lives and allows us to experience sorrow and joy; plays
a pivotal role in providing our behaviour a particular direction and thereby help in shaping our learning
capacity.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – Learning in which a previously neutral stimuli acquires the capability of evoking a
response previously evoked by another non-neutral stimuli.
 - Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) - a renowned Russian physiologist best known for his discovery of classical
conditioning.
- Influenced by Dr. William Beaumont - a pioneering American surgeon known as the “Father of Gastric
Physiology” for his ground-breaking research on human digestion.
- Story of Pavlov’s Puppies - Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his lab would start salivating not only when they
were presented with food but also when they heard the footsteps of the lab assistant who fed them.

UNCONDITIONAL STIMULUS – a non-neutral stimuli.

Example: a cupcake.

UNCONDITIONAL RESPONSE – response to a non- neutral stimulus.

Example: salivating at the sight of a cupcake.

REINFORCEMENT – is a consequence that increases the probability that a behaviour will occur; to strengthen.

PUNISHMENT – consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Richard Solomon - he emphasized that to be effective, punishment needs to be immediate, consistent, and severe
enough to alter the targeted behaviour.

LAWS OF LEARNING – are attempts to state the more fundamental conditions favourable to the learning process.
They are made to make learning a continuous and effective process of development.

1. The Law of Readiness - states that when the individual is set for action, the activity is consonant to the set is
satisfying; activity inappropriate to the set is annoying and frustrating.
2. The Law of Exercise – made up of two parts: the law of use and disuse – the former asserts that, other
things are being equal; the more frequently modifiable connection between situation and response is used,
the stronger the connections. The latter asserts that, other things being equal, when a modifiable
connection between situation and response is not used, the strength of that connections weakens.
3. The Law of Effect – states that connections are pleasant tend to be repeated and strengthened; unpleasant
will weakened.

LESSON 5: SOCIOLOGY

ETYMOLOGY OF SOCIOLOGY
-came from the French word “Sociologie”
Latin: “Socius” – Companion and Greek: “Logos” – knowledge

Sociology – is the study of social relationships and social interactions from small and personal groups to very large
scale groups.

Sociologists – they study all aspects and levels of society.

Micro-level – study small groups and individual interactions

Macro-level analysis – look at trends among and between large groups and societies.

THE FATHER OF SOCIOLOGY

Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) - first used the “Sociology” in 1838; he believed that all societies develop and progress
through the following stages: religious, metaphysics, and scientific.

Society – A group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with one another, and who share
common culture.

Culture – referred to the groups’ shared practices, values and beliefs; everyday routine and interactions, social rules
etc.

C. Wright Mills – in 1959 he described Culture as an awareness of the relationship between a person’s behavior and
experience; It is a way of seeing our own and other people’s behavior in relationship to history and social structure.

TYPES OF SOCIETIES

1. Hunter and Gatherer Society (10,000 – 12,000 years ago) – strongest dependence on environment of
preindustrial society; basic structure of human society based around kinship or tribe. They rely on their
environment to survive, they hunt animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food, they are nomadic
(moving from place to place)

2. Pastoral Society– rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival; breed livestock for food,
clothing and transportation, they created surplus for goods.

3. Agricultural Society (3000 BCE) – relied on permanent tool for survival, Agricultural Revolution made
farming possible and profitable. Tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal. Human settlements
grew into towns and cities. Is is also the age where people engaged in thoughtful activities like music, poetry,
and philosophy.

4. Feudal Society – contained a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and
protection. Nobility (lords) placed vassals in charge of pieces of land and fight for their lord. These small
pieces of land known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by lower class. Power handed down through family lines,
peasant serves their lord for generation and generations. Feudalism failed and replace by Capitalism leading
to industrial era.

5. Industrial Society - During the industrial age, , power shifted from aristocracy to business-savvy individuals
with families like the Rockefellers and controlling government and business. Labor unions were
Vanderbilts to address worker exploitation, and formed
laws set mandatory conditions. Although new
technology ended the industrial age, social structures like family, childhood, and time standardization still exist in
industrial society.

6. Post-industrial Society - Information societies, also known as post-industrial or digital societies, are a recent
development based on information and services production. Power lies with those responsible for storing
and distributing information, rather than producing goods. Members of these societies are often employed
as service sellers, and social classes are divided by access to education, as technical skills are essential for
success.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

1. Values and Beliefs

Values are a culture's standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are deeply embedded and
critical for transmitting and teaching a culture's beliefs.
Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs, but
they also share collective values.

2. Norms

Norms define how to behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and important, and most
members of the society adhere to them.

Formal norms are established, written rules. They are behaviors, worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and
serve the most people.

Informal norms-casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to-is longer. People learn informal norms
by observation, imitation, and general socialization.

3. Symbols and Language

Symbols-such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words-help people understand that world. They provide clues
to understanding experiences by conveying recognizable meanings that are shared by societies.

Language is a symbolic system through which people communicate and through which culture is transmitted. Some
languages contain a system of symbols used for written communication, while others rely on only spoken
communication and nonverbal actions.

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

THEORY OF SOCIAL SELF

George Herbert Mead – a sociologist from the 1800s, is well known for his theory of social self.

Theory of Social Self – is based on the perspective that the self emerges from social interactions, such as observing
and interacting with others, responding to others’ opinion about oneself.

Self – is based on biological factors and inherited traits. According to mead, “the self is not there from birth, but it is
developed over time from social experiences and activities.

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF

According to Mead, three activities develop the self; language, play, and games.

1. Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols, gestures, words,
and sounds. Language conveys others' attitudes and opinions toward a subject or the person. Emotions, such as
anger, happiness, and confusion, are conveyed through language.

2. Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express expectation of
others. Play develops one's self- consciousness through role-playing. During role-play, a person is able to internalize
the perspective of others and develop an understanding of how others feel about themselves and others in a variety
of social situations.
3. Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the activity. Self is
developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in order to win the game or be
successful at an activity.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Preparatory Stage (0-2)

Play Stage (2-6)
Game Stage (7+)

Two Sides of Self: Me & 1

According to Mead's theory, the self has two sides or phases: 'me' and 'I.'

1. The 'me' is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. The 'me' represents learned behaviors,
attitudes, and expectations of others and of society. This is sometimes referred to as the generalized other. The 'me'
is considered a phase of the self that is in the past. The 'me' has been developed by the knowledge of society and
social interactions that the individual has gained.

2. The 'I', therefore, can be considered the present and future phase of the self. The 'I' represents the
individual's identity based on response to the 'me.' The 'T' says, 'Okay. Society says I should behave and socially
interact one way, and I think I should act the same (or perhaps different),' and that notion becomes self.

The game stage yields one of Mead's best-known concept known as the generalized other. The generalized other is
the attitude of the entire community or, in the example of the baseball game, the attitude of the entire team. The
ability to take the role of the generalized other is essential to the self: "Only insofar as the person takes the attitudes
of the organized social group to which he belongs toward the organized co-operative social activity or set of such
activities in which that group is engaged, does he/she develop a complete self." It is also crucial that people be able
to evaluate themselves from the point of view of the generalized other and not merely from the viewpoint of
discrete others.

Modernity's Impact on Self-Identification

• Individualization: Modernity involves structural changes and changes in the relationship between social structures
and social agents. Individualism emphasizes human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance
and liberty.

• Multiple Choice: Modernity presents a complex diversity of choices, requiring individuals to adjust their
appearance and demeanour to suit different situations.

• Risk: Modernity is full of uncertainty, exposing individuals to a variety of crisis situations.

• Globalization and Mediated Experience: Increased globalization has influenced various aspects of life, with media
and electronic media providing a global audience.

• Social Control: Modern society uses social control through appeal to reason, with education and propaganda often
used to control behavior.

• Choosing a Lifestyle: Lifestyles are routine customs that are reflexively open to change due to the mobile nature of
self-identity.

• The Body: The body is a central element of self-identity, with appearance becoming a central element.
• Private vs. Public: Modern social life is more private due to urban life, increased mobility, and the rise of the
internet.

• Narcissistic Nature of Self: Narcissism is a character disorder that involves preoccupation with the self, preventing
individuals from creating suitable boundaries between themselves and the external world.

THE CONCERNS OF CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology teaches us to understand human behavior in the context of a cultural system. Its main concern is the
study of man and how culture has evolved through time and how does it influence human behavior.

According to Anthropology, how we see ourselves shapes our lives, and is shaped by our cultural context, what kind
of culture one has been practicing is greatly influenced by factors surrounding the person, Since the beginning of
time, agents of socialization has impacted the lives of every person. It has then become one of the areas of concern
of contemporary Anthropology. But modernization has changed the landscape of the family.

What is Anthropology?

It is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they behave, and adapt to different
environments, communicate and socialize with one another. The study of anthropology is concerned both with the
biological features that make us human (such as physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history and evolution) and
with social aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family and religion).

What is the Meaning of Socialization?

It is the process whereby an individual learns to adjust to a group (or society) and behave in a manner approved by
the group (or society). According to most social scientists, socialization essentially represents the whole process of
learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as
of children.

CONTEMPORARY CULTURE AND THE AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Family

Life has changed so much for most of us. With the advancement of technology, changing cultural norms, new
priorities, and new forms of communication fueled by the Internet, the definition of family also has evolved. The
roles played by each member has also changed, authority and power given to member such as the father has
somewhat declined. These kind of changes have definitely contributed also to the development of the many aspects
of a bei being a person. Below are some of the changes that can be observed in a modern family.

• Decreased control of marriage contract: Traditional families were contracted by parents, now partners settle the
marriage themselves.

• Changes in man-woman relationship: Women are now seen as equal partners with equal rights, not just devotees.

• Laxity in sex relationships: Traditional rigidity no longer exists, with cases of illegitimate sex relationships also
common.

• Economic independence: Women in modern families have increased their economic independence, with both
husbands and wives working outside the home.

• Smaller family: Modern families are smaller, with contraceptives aiding in birth checks.

• Decline of religious control: Traditional religious rites like daily prayer are no longer performed in modern families.
• Filo-centric family: Children dominate the family, with their wishes determining family policies.

School:
• A crucial institution for socialization, with the use of technology increasing in the 21st Century.
• Information and communication technologies have become essential tools for teaching and learning.

Global Citizenship:
• Education is essential for global citizenship, enabling individuals to see beyond boundaries and understand
sociocultural differences.
• It helps appreciate others' philosophy, ideology, and lifestyle, and provides sensibilities for personal and societal
benefit.

Religion:
• A cultural universal, fulfilling basic functions within human societies.
• Provides mental peace, inculcates social virtues, promotes social solidarity, converts animal qualities to human
qualities, and is an agent of socialization and control.
• Promotes welfare, provides recreation, influences economy, political system, and strengthens self-confidence.

Media

• Media provides news and information, educates the public, and aids democracy.
• Media entertains people and acts as an agent of change in development.
• Media brings people closer together, promotes trade and industry, and aids political and democratic processes.
• Media can bring positive social changes.

Social Media's Impact on Youth

• Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have significantly influenced youth.
• Studies show that social media can lead to Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD), which can cause neurological
complications, psychological disturbances, and social problems.
• Short texts or tweets can trigger dopamine release, linked to addiction to drugs, alcohol, and gambling.
• The American Journal of Public Health reports a positive correlation between internet usage and higher general
population suicide rates.
• Social media is used by girls to enhance their self-image.
• Girls with low self-esteem often admit their social networking image doesn't match their in-person image.

ASIAN STUDIES

THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

Rise of Sumerian Cities

• Ubaidians established settlements in 5th millennium B.C. in Sumer, later known as Sumer.
• These settlements developed into major cities like Adab, Eridu, Isin, Kish, Kullab, Lagash, Larsa, Nippur, and Ur.
• Semites from Syria and Arabian deserts infiltrated as peaceful immigrants and raiders.
• Sumerians, a newcomer population, intermarried with the native population around 3250 BC.
• King Mesanepada established the first dynasty of Ur and made Sumer its capital.
• , the first Sumerian ruler, was described as the "man who stabilized all the lands."Etana
• The last Sumerian was Lugalzagesi, the most powerful ruler of the Middle East.
ruler
Sumerians' Early Religion
and Writings

• Polytheism: Each city-state was owned by a god who chose the ruler and protected the city.
• Rulers were responsible for maintaining orders, overseeing projects, food storage, and irrigation.
• Ziggurat: Large brick temples were built in each city to house their god.
• Cuneiform Writing: Sumerian scribes used clay tablets to record their history.
• Decline in Power: By 23rd century BC, Sumerians couldn't defend themselves against foreign invasion.

The Akkadians

• Sargon I (reigned 2335-2279 BC) conquered Sumer, establishing Agade as the capital and forming the Akkadians.
• The Akkadian dynasty lasted about a century, but the Gutians sacked and destroyed Agade and Sumer.
• The city of Lagash regained prominence under Judea (2144-2124 BC), a pious and capable governor.
• Utuhegal, king of Erech, won a decisive victory from the Gutians, achieving complete independence.
• Ur-Nammu founded the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, a successful military leader and social reformer.
• Ur-Nammu's son Shulgi was a successful soldier, diplomat, and patron of literature.
• The Amorites invaded Sumer and Akkad before the 2nd millennium BC, causing political disorder and confusion.
• The Elamites attacked Ur and took its last ruler, Ibbi-Sin (2029-2004 BC).

The Babylonians

• Hammurabi, the king of Babylonia, united the country in 1792 BC.

• He extended his empire northward, from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.
• After consolidating gains, he focused on protecting frontiers and fostering internal prosperity.
• He personally supervised navigation, irrigation, agriculture, tax collection, and temple erection.
• Hammurabi is remembered for codifying laws governing Babylonian life.

Babylonia's Fall

• Hittites raided Babylon in 1595 BC, leading to its downfall.

• Babylon was controlled by non-Semitic Kassites for four centuries.
• Ashur fell to the Mitanni state, established by Hurrians from the Caucasus.

The Assyrians

• Assyria became a dependency of Mitanni in 1500 BC, a powerful empire.

• In the 14th century, Ashur-uballit I freed Assyria from Mitanni's rule and annexed some territory.
• Tiglath Pilser I ruled over a vast territory from the Mediterranean coast to Turkey, but his successors failed to
maintain the empire.
• Ashurnasirpal II led the Assyrian recovery, reinvading neighboring kingdoms and making Calah its capital.
• Ashurbanipal, the grandson of Sennacheribs, reigned as "King of the World" and ruled the Assyrian Empire for a
Golden Age in art, architecture, literature, and science.
• Sennacherib founded Nineveh, a city showcasing Assyrian power, with a large moat and an aqueduct for water
supply.
• After Ashurbanipal's death, the Assyrian empire lost central authority, leading to its fall in Arakpha.

The Chaldeans (New Babylon)

• Divided territories between Medes and Chaldeans after Assyrian fall.

• Chaldeans founded a new dynasty in Babylon.
• Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon, surrounded by a 13-foot-thick double wall.
• Built Hanging Gardens of Babylon as a gift to his wife Amyitis, referred to as one of the Seven Wonders of the
World.
• Trade flourished, with boats extending from the Euphrates River to the Persian Gulf.
• Primary trade goods were wool, woven cloth, and barley.
• Babylonian astronomers studied the sky, created star maps, and calculated eclipses.
• Nebuchadnezzar continued Assyrian conquest, invading Judah and securing Jerusalem.
• Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 BC, succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

• Designed by Maarten van Heemskerck.

• Gardens grew on royal palace roofs and terraces.
• Built by Nebuchadnezzar II in 600 BC.
• Rebuilt by (556-539 BC).
• Nabonidus Represents the ziggurat of Nanna, a rival to Etemenanki at Babylon.
• Despite its survival, its brick facing has recently been restored.

Mesopotamian Government

• Political organization shifted from clan to territorial unit with geographical

boundaries.
• State authority vested in a king.
• Sumerian empires believed community well-being depended on gods' favor.
• Patron deity owned city , inhabitants, farms, orchards, and towns.
• Ruled by a mortal , approved king as earthly representative.

Some of the duties of a king were:

• To defend his city and his lands from enemy attacks and to extend its territory,
domination and influence;
• As head of the clergy, one of his sacred obligations was the building and repairing of
temples:
• Oversees public works.
• and justice.
Promote and preserve law

Social Stratification

Aristocrats:
• Composed of wealthy families, including temple priests and high-ranking officials.

Commoners:
• Backbone of society, consisting of productive workers like architects, scribes, merchants, cattle breeders,
fishermen, potters, and brick makers.
• Employed by wealthiest landlords.

Slaves:
• Property of temples, palaces, or wealthy estates.

Religious Beliefs

• Gods ranked based on importance, influence, and power.

• Four major universe realms: An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursag.
• These supreme deities planned and created universe components.
• Administrative gods took charge of these components.
• Religion played a central role in Mesopotamian life, inspiring temples, sculpture, and decorative art.

Contributions of Other Cultures

• Egyptians influenced absolute monarchy.

• Arameans introduced cosmopolitanism.
• Phoenicians introduced trade and commerce.
• Hittitettes demonstrated iron-working techniques.
• Hebrews contributed to human life and religious traditions.
• Advances in mathematics and astronomy.

THE CLASSICAL AGE

The Achaemenian Empire

• In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom fell to Cyrus the Great, forming part of the Persian Empire.
• Babylon, a royal palace, became an administrative capital.
• Alexander the Great built a theater in Babylon, now Humra.
• Babylon's brilliance ended around 250 BC when inhabitants moved to Seleucia.
• Mesopotamia became the satrapies of Babylon and Ashur.
• Aramaic language became common, and imperial government brought stability.
• Persian kings ruled at the intersection of Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Government

• Central government with council of state and high officials.

• Empire divided into twenty satrapies governed by Persian satraps.
• Satraps were deputy kings, overseeing loyalty.
• Empire connected through roads and post houses.
• Persians were lenient to subjects with tribute and obedience.
• Permitted local political and religious autonomy.
• Jews benefited from this policy, leading to theocratic state at Jerusalem.

Religion

• The Achaemenid Persians' religion developed from early Iranians, focusing on worship of one god, Ahura-Mazda.
• Zoroaster, a contemporary of Cyrus the Great, was the great religious prophet of Iranian religion.
• Zoroastrianism became the leading religion of the Iranian aristocracy by the last Achaemenid.
• Zoroastrian view viewed life as a constant struggle between good and evil forces.
• Zoroastrianism, termed an imperfect monotheism, used simple open-air altars, fire lighting, and animal sacrifices
as principal rituals.

The Fall of the Achaemeneid

• Darius I established strong administrative organization in 525 BC.

• Athenians stopped Darius' attempt to subdue Greek city-states at Marathon in 490 BC.
• Xerxes' subsequent expedition faced defeats at Şalamis, Plataea, Mycale, and Sestos.
• Greeks began offensives, culminating in Alexander the Great's overthrow of the Achaemeneids in 321 BC after a
thirteen-year campaign.
The Hellenistic World

• Greeks became dominant in the region after Alexander the Great's conquest in 331 BC.
• The Hellenistic culture, a blend of Greek and Asian cultures, emerged.
• Alexander's marshals quickly fought for his inheritance, leading to the empire's division into Ptolemaic Kingdom,
Macedonian Kingdom, and Seleucid Kingdom.
• Instability in governing led to conflicts over succession and the curse of interstate warfare.

Government

• New kingdoms were ruled by absolute monarchs, influenced by Middle Eastern monarchy traditions.
• Kings were seen as god-like shepherds, often deified or under divine protection.
• Kingships aimed to improve their domains and govern well.
• Monarchs primarily relied on C Greeks and Macedonians for assistance.
• New bureaucracies remodeled older civilizations according to rational principles.
• Natives willing to adopt Greek ways could participate in new bureaucracies.
• The Hellenistic world was predominantly governed by Greeks from the upper layer.
• This situation became weak as natives became aware of new exploitation intensities.

Economy

• Main economic activity: Agriculture.

• Modern techniques and animals improved commerce and industry.
• Main centers: Corinth, Rhodes, Antioch, Seleucia, Alexandria.
• Trade routes extended by land and sea.
• Mediterranean and Middle East united under Greek coinage and business standards.

Religion

• The majority of the population continued in their own gods and spoken long accustomed in their own tongues.
• The cosmopolitan character of Hellenistic civilization remained foreign to the majority of the population of
Westem Asia.

The Persians and the Roman Empire in Asia

• Rome governed Europe, Africa, and Asia during its peak.

• Post Pompey expansion, Rome faced opposition from the Parthian empire in Iran.
• The two empires competed for control in strategic border areas, particularly Armenia.
• Armenia's political status was significant to Rome, but Iran influenced it during most of the empire's reign.
• Romans established an empire behind Armenian and Mesopotamian frontiers.
• Roman central government took over administration in the 3rd century AD, ending the Graeco-Roman world's
urban life.

East-West Influence

• Asian ideas influenced the Mediterranean world, including political deification of Emperor.
• Influence spread to Romans through Alexander and Greek tradition.
• Platonic ideas mixed with Oriental mysticism in philosophy.
• Roman sphere in Asia included Judea, where Jesus of Nazareth lived and preached.

The Birth of Christianity

• Christianity's growth relied heavily on its followers, who shared a unique concept of man.
• Christians came to the church through their own salvation seeking, but were grouped in the church through
physical and spiritual ties.
• Jesus commanded followers to love God and their neighbors as themselves, setting laws that diverged from pagan
thought.
• Christians believed in their own free-will and were linked to God's will, with salvation promised through the
voluntary sacrifice of his Son.

The Rise of the Sassanid

• Christianity expanded in Mediterranean and Armenia, influencing Iran's culture.

• Strong indigenous Persian tradition led to a new imperial dynasty with unique Iranian religion and politics.
• Successive revolt against Parthian supremacy established a new imperial line in Persia.
• Ardashir I was the first king of the Sassanid dynasty.
• Parthians fell to Sassanids in AD 224, extending from Euphrates to Afghanistan.
• Prosperity brought by effective government, improved irrigation, and drainage.

Sassanian Government

• Emphasized close cooperation between throne and Zoroastrian priesthood.

• Ardashir I's power combines church and state.
• Central administration organ: bureau (diwan).
• Empire divided into four toparchies, each led by a royal Shah.
• Potential successors were assigned to a toparchy.

Beliefs

• Orthodox Zoroastrianism emphasized the role of Ahura Mazda, the

god of light and struggle between good and evil righteousness.
• Azdaism emphasized ruled over a stratified societythe , the veneration of earth and water, and respect for
property.
• The Sassanian government , with injunctions on class intermingling and institutionalized differentiations in dress
and possessions.

Social Class

• Governed a stratified society: priests, officials, warriors, intellectuals, and workers.

• Class movement was difficult, with king's permission required.
• Injunctions against class intermingling were issued.
• Institutionalized differentiations in dress and possessions were used to emphasize distinctions.

THE ISLAMIC AGE

The Rise of Mohammad

• Married to Khadijah at twenty-five, leading to his meditation in a barren cave.

• Received his first revelation in the cave, stating God is one and all powerful.
• Converted some followers, but faced opposition from the Quaraysh tribe.
• In 622 AD, escaped the Quaraysh and became the head of a group in Medina.
• Asserted various roles, including warrior, legislator, judge, and civil administrator.
• Led his group against enemies, broke away from Juadaism, Christianity, and Arabian heathenism.
• Replaced the Sabbath to Friday and entered Mecca in 630 AD.
The Islamic Religion

• Islam, enshrined in the Koran, is a religion of surrender and submission to God's will. • The basic dogma is "La ilaha
illa-l-lah," meaning "No God whatever but Allah."
• The Koran contains uncreated, co-eternal words of God.
• The 5 Pillars of Islam cover religious duties:
• Profession of faith in Allah and Mohammad as the messenger.
• Prayer and almsgiving.
• Ramadan, a period of fasting and abstinence.
• Visit to Mecca.

Mohammad's Successor: Abu Bakr

• Abu Bakr became Caliph after Mohammad's death.

• Caliph defended the Faith.
• Governance governed according to Koran law.

The Umayyad Administration

• Based on Byzantine and Persian Empires' provincial system with modifications.

• Syria and Palestine merged.
• Iraq, Persi, and eastern Arabia formed a vice-royalty with Kufa as capital.
• Northern Mesopotamia and Armenia merged.
• Egypt and North Africa formed separate vice-royals.
• Amir of Spain ruled independently, nominally under North Africa's governor general.
• Differentiated governmental functions: political administration, tax collection, religious leadership.

The Abbasid Government

• Located on the Tigris in Baghdad, near the old Sassanian capital.

• Structure influenced by Iranian influence.
• Established by Al- Mansur and continued by his successors.
• First officer was Vizir, a Persian office for advice.
• Empire divided into 24 provinces.
• Postal service maintained, including carrier pigeons.
• Postal authorities also compiled maps, conducted surveys, and operated the caliph's spy
system.

Social and Economic Conditions

Society under the Umayyad was divided into four major social classes:

1. The aristocrats This is composed of the ruling Arabian Moslems headed by the caliph household:

2. The middle class This is composed of warriors, veterans, and government officials,

3. The neo-Moslems - These are the people who have been converted into Moslems and admitted as full citizens It
was these neophytes within the Moslem society who became the first devotees of skilled crafts, specialized
professions, and the leamed disciplines.

4. The slaves-They are at the bottom of the social ladder. These are the people who have been prisoners of war,
others captured by raids, still others were purchased in the trade market.

• Social class was a caste, with no possibility of moving from one caste to another.
• Iraq was the economic and political core of the caliphate, recovering from prosperity under the Umayyad.
• Abbasid successors constructed canals and ditches for drainage and irrigation.
• Principal crops were wheat, barley, and rice.
• Persia produced mutton, sugar, rose water, raisins, honey, and pomegranates.
• Egypt, Arabia, Syria, and Palestine were the third in value.
• Weaving was the most important industry, producing clothing, rugs, brocades, and hanging tapestry.
• Ceramic industry thrived in Iraq and Persia.
• Discovery of paper based on skin parchment of the papyrus was significant.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

Geographical Location

India: A Triangular Peninsula in Southern Asia

• Stretches 2,000 miles from Himalayas to Indian Ocean.
• Features world's highest peaks, largest and wettest plains, hottest and coldest regions.
• Shores are washed by Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, and Arabian Sea.
• Occupied by India and Pakistan, founded on August 15, 1947, after Great Britain withdrew sovereignty.
• Both nations share the 5,000-year history of the Indian subcontinent.

The Natural Regions

Subcontinent Divided into Hindustan, Deccan, Far South (Tamil Land)

The Hindustan

• Hindustan, located south of the Himalayas, is home to the world's largest mountain mass.
• Mt. Everest, one of the world's highest, stands over 29,000 feet in Nepal.
• Bound by the Indus and Ganges rivers, both from Tibet.
• The region is well-watered and fertile, supporting a significant portion of India's population.
• It is the oldest center of Hindu civilization.

The Deccan

"Deccan: Extensive Lava Plateau in

Hindustan" • Average elevation: 2,000 feet.
• Eastern and Western Ghats: Mountains from coast.

Tamil Land

The Tamil or Far South extends to the tip of the subcontinent and includes the tropical coastal strips.

The Climate

• India's climate variation is influenced by latitude and other factors.

• Winter is characterized by cold winds from Siberia, resulting in cool, dry conditions with little rainfall.
• Summer is marked by rapid warming of Asia's land mass by the hot sun, resulting in heavy rainfall from the wet
monsoon.
• Most rain occurs between June and September.
• In the far north, particularly in the Indus Valley and Thar desert, the climate is as dry as the Sahara of Africa.

Natural Resources
India's Natural Resources and
Agriculture • Fertile soil and abundant
natural resources.
• Rich mineral deposits, including 25% of world's iron reserves, 80% of mica, second largest bauxite reserves, and
third largest magnesium deposit.
• Top producer of peanut and tea, rice, jute, and raw sugar.
• Other important agricultural products include grains, spices, rubber, coffee, coconut, and cotton.

THE EARLY CIVILIZATION OF INDIA

The Harappan Civilization

Early Village Culture Evolution

• Homogeneous culture developed in 4th millennium BC across 500,000 square miles. Including parts of Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sind, and Makran coast.
• Indus Valley civilization, a highly developed urban civilization, began around 3000 BC in India.
• Harappan civilization, now known as Mohenjodaro and Harappa, spread to northwestern and western India.
• Other sites include Ropar in Punj Punjab and Lothal in Gujarat.

Urban Development

• Almost a thousand years of stability and well-planned cities.

• Streets laid at right angles, covered drains.
• Houses earmarked for upper and lower strata.
• Notable public buildings like the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro.
• Production of metals like copper, bronze, lead, tin.
• Discovery of kilns for brick production.

Occupations

• Utilized domesticated animals and cultivated crops.

• Trade was a significant activity in the Indus Valley.
• Each family owned a seal with a human or animal figure.
• Extensive trade relations with neighboring regions in India, Persian Gulf, and Sumer.

Society and Religion

• Developed urban civilization in India around 3000 BC.

• Primarily confined to Indus Valley, with Mohenjodaro and Harappa as high
watermarks.
• Archaeological excavations show Harappan civilization expanded to
northwestern and western India.
• Dominated by powerful priestly class, responsible for fortress construction, defense, handicraft production, and tra
• Worshipped gods and goddesses in tale and female forms, with terra-cotta statues of Mother Goddess prevalent.

The Slow Demise Of Harappan Civilization

Harappan Civilization's Decline

• Around 1700 BC: Decrease due to flooding and ecological changes.
• Aryan migrations into India around 1500 BC: Impacted Harappan culture, leading to extinction.

The Vedic Aryans

Aryan Invasion of Indus Region: 1500-1000 B.C.
• Aryan invaders from central Asia invaded the Indus region, focusing on Ganges River valleys and Indus plains.
• They built a civilization rivaling Harappan settlements and tribal groups.
• Despite conserving Harappan beliefs, they did not restore or replace the great cities and engineering systems of
the Indus valley peoples.
• Many Aryan groups settled down and relied on farming.
• By 700 B.C., sacred hymns and ritual incantations were recorded, marking a new civilization pattern in South Asia.
• The Vedic Period (1500 BC to 500 BC) marked Aryan dominance in the region.

The Vedic Literature

Between 1500 and 1000 B.C., Aryan invaders invaded the Indus region, building a civilization rivaling
Harappan settlements. Despite conserving Harappan beliefs, they did not restore or replace their great cities and
engineering systems. Aryan groups settled and relied on farming, marking the beginning of a new civilization pattern
in South Asia. The Vedic Period marked Aryan dominance.

1. The Samhita

• Comprises four metric texts: Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.

• The oldest layer of Vedic, apart from Rigvedic hymns.
• texts Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance contains 89,000 padas, 72,000 in the four Samhitas.
• Rig Veda contains lyrical hymns.
• Atharva Veda contains magic formulas.
• Sama Veda contains religious chants.
• Yajur Veda sacrificial prayers.

2. The Brahmanas are prose texts containing observations on religious rites and sacrifices. They also include legends
of the exploits of ancient.
3. The Aranyakas contains religious and philosophical ideas and books of instructions for the old hermits of the
forest.
They contain elaborate rules for the performance of religious ceremonies

4. The Upanishads are also books of instructions given by a father to his son or the teacher to his pupil. It also
contains philosophical ideas on the universal truth.

The Sanskrit Epics

• Ancient texts containing significant characters from India's history.

• Include Hinduism's ideas and beliefs.
• Mahabharata by Vyasa: Family story with significant differences.
• Ramayana by Valmiki: Prince's quest to save family.

The Caste System

Caste System in India and Nepal:

• Traditional social structure based on purity and pollution.
• Has a history of at least 3000 BCE.
• Four main castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras.
• Dalits, considered untouchable, often subjected to discrimination.
• Despite reforms, caste system remains deeply ingrained, causing discrimination and social exclusion.

Hinduism
World's third-largest
• , primarily found in India and Nepal.
religion
Originated around 2500 BCE
Four main philosophical schools
• , based on belief in Brahman.
• : Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, Shaktadvaita Vedanta, Ramanuja
Vedanta.
• Pantheon of deities: Brahma (God of Creation) , Vishnu (Preserver and Protector) ,
Shiva (Destroyer)
• Known for sacred texts like Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas.
• Diverse rituals include sacrificial offerings.

The Birth Of Buddism

• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama in India in 6th century BCE.

• Known for its spiritual liberation and mindfulness.
• Achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya, India, around 528 BCE.
• Emphasizes compassion, self-discipline, moral conduct, and interconnectedness of all living beings.
• Evolution into various schools and sects with unique teachings.
• Aims to achieve spiritual liberation and end suffering.

THE EIGHT NOBLE PATH

1. Right View: Understanding the nature of reality and the path of transformation.
2. Right Intention: Commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement.
3. Right Speech: Speaking truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip, and harmful speech.
4. Right Action: Behaving in a morally upright way, avoiding actions that harm others.
5. Right Livelihood: Earning a living in a way that does not cause harm and is ethically positive.
6. Right Effort: Cultivating positive states of mind; freeing oneself from negative states.
7. Right Mindfulness: Developing awareness of the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena.
8. Right Concentration: Practicing meditation to achieve a focused and tranquil state of mind

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

1. The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Life involves suffering and dissatisfaction. This includes not only physical
pain but also emotional and psychological discomfort.
2. The Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Samudaya): Suffering is caused by desire, attachment, and craving. This
craving leads to a cycle of rebirth and continuous dissatisfaction.
3. The Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): It is possible to end suffering by eliminating desire and
attachment. This state of liberation and freedom from suffering is known as Nirvana.
4. The Truth of the Path to the End of Suffering (Magga): The way to end suffering is through the Noble
Eightfold Path, which includes right understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness,
and concentration

Ancient Buddhist Temple

• Constructed in Asia during early Buddhism, especially in India, Sri Lanka, and China.
• Served as sacred spaces for monks and nuns, worship centers, and repositories for sacred texts.
• Become integral to Buddhism's architecture and culture as Buddhism spread.
• Many remain significant cultural and religious landmarks today.

THE MUSLIM AND MONGOL INVADER

The Islamification Of India

Muhammad of Ghur, a Muslim conqueror from the Ghurid Empire, launched raids into northern India between
1175 and 1186, capturing Sind and Punjab but failing in Gujarat. After suffering a defeat in 1191against Princes
Prithviraj Chauhan, he decisively defeated the Indian princes in 1192, solidifying his control over northern India.
Muhammad of Ghur returned to Ghazni to focus on conflicts with other Turkish powers, leaving his general
Qutubuddin Aybak in charge of Indian conquests. Aybak advanced east and south but faced rebellions in Punjab.
After suppressing the uprisings, he was assassinated while returning to Ghazni. Despite the Ghurids' loss of control in
Afghanistan, Aybak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, establishing its capital in Delhi. The Slave Dynasty rulers
consolidated their power by decisively quelling rebellion sand strengthening Muslim rule in Hindustan.

The Delhi Sultanate, lasting around 300 years, was marked by continuous warfare. It dealt with regional rebellions in
Bengal, Mongol invasions from the northwest, and conquests of southern Hindu kingdoms like Madurai. Starting
with the Slave dynasty, it was ruled by five different dynasties before being overthrown by Mughal emperor
Humayun in 1556.

OTHER MUSLIM DYNASTIES

Allaudin Khalji
• In 1290, a new dynasty, the Khalji (1200-1320) overthrew the Slave Dynasty. It lasted for only thirty (30) years, but
within this relatively short span of time, it extended Moslem supremacy to the Deccan.

Muhammad bin Tughluq

• In 1320, another dynasty, the Tughluq (1320-1414) seized control of the Sultanate of Delhi. The following years of
Tughluq rule were market by Internal dissention and revolts against the Sultanate.

In 1398, Timur the Tartar invaded India, sacking Delhi and causing massive destruction. After his withdrawal,
Mahmud Tughluq, the last Tughluq ruler, struggled to maintain control from 1399 to1413. The ensuing chaos led to
the decline of the Tughluq Dynasty and the rise of the Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451), under which the Delhi Sultanate
diminished significantly.

Bahlul Khan Lodi

• The Lodi dynasty (1451-1526), of Afghan origin, revived Delhi's rule in northern India but struggled with military
and financial stability. Meanwhile, the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565), predominantly in present-day Karnataka,
was a significant Hindu power ruling much of southern India.

The Rise of the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 by Zihirudd in Muhammad Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, after
defeating the Lod is at Pānipat with the use of artillery. His empire extended from Afghanistan to Bengal. Babur’s
son, Humayun, lost the kingdom to Sher Shah Suri and fled to Persia but later recaptured Delhi in1555. This marked
the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India.

Akbar, despite being illiterate, surpassed his father and grandfather in wisdom and expanded his control over Hindu
Rajput kings through military victories. He integrated diverse religious leaders into his court and welcomed European
visitors, although they didn't gain significant influence. His reign was marked by a broadening of cultural and
religious dialogue, which continued under his successors Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

OTHER MOGUL RULERS

• Akbar was succeeded by his son Jahangir who ruled from (1605-1627). Although Jahangir was a gifted man, his
success was limited by his indolence, his addiction to excessive drink and strick of cruetly in his nature. Jahangir.
Shaj Jahan

• Shah Jahan (1627-1658), Akbar's grandson, patronized the arts, and during his reign, he built the famous Taj Mahal,
as a mausoleum for his favorite wife, Muntaz Mahal.

Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb, the son of Shah Jahan, seized the throne from his father in 1658 and was the last of the great Moguls.
He was a fanatical Moslem and oppression of all who held other beliefs produced discontent. The Räjput rulers, once
loyal to the Mogul Empire, rebelled against Aurangzeb, leading his into a costly war.

In 1686-87, Aurangzeb conquered the Muslim kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkonda, but his efforts to subdue the
Maratha Confederacy failed, leading to multiple Mughal defeats. Hisre imposition of the poll tax on non-Muslims
in1697 and growing religious intolerance weakened the empire, resulting in widespread rebellion by the end of his
reign.

ANCIENT HINDU HEALTH PRACTICES

India's medical system, Ayurveda, meaning "Knowledge of Life" began about 2,400 years ago and reached its basic
present form by 500 A.D. It is mainly based on the Charake Samhita and Susruta Samhita texts, traditionally ascribed
to the Physician Charaka (1000 B.C.) and the surgeon Susruta.

In Ayurvedic medicine, illness is seen as an imbalance of the body's main humours; bile, phlegm, andwind. They are
treated with herbs, minerals, operations, ritual chants and offerings.

The six tastes in Ayurvedic medicine represent the healing properties of herbs or minerals: liquorice isbitter and
sweet; honey is sweet and astringent; asafetida resin from giant fennel is pungent; rock salt issalty, rauwolfia root is
bitter; myrrh gum is both bitterand pungent and the sixth taste, sour.

Indian lore identifies seven chakras as centers for focusing and distributing the body's spiritual power. They are sited
along the spinal column from the top of the head to the base of the spine. Each chakra is linked to specific glands and
body organs. If the chakras are imbalance or damage, illness results. Medicines, massage, yoga and chants rebalance
the chakras and restore health.

Nowhere in the Ancient world were surgery isas sophisticated as in India. Through amputation punishment, surgeons
were able to gain experience and practice in cosmetic surgery. For internal surgery, black ants which secrete an acid
with strong antiseptic qualities, were used as clips instead of stitches.

The Moslem Influence Upon India

The Moguls brought into India the Persian culture which gradually merged with the ancient native culture. The
Persian influences are reflected in Hindu architecture and painting. A new style combining features of Hindu and
Moslem architecture is seen in the mosques which have massive and imposing gateway, slanting walls and which
usually lack the minarets characteristic of Moslem mosques elsewhere in the world. The upper castes in India
adopted the Moslem practices of keeping their women in harem. Many low caste Hindu sand 'untouchables
embraced the new religion because Mohammedanism recognized no caste system.

GEOGRAPHY 1

WHY MAPS ARE IMPORTANT?

1. Navigation and Travel – helping individuals and vehicles to find route from one location to another. Crucial
for planning travel, or exploring new areas. (ROAD MAP).

2. Emergency Response and Safety – vital in aiding first responders in locating and reaching affected areas.
(ROAD MAP)
 3. Urban Planning and Development – city planners and architects use maps to design and develop urban
areas. (TOPOGRAPHY MAP)

4. Environmental Management – used in monitoring natural resources and tracks changes in ecosystems and
manage protected areas. (THEMATIC and CLIMATE MAPS)

5. Personal and Recreational Use – enhance recreational activities such as hiking, biking and exploring new
areas.
(THEMATIC MAPS)

LAND FORM

Mountains: Elevated landforms that rise prominently above their surroundings, usually with steep sides and
significant height differences from the surrounding terrain.

Hills: Raised areas of land that are smaller and less steep than mountains. They often have rounded tops and are
lower in elevation.

Plains: Large, flat, or gently rolling areas of land with minimal elevation change. Plains are often fertile and are used
extensively for agriculture.

Valleys: Low areas of land between hills or mountains, often with a river running through them. Valleys are usually
formed by erosion from flowing water.

Deserts: Arid regions with very low precipitation, sparse vegetation, and extreme temperature variations. Deserts
can feature dunes, rocky plateaus, and dry lakes.
Deltas: Landforms created at the mouth of a river where it deposits sediment as it enters a larger body of water, like
an ocean or a lake. Deltas are often rich in nutrients and support diverse ecosystems.

Islands: Landforms completely surrounded by water. Islands can be formed by volcanic activity, coral growth, or the
rising of the sea level.

Peninsulas: Landforms surrounded by water on three sides but connected to the mainland. Peninsulas can vary
greatly in size.

Canyons: Deep, narrow valleys with steep sides, often carved by river erosion over millions of years. Canyons can be
spectacularly scenic.

Volcanoes: Mountains or hills formed by the accumulation of erupted materials like lava, ash, and rock. Volcanoes
can be active, dormant, or extinct.

Glaciers: Large, slow-moving masses of ice that form in cold regions. Glaciers shape the landscape through erosion
and deposition, creating features like moraines and fjords.

Coastal Landforms: Features found along coastlines, including cliffs, beaches, bays, and estuaries. Coastal landforms
are shaped by the action of waves, tides, and currents.

Sand Dunes: Mounds or ridges of sand formed by the wind, typically found in deserts and along coastlines. Dunes
can shift and change shape over time.

CLIMATE
Climate
• Climate refers to the long-term average ofweather conditions, such as temperatureand precipitation, in a particular
area over asignificant period, usually 30 years or more.

Climate Change
• a long-term change in the averageweather patterns that have come todefine Earth's local, regional andglobal
climates.

Weather can change within a few minutes or Hours!

Climate takes very long time to change!

Green House Effect

• is the process through which heat is trapped near earth surface buy substances known as "green house effect”.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Deforestation
• Deforestation is the process of clearing or removing forests or trees from an area, often for
agriculture, urban development, or logging.

Transport
• Transport refers to the movement of people or goods from one place to another using various means, such as
vehicles, trains, ships, or planes.

Plastic and Waste

• Plastic refers to synthetic materials made from polymers that are used in a wide range of products due to their
versatility and durability. Waste is any material or substance that is discarded or no longer needed. When plastic
waste accumulates, it can create environmental problems, as plastic takes a long time to decompose and can harm
wildlife and ecosystems.

Burning Fossil Fuels

• The burning of fossil fuels refers to the burning of oil, natural gas, and coal to generate energy. We use this energy
to generate electricity, and to power transportation (for example, cars and planes) and industrial processes.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Extreme Weather Events

• Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and heavy rainfall.

Temperature Rise
• Global temperatures have increased by about 1.2°C since the pre-industrial era. This warming affects weather
pattern sand leads to more frequent and severe heatwaves.

Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels

• Polar ice caps and glaciers are melting, contributing to rising sea levels, which threaten coastal communities and
ecosystems.

Ecosystem Disruption
• Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns affect ecosystems, leading to shifts in species distributions and
disruptions in food chains.
Ocean Acidification
• Increased CO2 levels result in higher acidity in oceans, impacting
marine life,particularly coral reefs and shellfish.

MITIGATION AND ADAPTION STRATEGIES

Reducing Emissions
• Transitioning to renewable energy sources (e.g., wind, solar), enhancing energy
efficiency, and adopting cleaner technologies.

Infrastructure Adaptation
• Building resilient infrastructure to withstand extreme weather events and rising sea levels.

Forestation and Reforestation

• Planting trees and restoring forests to absorb CO2 and protect biodiversity.

Sustainable Agriculture
• Implementing practices that reduce methane and nitrous oxide emission sand improve soil carbon storage.

Policy and International Agreements

• Participation in global agreements like the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C
above pre-industrial levels.

Simple Things you can do

-Recycling
-Composting your organic waste
-Eating more vegies and fewer meets
-Saving Electricity
-Buying things that last longer that can be used

THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

(should be written)

LESSON NO. 3

Market Integration and the Role of International Financial Institutions

Role of International Financial Institutions

• International Financial Institutions (IFIs) are financial institutions established by more than one country,
subject to international law.
• They are typically owned by national governments, with other international institutions and organizations
occasionally acting as shareholders.

The Bretton Woods System

• The Bretton Woods system was established to reduce trade barriers and ensure global financial stability
after World Wars I, the Great Depression, and World War II.
• The system consists of five key elements: the expression of currency, the agreement for exchange rates,
and the establishment of an overseer for these exchange rates.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
• GATT was established in 1947 and focused on trade goods through multinational trade agreements.
• The WTO was created in 1986-1993 and is an independent multilateral organization responsible for trade in
services, non-tarriff-related barriers to trade, and other areas of trade liberalization.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank

• IMF and the World Bank were founded after World War II to help the economic stability of the world.
• The IMF aimed to help countries in trouble and who could not obtain money by any means.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC), and the European Union (EU)
• The OECD is the most encompassing club of the richest countries in the world, with 35 member states as of 2016.
• OPEC was formed in 1960 to increase the price of oil, which has been a relatively low price in the past and had
failed to keep up with inflation.
• The European Union (EU) is made up of 28 member states, most adopting the euro as basic currency.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

• NAFTA is a trade pact between the United States, Mexico, and Canada, created on January 1, 1994, and aims to
develop and expand world trade by broadening international cooperation.

LESSON NO. 4

The Global Interstrate System and its Impact on Governments

The Interstrate System

• The concept of Sovereignty dates back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the war between
Europe's major powers.
• The Westphalian system provided stability for Europe's nations until it faced a major challenge by Napoleon
Bonaparte.
• The present-day international system has traces of this history.

Effects of Globalization on Governments

• Globalization has reshaped the role and functions of nation-states as governing bodies in their territories.
• It has forced nation-states to conform to neo-liberal ideas and free-market principles, leading to the establishment
of economic and political integrations.
• The establishment of international laws and principles, such as the UN, has been a result of globalization.
• The rise of transnational activism (TNA) has occurred, where activist groups of nation-states connect with
counterparts in other states.

Institutions Governing International Relations

• Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) have been established to facilitate connections among nation-states.
• Peace Treaties and Military Alliances: The UN and NATO are leading political organizations where nation-states
meet and deliberate.
• Global Economic Associations: The WTO and NAFTA aim to increase free trade and protect businesses and
companies within their countries.
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) aims to accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural
development in the region.
• European Union (EU) promotes peace, its values, and well-being of its citizens.
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) like the Red Cross provide emergency relief and monitor the treatment
of prisoners of wars.

LESSON NO. 5

Contemporary Global Governance and its Roles

Understanding Global Governance
• Global governance refers to domestic institutions and governments resolving large-scale problems and public-
policy issues globally.
• It involves states, national and regional bodies committed to tackling specific challenges.

United Nations (UN)

• The UN is the most prominent intergovernmental organization today.
• Its six organs include the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council,
International Court of Justice, and Secretariat.

UN's Functions
• UN maintains international peace and security, protects human rights, delivers humanitarian aid, promotes
sustainable development, and upholds international law.
• It conducts peacekeeping processes in countries with domestic conflicts and peace-building tasks in
countries freed from conflict.
• UN scrutinizes situations and issues reported to them and oversees the exercise of international human
rights agreements.

Challenges Faced by UN
• UN faces challenges in knowledge, norms, policy, institutions, and compliance.
• Challenges include underappreciation of UN's convening capacity, contrasting moral structures of social behavior in
different member-states, and the lack of enforcement of international norms and laws.

Conclusion
• Despite the establishment of global norms and international laws, nation-states remain relevant as they will
be the only intergovernmental organization without them.
• Cooperation among nation-states is the only way to reform and advance the roles and functions of interstate
relationships.

“Failure is simply the opportunity to begin again, this time more

intelligently.” - Henry Ford

GOOD LUCK BSED 1A!