Heating

Ventilation &
Air
Conditioning
System
Desgin
Bridging the Gap to Success

https://www.btcm360.com/

TOPIC: HVAC - Load Calcualtion

BRIDGE
academy Cert No: SIS180422S037

Bridg T.C.M
No: 118, Lake Circus, Kolabagan, Dhaka-1205 Bridg TCM
1
 survey and estimate 1
SYSTEM DESIGN MANUAL

SUMMARY OF PART ONE

design conditions 2
This part of the System Design Manual presents data and
examples to guide the engineer when preparing practical cooling and
heating load estimates. heat storage 3
After the load has been determined, the “Applied
Psychrometrics” chapter will bridge the gap between the load
estimate and equipment selection.
solar heat gain-glass 4
The text of this Manual is offered as a general guide for
the use of industry and of consulting engineers in designing systems.
Judgment is required for application to specific installation, and
Carrier is not responsible for any uses made of this text.
heat and moisture flow 5

infiltration and ventilation 6

internal and system heat gain 7

applied psychrometrics 8

INDEX

2
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

CHAPTER 1. BUILDIGN SURVEY AND LOAD ESTIMATE

completeness and accuracy of this survey is the very
The primary function of air conditioning is to maintain foundation of the estimate, and its importance can not
conditions that are (1) conducive to human comfort, or (2) be overemphasized. Mechanical and architectural
required by a product, or process within a space. To drawings, complete field sketches and, in some cases,
perform this function, equipment of the proper capacity photographs of important aspects are part of a good
must be installed and controlled throughout the year. The survey. The following physical aspects must be
equipment capacity is determined by the actual considered:
instantaneous peak load requirements; type of control is
determined by the conditions to be maintained during 1. Orientation of building - Location of the space
peak and partial load. Generally, it is impossible to to be air conditioned with respect to:
measure either the actual peak or the partial load in any a) Compass points-sun and wind effects.
given space; these loads must be estimated. It is for this b) Nearby permanent structures-shading
purpose that the data contained in Part 1 has been effects.
compiled. c) Reflective surfaces-water, sand, parking
Before the load can be estimated, it is imperative lots, etc.
that a comprehensive survey be made to assure 2. Use of space(s) – Office, hospital, department
accurate evaluation of the load components. If the store, specialty shop, machine shop, factory,
building facilities and the actual instantaneous load within assembly plant, etc.
a given mass of the building are carefully studied, an 3. Physical dimensions of space(s) - Length,
economical equipment selection and system design can width, and height.
result, and smooth, trouble free performance is then 4. Ceiling height - Floor to floor height, floor to
possible. ceiling, clearance between suspended ceiling
The heat gain or loss is the amount of heat and beams.
instantaneously coming into or going out of the space. 5. Columns and beams - Size, depth, also knee
The actual load is defined as that amount of heat which braces.
is instantaneously added or removed by the equipment. 6. Construction materials - Materials and
The instantaneous heat gain and the actual load on the thickness of walls, roof, ceiling, floors and
equipment will rarely be equal, because of the thermal partitions, and their relative position in the
inertia or storage effect of the building structures structure.
surrounding a conditioned space. 7. Surrounding conditions - Exterior color of walls
Chapter 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 contain the data from which and roof, shaded by adjacent building or
the instantaneous heat gain or loss is estimated. Chapter sunlit. Attic space - unvented or vented,
3 provides the data and procedure for applying storage gravity or forced ventilation. Surrounding
factors to the appropriate heat gains to result in the actual spaces conditioned or unconditioned-
load. Chapter 8 provides the bridge between the load temperature of non-conditioned adjacent
estimate and the equipment selection. It furnishes the spaces, such as furnace or boiler room, and
procedure for establishing the criteria to fulfill the kitchens. Floor on ground, crawl space,
conditions required by a given project. basement.
The basis of the data and its use, with examples, are 8. Windows - Size and location, wood or metal
included in each chapter with the tables and charts; also sash, single or double hung. Type of shading
an explanation of how each of the heat gains and the device. Dimensions of reveals and overhangs.
loads manifest themselves. 9. Doors - Location, type, size, and frequency of
use.
BUILDING SURVEY 10. Stairways, elevators, and escalators -
SPACE CHARACTERISTICS AND HEAT LOAD Location, temperature of space if open to
SOURCES unconditioned area. Horsepower of
An accurate survey of the load components of the machinery, ventilated or not.
space to be air conditioned is a basic requirement for a 11. People - Number, duration of occupancy,
realistic estimate of cooling and heating loads. The nature of activity, any special concentration.
At times, it is required to estimate the number

3
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

of people on the basis of square feet per 16. Thermal storage – Includes system operating
person, or on average traffic. schedule (12, 16 or 24 hours per day)
12. Lighting - Wattage at peak. Type- specifically during peak outdoor conditions,
incandescent, fluorescent, recessed, ex- permissible temperature swing in space
posed. If the lights are recessed, the type of during a design day, rugs on floor, nature of
air flow over the lights, exhaust, return or surface materials enclosing the space (see
supply, should be anticipated. At times, it is Chapter 3).
required to estimate the wattage on a basis of 17. Continuous or intermittent operation – Whether
watts per sq ft, due to lack of exact system be required to operate every business
information. day during cooling season, or only
13. Motors – Location, nameplate and brake occasionally, such as churches and
horsepower, and usage. The latter is of great ballrooms. If intermittent operation, determine
significance and should be carefully duration of time available for precooling or
evaluated. pulldown.
The power input to electric motors is not
necessarily equal to the rated horsepower LOCATION OF EQUIPMENT AND SERVICE
divided by the motor efficiency. Frequently The building survey should also include information
these motors may be operating under a which enables the engineer to select equipment location,
continuous overload, or may be operating at and plan the air and water distribution systems. The
less than rated capacity. It is always advisable following is a guide to obtaining this information:
to measure the power input wherever
possible. This is especially important in 1. Available spaces – Location of all stairwells,
estimates for industrial installations where the elevator shafts, abandoned smokestacks, pipe
motor machine load is normally a major shafts, dumbwaiter shafts, etc., and spaces
portion of the cooling load. for air handing apparatus, refrigeration
14. Appliances, business machines, electronic machines, cooling towers, pumps, and
equipment – Location, rated wattage, steam or services (also see Item 5).
gas consumption, hooded or unhooded, 2. Possible obstructions – Locations of all
exhaust air quantity installed or required, and electrical conduits, piping lines, and other
usage. obstructions or interferences that may be in
Greater accuracy may be obtained by the way of the duct system.
measuring the power or gas input during times 3. Location of all fire walls and partitions –
of peak loading. The regular service meters Requiring fire dampers (also see Item 16).
may often be used for this purpose, provided 4. Location of outdoor air intakes – In reference
power or gas consumption not contributing to to street, other buildings, wind direction, dirt,
the room heat gain can be segregated. and short-circuiting of unwanted
Avoid pyramiding the heat gains from various contaminants.
appliances and business machines. For 5. Power service – Location, capacity, current
example, a toaster or a waffle iron may not be limitations, voltage, phases and cycle, 3 or 4
used during the evening, or the fry kettle may wire; how additional power (if required) may
not be used during morning, or not all be brought in and where.
business machines in a given space may be 6. Water service – Location, size of lines,
used at the same time. capacity, pressure, maximum temperature.
Electronic equipment often requires individual 7. Steam service – Location, size, capacity,
air conditioning. The manufacturer’s re- temperature, pressure, type of return system.
commendation for temperature and humidity 8. Refrigeration, brine or chilled water (if
variation must be followed, and these furnished by customer) – Type of system,
requirements are often quite stringent. capacity, temperature, gpm, pressure.
15. Ventilation – Cfm per person, cfm per sq ft, 9. Architectural characteristics of space – For
scheduled ventilation (agreement with selection of outlets that will blend into the
purchaser), see Chapter 6. Excessive smoking space design.
or odors, code requirements. Exhaust fans- 10. Existing air conveying equipment and ducts –
type, size, speed, cfm delivery. For possible reuse.

4
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

11. Drains – Location and capacity, sewage OUTDOOR LOADS

disposal. The loads from outdoors consist of:
12. Control facilities – Compressed air source and
pressure, electrical. 1. The sun rays entering windows – Table 15,
13. Foundation and support – Requirements and pages 44-49, and Table 16, page 52, provide
facilities, strength of building. data from which the solar heat gain through
14. Sound and vibration control requirements – glass is estimated.
Relation of refrigeration and air handling The solar heat gain is usually reduced by
apparatus location to critical areas. means of shading devices on the inside or
15. Accessibility for moving equipment to the final outside of the windows; factors are contained
location – Elevators, stairways, doors, in Table 16. In addition to this reduction, all or
accessibility from street. part of the window may be shaded by reveals,
16. Codes, local and national – Governing wiring, overhangs, and by adjacent buildings. Chart
drainage, water supply, venting of 1, page 57, and Table 18, page 58, provide
refrigeration, construction of refrigeration and an easy means of determining how much the
air handling apparatus rooms, ductwork, fire window is shaded at a given time.
dampers, and ventilation of buildings in A large portion of the solar heat gain is radiant
general and apparatus rooms in particular. and will be partially stored as described in
Chapter 3. Tables 7 thru 11, pages 30-34,
AIR CONDITIONING LOAD ESTIMATE provide the storage factors to be applied to
The air conditioning load is estimated to provide the solar heat gains in order to arrive at the actual
basis for selecting the conditioning equipment. It must cooling load imposed on the air conditioning
take into account the heat coming into the space from equipment. These storage factors are applied
outdoors on a design day, as well as the heat being to peak solar heat gains obtained from Table
generated within the space. A design day is defined as: 6, page 29, with overall factors from Table 16,
page 52.
1. A day on which the dry-and wet-bulb 2. The sun rays striking the walls and roof-
temperatures are peaking simultaneously These, in conjunction with the high outdoor air
(Chapter 2, “Design Conditions”). temperature, cause heat to flow into the
2. A day when there is little or no haze in the air space. Tables 19 and 20, pages 62 and 63,
to reduce the solar heat (Chapter 4, “Solar provide equivalent temperature differences for
Heat Gain Thru Glass”). sunlit and shaded walls and roofs. Tables 21,
3. All of the internal loads are normal (Chapter 7, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, and 28, pages 66-72,
“Internal and System Heat Gain”). provide the transmission coefficients or rates
of heat flow for a variety of roof and wall
The time of peak load can usually be established by constructions.
inspection, although, in some cases, estimates must be 3. The air temperature outside the conditioned
made for several different times of the day. space – A higher ambient temperature causes
Actually, the situation of having all of the loads heat to flow thru the windows, partitions, and
peaking at the same time will very rarely occur. To be floors. Tables 25 and 26, pages 69 and 70,
realistic, various diversity factors must be applied to and Tables 29 and 30, pages 73 and 74,
some of the load components; refer to Chapter 3, “Heat provide the transmission coefficients. The
Storage, Diversity, and Stratification.” temperature differences used to estimate the
The infiltration and ventilation air quantities are heat flow thru these structures are contained
estimated as described in Chapter 6. in the notes after each table.
Fig. 1 illustrates an air conditioning load estimate 4. The air vapor pressure – A higher vapor
form and is designed to permit systematic load pressure surrounding conditioned space
evaluation. This form contains the references identified to causes water vapor to flow thru the building
the particular chapters of data and tables required to materials. This load is significant only in low
estimate the various load components. dewpoint applications. The data required to
estimate this load is contained in Table 40,
page 84. In comfort applications, this load is
neglected.

5
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

FIG. 1-AIR CONDITIONING LOAD ESTIMATE

6
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

5. The wind blowing against a side of the Table 48, page 100.
building- Wind causes the outdoor air that is 2. Lights – Illuminants convert electrical power
higher in temperature and moisture content to into light and heat (refer to Chapter 7). Some
infiltrate thru the cracks around the doors and of the heat is radiant and is partially stored
windows, resulting in localized sensible and (see Chapter 3).
latent heat gains. All or part of this infiltration 3. Appliances – Restaurants, hospitals,
may be offset by air being introduced thru the laboratories, and some specialty shops
apparatus for ventilation purposes. Chapter 6 (beauty shops) have electrical, gas, or steam
contains the estimating data. appliances which release heat into the space.
6. Outdoor air usually required for ventilation Tables 50 thru 52, pages 101-103, list the
purposes – Outdoor air is usually necessary to recommended heat gain values for most
flush out the space and keep the odor level appliances when not hooded. If a positive
down. This ventilation air imposes a cooling exhaust hood is used with the appliances, the
and dehumidifying load on the apparatus heat gain is reduced.
because the heat and/or moisture must be 4. Electric calculating machines – Refer to
removed. Most air conditioning equipment manufacturer’s data to evaluate the heat gain
permits some outdoor air to bypass the from electric calculating machines. Normally,
cooling surface (see Chapter 8). This not all of the machines would be in use
bypassed outdoor air becomes a load within simultaneously, and, therefore, a usage or
the conditioned space, similar to infiltration; diversity factor should be applied to the full
instead of coming thru a crack around the load heat gain. The machines may also be
window, it enters the room thru the supply air hooded, or partially cooled internally, to
duct. The amount of bypassed outdoor air reduce the load on the air conditioning
depends on the type of equipment used as system.
outlined in Chapter 8. Table 45, page 97, 5. Electric motors – Electric motors are a
provides the data from which the ventilation significant load in industrial applications and
requirements for most comfort applications should be thoroughly analyzed with respect to
can be estimated. operating time and capacity before estimating
The foregoing is that portion of the load on the air the load (see Item 13 under “Space
conditioning equipment that originates outside the space Characteristics and Heat Load Sources”). It
and is common to all applications. is frequently possible to actually measure this
load in existing applications, and should be so
INTERNAL LOADS done where possible. Table 53, page 105,
Chapter 7 contains the data required to estimate the provides data for estimating the heat gain from
heat gain from most items that generate heat within the electric motors.
conditioned space. The internal load, or heat generated 6. Hot pipes and tanks – Steam or hot water
within the space, depends on the character of the pipes running thru the air conditioned space,
application. Proper diversity and usage factor should be or hot water tanks in the space, add heat. In
applied to all internal loads. As with the solar heat gain, many industrial applications, tanks are open to
some of the internal gains consist of radiant heat which is the air, causing water to evaporate into the
partially stored (as described in Chapter 3), thus space. Tables 54 thru 58, pages 107-109
reducing the load to be impressed on the air conditioning provide data for estimating the hear gain from
equipment. these sources.
Generally, internal heat gains consist of some or all of 7. Miscellaneous sources – There may be other
the following items: sources of heat and moisture gain within a
1. People – The human body thru metabolism space, such as escaping steam (industrial
generates heat within itself and releases it by cleaning devices, pressing machines, etc.),
radiation, convection, and evaporation from absorption of water by hygroscopic material
the surface, and by convection and (paper, textiles, etc.); see Chapter 7.
evaporation in the respiratory tract. The In addition to the heat gains from the indoor and
amount of heat generated and released outdoor sources, the air conditioning equipment and duct
depends on surrounding temperature and on system gain or lose heat. The fans and pumps required
the activity level of the person, as listed in to distribute the air or water thru the system add heat;

7
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

heat is also added to supply and return air ducts running HIGH ALTITUDE LOAD CALCULATIONS
thru warner or hot spaces; cold air may leak out of the Since air conditioning load calculations are based on
supply duct and hot air may leak into the return duct. The pounds of air necessary to handle a load, a decrease in
procedure for estimating the heat gains from these density means an increase in cfm required to satisfy the
sources in percentage of room sensible load, room latent given sensible load. The weight of air required to meet
load, and grand total heat load is contained in Chart 3, the latent load is decreased because of the higher latent
page 110, and Tables 59 and 60, pages 111-113. load capacity of the air at higher altitudes (greater gr per
lb per degree difference in dewpoint temperature). For
HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE the same dry-bulb and percent relative humidity, the
The heating load evaluation is the foundation for wetbulb temperature decreases (except at saturation) as
selecting the heating equipment. Normally, the heating the elevation above sea level increases.
load is estimated for the winter design temperatures The following adjustments are required for high
(Chapter 2) usually occurring at night; therefore, no credit altitude load calculations (see Chapter 8, Table 66, page
is taken for the heat given off by internal sources (people, 148):
lights, etc.). This estimate must take into account the heat
loss thru the building structure surrounding the spaces 1. Design room air moisture content must be
and the heat required to offset the outdoor air which may adjusted to the required elevation.
infiltrate and/or may be required for ventilation. Chapter 5 2. Standard load estimating methods and forms
contains the transmission coefficients and procedures for are used for load calculations, except that the
determining heat loss. Chapter 6 contains the data for factors affecting the calculations of volume
estimating the infiltration air quantities. Fig. 2 illustrates a and sensible and latent heat of air must be
heating estimate form for calculating the heat loss in a multiplied by the relative density at the
building structure. particular elevation.
Another factor that may be considered in the 3. Because of the increased moisture content of
evaluation of the heating load is temperature swing. the air, the effective sensible heat factor must
Capacity requirements may be reduced when the be corrected.
temperature within the space is allowed to drop a few
degrees during periods of design load. This, of course, EQUIPMENT SELECTION
applies to continuous operation only. Table 4, page 20, After the load is evaluated, the equipment must be
provides recommended inside design conditions for selected with capacity sufficient to offset this load. The
various applications, and Table 13, page 37, contains the air supplied to the space must be of the proper
data for estimating the possible capacity reduction when conditions to satisfy both the sensible and latent loads
operating in this manner. estimated. Chapter 8, “Applied Psychrometrics,”
The practice of drastically lowering the temperature provides procedures and examples for determining the
to 50 F db or 55 F db when the building is unoccupied criteria from which the air conditioning equipment is
precludes the selection of equipment based on such selected (air quantity, apparatus dewpoint, etc.).
capacity reduction. Although this type of operation may
be effective in realizing fuel economy, additional
equipment capacity is required for pickup. In fact, it may
be desirable to provide the additional capacity, even if
continuous operation is contemplated, because of pickup
required after forced shutdown. It is, therefore, evident
that the use of storage in reducing the heating load for
the purpose of equipment selection should be applied
with care.

8
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 1. Building Survey And Load Estimate

FIG. 2- HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE

9
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 2. Design Conditions

CHAPTER 2. DESIGN CONDITIONS

This chapter presents the data from which the apparatus; use a moisture content corresponding to the
outdoor design conditions are established for various normal design wet-bulb temperature and 80 % rh for
localities and inside design conditions for various selecting the dehumidifier (dehydrator)
applications. The design conditions established Daily range is the average difference between the
determine the heat content of air, both outdoor and high and low dry-bulb temperatures for a 24-hr period
inside. They directly affect the load on the air on a design day. This range varies with local climate
conditioning equipment by influencing the transmission conditions.
of heat across the exterior structure and the difference
in heat content between the outdoor and inside air. For MAXIMUM DESIGN CONDITIONS-SUMMER
further details, refer to Chapters 5 and 6. Maximum summer design conditions are
recommended for laboratories and industrial
OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER applications where exceeding the room design
AND WINTER conditions for even short periods of time can be
The outdoor design conditions listed in Table 1 are detrimental to a product or process.
the industry accepted design conditions as published The maximum design dry-bulb and wet-bulb
in ARI Std. 530-56 and the 1958 ASHAE Guide. The temperatures are simultaneous peaks (not individual
conditions, as listed, permit a choice of outdoor dry- peaks). The moisture content is an individual peak, and
bulb and wet-bulb temperatures for different types of is listed only for use in the selection of separate cooling
applications as outlined below. and dehumidifying systems for closely controlled
spaces. Each of these conditions can be expected to
NORMAL DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER be exceeded no more than 3 hours in a normal
Normal design conditions are recommended for use summer.
with comfort and industrial cooling applications where
it is occasionally permissible to exceed the design NORMAL DESIGN CONDITIONS – WINTER
room conditions. These outdoor design conditions are Normal winter design conditions are recommended
the simultaneously occurring dry-bulb and wet-bulb for use with all comfort and industrial heating
temperatures and moisture content, which can be applications. The outdoor dry-bulb temperature can be
expected to be exceeded a few times a year for short expected to go below the listed temperatures a few
periods. The dry-bulb is exceeded more frequently times a year, normally during the early morning hours.
than the wet-bulb temperature. And usually when the The annual degree days listed are the sum of all the
wet-bulb is lower than design. days in the year on which the daily mean temperature
When cooling and dehumidification (dehydration) falls below 65 F db, times the number of degrees
are performed separately with these types of between 65 F db and the daily mean temperature.
applications, use the normal design dry-bulb
temperature for selecting the sensible cooling

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 2. Design Conditions

CORRECTIONS TO OUTDOOR DESIGN Solution:

CONDITIONS FOR TIME OF DAY AND Normal design conditions for New York in July at 3:00
TIME OFYEAR p.m. are 95 F db, 75 F wb (Table 1).
The normal design conditions for summer, listed in Daily range in New York City is 14 F db.
Table 1, are applicable to the month of July at about Yearly range in New York City = 95-0 = 95 F db.
3:00 P.M. Frequently, the design conditions at other Correction for time of day (12 noon) from Table 2:
times of the day and other months of the year must be Dry-bulb = -5 F
known. Wet-bulb = -1 F
Table 2 lists the approximate corrections on the dry- Correction for time of year (October) from Table 3:
bulb and wet-bulb temperatures from 8 a.m. to 12 p.m. Dry-bulb = -16 F
based on the average daily range. The dry-bulb Wet-bulb = -8 F
corrections are based on analysis of weather data, and Design conditions at 12 noon in October (approximate) :
the wet-bulb corrections assume a relatively constant Dry-bulb = 95-5-16 = 74 F
dewpoint throughout the 24-hr period. Wet-bulb = 75-1- 8 = 66 F
Table 3 lists the approximate corrections of the dry-
bulb and wet-bulb temperatures from March to INSIDE COMFORT DESIGN CONDITIONS-
November, based on the yearly range in dry-bulb SUMMER
temperature (summer normal design dry-bulb minus The inside design conditions listed in Table 4 are
winter normal design dry-bulb temperature). These recommended for types of applications listed. These
corrections are based on analysis of weather data and conditions are based on experience gathered from
are applicable only to the cooling load estimate. many applications, substantiated by ASHAE tests.
The optimum or deluxe conditions are chosen where
Example 1 – Corrections to Design Conditions costs are not of prime importance and for comfort
Given: applications in localities having summer outdoor design
A comfort application in New York City. dry-bulb temperatures of 90 F or less. Since all of the
Find: loads (sun, lights, people, outdoor air, etc.) do not peak
The approximate dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures at simultaneously for any prolonged periods, it may be
12:00 noon in October. uneconomical to design for the optimum conditions.

19
 equipment. Applications of inherently high sen-sible
The commercial inside design conditions are heat factor (relatively small latent load) usually result in
recommended for general comfort air conditioning the most economical equipment selection if the higher
applications. Since a majority of people are dry-bulb temperatures and lower relative humidities are
comfortable at 75 F or 76 F db and around 45% to 50% used. Applications with low sensible heat factors (high
rh, the thermostat is set to these temperatures, and latent load) usually result in more economical
these conditions are maintained under partial loads. As equipment selection if the lower dry-bulb temperatures
the peak loading occurs (outdoor peak dry-bulb and and higher relative humidities are used.
wet-bulb temperatures, 100% sun, all people and lights,
etc.), the temperature in the space rises to the design INSIDE COMFORT DESIGN CONDITIONS-
point, usually 78 F db. WINTER
If the temperature in the conditioned space is forced For winter season operation, the inside design
to rise, heat will be stored in the building mass. Refer conditions listed in Table 4 are recommended for
to Chapter 3, “Heat Storage, Diversity and general heating applications. With heating, the
Stratification,” for a more complete discussion of heat temperature swing (variation) is below the comfort
storage. With summer cooling, the temperature swing condition at the time of peak heating load (no people,
used in the calculation of storage is the difference lights, or solar gain, and with the minimum outdoor
between the design temperature and the normal temperature). Heat stored in the building structure
thermostat setting. during partial load (day) operation reduces the required
The range of summer inside design conditions is equipment capacity for peak load operation in the same
provided to allow for the most economical selection of manner as it does with cooling.
20
.

INSIDE INDUSTRIAL DESIGN CONDITIONS required conditions and comfort conditions to maintain
Table 5 lists typical temperatures and relative high quality commensurate with low production cost.
humidities used in preparing, processing, and Generally, specific inside design conditions are
manufacturing various products, and for storing both required in industrial applications for one or more of the
raw and finished goods. These conditions are only following reasons:
typical of what has been used, and my vary with
applications. They may also vary as changes occur in 1. A constant temperature level is required for close
processes, products, and knowledge of the effect of tolerance measuring, gaging, machining, or
temperature and humidity. In all cases, the grinding operations, to prevent expansion and
temperature and humidity conditions and the contraction of the machine parts, machined
permissible limits of variations on these conditions products and measuring devices. Normally, a
should be established by common agreement with the constant temperature is more important than the
customer. temperature level. A constant relative humidity is
Some of the conditions listed have no effect on the secondary in nature but should not go over 45% to
product or process other than to increase the efficiency minimize formation of heavier surface moisture film.
of the employee by maintaining comfort conditions. Non-hygroscopic materials such as metals, glass,
This normally improves workmanship and uniformity, plastics, etc., have a property of capturing water
thus reducing rejects and production cost. In some molecules within the microscopic surface crevices,
cases, it may be advisable to compromise between the forming an invisible, non-continuous surface film.
The density of this film increases when relative

21
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 2. Design Conditions

humidity increases. Hence, this film must, in many

instances, be held below a critical point at which 4. The temperature and relative humidity control are
metals may etch, or the electric resistance of required to regulate the rate of chemical or
insulating materials is significantly decreased. biochemical reactions, such as drying of
2. Where highly polished surfaces are manufactured Varnishes or sugar coatings, preparation of
or stored, a constant relative humidity and synthetic fibers or chemical compounds,
temperature is maintained, to minimize increase is fermentation of yeast, etc. Generally, high
maintained, to minimize increase in surface temperatures with low humidities increase drying
moisture film. The temperature and humidity rates; high temperatures increase the rate of
should be at, or a little below, the comfort chemical reaction, and high temperatures and
conditions to minimize perspiration of the operator. relative humidities increase such processes as
Constant temperature and humidity may also be yeast fermentations.
required in machine rooms to prevent etching or 5. Laboratories require precise control of both
corrosion of the parts of the machines. With temperature and relative humidity or either. Both
applications of this type, if the conditions are not testing and quality control laboratories are
maintained 24 hours a day, the starting of air frequently designed to maintain the ASTM
conditioning after any prolonged shutdown should Standard Conditions* of 73.4 F db and 50% rh.
be done carefully: (1) During the summer, the 6. With some industrial applications where the load is
moisture accumulation in the space should be excessive and the machines or materials do not
reduced before the temperature is reduced; (2) benefit from controlled conditions, it may be
During the winter, the moisture should not be advisable to apply spot cooling for the relief of the
introduced before the materials have a chance to workers. Generally, the conditions to be
warm up if they are cooled during shutdown maintained by this means will be above normal
periods. comfort.
3. Control of relative humidity is required to maintain
the strength, pliability, and regain of hydroscopic *Published in ASTN pamphlet dated 9-29-48. These conditions
materials, such as textiles and paper. The humidity have also been approved by the Technical Committee on
must also be controlled in some applications to Standard Temperature and Relative Humidity Conditions of the
reduce the effect of static electricity. Development FSB (Federal Specifications Board) with one variation: FSB
of static electric charges is minimized of 55% or permits ±4%, whereas ASTM requires ±2% permissable
higher. humidity tolerance.

22
23
24
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

CHAPTER 3. HEAT STORAGE, DIVERSITY

AND STRATIFICATION

The normal load estimating procedure has been to This degree should be determined by the engineer from
evaluate the instantaneous heat gain to a space and to project requirements and customer desires. A system
assume that the equipment will remove the heat at this so designed, full reduction on refrigeration load and
rate. Generally, it was found that the equipment less than full reduction on air side or room load, meets
selected on this basis was oversized and therefore all of the flexibility requirements, except at time of peak
capable of maintaining much lower room conditions load. In addition, such a system has a low owning and
than the original design. Extensive analysis, research operating cost.
and testing have shown that the reasons for this are:
1. Storage of heat in the building structure. STORAGE OF HEAT IN BUILDING
2. Non-simultaneous occurrence of the peak of STRUCTURES
the individual loads (diversity). The instantaneous heat gain in a typical comfort
3. Stratification of heat, in some cases. application consists of sun, lights, people, transmission
This chapter contains the data and procedures for thru walls, roof and glass, infiltration and ventilation air
determining the load the equipment is actually picking and, in some cases, machinery, appliances, electric
into account the above factors. Application of these calculating machines, etc. A large portion of this
data to the appropriate individual heat gains results in instantaneous heat gain is radiant heat which does not
the actual cooling load. become an instantaneous load on the equipment,
The actual cooling load is generally considerable because it must strike a solid surface and be absorbed
below the peak total instantaneous heat gain, thus by this surface before becoming a load on the
requiring smaller equipment to perform a specific job. equipment. The breakdown on the various
In addition, the air quantities and/or water quantities are instantaneous heat gains into radiant heat and
reduced, resulting in a smaller overall system. Also, as convected heat is approximately as follows:
brought out in the tables, if the equipment is operated
somewhat longer during the peak load periods, and/of RADIANT CONVECTIVE
the temperature in the space is allowed to rise a few HEAT GAIN SOURCE HEAT HEAT
degrees at the peak periods during cooling operation, a Solar, without inside 100% -
further reduction in required capacity results. The blinds
smaller system operating for longer periods at times of Solar, with inside blinds 58% 42%
Fluorescent Lights 50% 50%
peak load will produce a lower first cost to the customer Incandescent Lights 80% 20%
with commensurate lower demand charges and lower People* 40% 20%
operating costs. It is a well-known fact that equipment Transmission† 60% 40%
Infiltration and Ventilation - 100%
sized to more nearly meet the requirements results in a Machinery or 20-80% 80-20%
more efficient, better operating system. Also, if a Appliances‡
smaller system is selected, and is based on extended *The remaining 40% is dissipated as latent load.
periods of operation at the peak load, it results in a †Transmission load is considered to be 100% convective load.
more economical and efficient system at a partially This load is normally a relatively small part of the total load, and
loaded condition. for simplicity is considered to be the instantaneous load on the
Since, in most cases, the equipment installed to equipment.
perform a specific function is smaller, there is less ‡The load from machinery or appliances varies, depending upon
margin for error. This requires more exacting the temperature of the surface. The higher the surface
engineering including air distribution design and temperature, the greater the radiant heat load.
system balancing.
With multi-story, multi-room application, it is usually CONSTANT SPACE TEMPERATURE AND
desirable to provide some flexibility in the air side or EQUIPMENT OPERATING PERIODS
room load to allow for individual room control, load As the radiant heat from sources shown in the
pickup, etc. Generally, it is recommended that the full above table strikes a solid surface (walls, floor, ceiling,
reduction from storage and diversity be taken on the etc.), it is absorbed, raising the temperature at the
overall refrigeration or building load, with some degree surface of the material above that inside the material
of conservatism on the air side or room loads. and the air adjacent to the surface. This temperature

25
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

difference causes heat flow into the material by Heat Removed from the construction. Since all of the
conduction and into the air by convection. The heat heat coming into a space must be removed, these two
conducted away from the surface is stored, and theheat areas are equal.
convected from the surface becomes an instantaneous The relatively constant light load results in a large
cooling load. The portion of radiant heat being stored portion being stored just after the lights are turned on,
depends on the ratio of the resistance to heat flow into with a decreasing amount being stored the longer the
the material and the resistance to heat flow into the air lights are on, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
film. With most construction materials, the resistance to The upper and lower curves represent the
heat flow into the material is much lower than the air instantaneous heat gain and actual cooling load from
resistance; therefore, most of the radiant heat will be fluorescent lights with a constant space temperature.
stored. However, as this process of absorbing radiant The cross-hatched areas are the Heat Stored and the
heat continues, the material becomes warmer and less Stored Heat Removed from the construction. The
capable of storing more heat. dotted line indicates the actual cooling load for the first
The highly varying and relatively sharp peak of the day if the lights are on longer than the period shown.
instantaneous solar heat gain results in a large part of it Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate the relationship between the
being stored at the time of peak solar heat gain, as instantaneous heat gain and the actual cooling load in
illustrated in Fig. 3. average construction spaces. With light construction,
The upper curve in Fig. 3 is typical of the solar less heat is stored at the peak (less storage capacity
heat gain for a west exposure, and the lower curve is available), and with heavy construction, more heat is
the actual cooling load that results in an average stored at the peak (more storage capacity available), as
construction application with the space temperature shown in Fig. 5. This aspect affects the extent of zoning
held constant. The reduction in the peak heat gain is required in the design of a system for a given building;
approximately 40% and the peak load lags the peak the lighter the building construction, the more attention
heat gain by approximately 1 hour. The cross-hatched should be given to zoning.
areas (Fig. 3) represent the Heat Stored and the Stored The upper curve of Fig. 5 is the instantaneous solar
heat gain while the three lower curves are the actual
cooling load for light, medium and heavy construction
respectively, with a constant temperature in the space.
One more item that significantly affects the
storage of heat is the operating period of the air
conditioning equipment.All of the curves shown
inFigs.3, 4 and 5 illustrate the actual cooling load for
24-hour operation.If the equipment is shut down after
16 hours of operation, some of the stored heat remains
in the building construction. This heat must be removed
(heat in must equal heat out) and will appear as a
FIG. 3-ACTUAL COOLING LOAD, SOLAR HEAT GAIN, pulldown load when the equipment is turned on the
WEST EXPOSURE, AVERAGE CONSTRUCTION next day, as illustrated in Fig. 6.

FIG. 4- ACTUAL COOLING LOAD FROM FLUORESCENT

LIGHTS, AVERAGE CONSTRUCTION FIG. 5-ACTUAL COOLING LOAD, SOLAR HEAT GAIN,
LIGHT, MEDIUM AND HEAVY CONSTRUCTION

26
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

Adding the pulldown load to the cooling load for

that day results in the actual cooling load for 16-hour
operation, as illustrated in Fig. 7.
The upper curve represents the instantaneous heat
gain and the lower curve the actual cooling load for
that day with a constant temperature maintained within
the space during the operating period of the
equipment. The dotted line represents the additional
cooling load from the heat left in the building
construction. The temperature in the space rises during FIG. 7-ACTUAL COOLING LOAD, SOLAR HEAT GAIN,
the shutdown period from the nighttime transmission WEST EXPOSURE, 16-HOUR OPERATION
load and the stored heat, and is brought back to the
control point during the pulldown perios.
Shorter periods of operation increase the pulldown
load because more stored heat is left in the building
construction when the equipment is shut off. Fig. 8
illustrates the pulldown load for 12-hour operation.
Adding this pulldown load to the cooling load for
that day results in the actual cooling load for 12-hour
operation, as illustrated in Fig. 9.
The upper and lower solid curves are the
instantaneous heat gain and the actual cooling load in
average construction space with a constant
temperature maintained during the operating period.
The cross-hatched areas again represent the Heat FIG. 8-PULLDOWN LOAD, SOLAR HEAT GAIN,
Stored and the Stored Heat Removed from the WEST EXPOSURE, 12-HOUR OPERATION
construction.
The light load (fluorescent) is shown in Fig. 10 for
12- and 16-hour operation with a constant space
temperature (assuming 10-hour operation of lights).
Basis of Tables 7 thru 12
Storage Load Factors,
Solar and light Heat Gain
12-, 16-, and 24-hour Operation,
Constant Space Temperature
These tables are calculated, using a procedure
developed from a series of tests in actual buildings.
These tests were conducted in office buildings, FIG. 9-ACTUAL COOLING LOAD, SOLAR HEAT GAIN,
supermarkets, and residences throughout this country. WEST EXPOSURE, 12-HOUR OPERATION

FIG. 6-PULLDOWN LOAD, SOLAR HEAT GAIN,

WEST EXPOSURE, 16-HOUR OPERATION
FIG. 10-ACTUAL COOLING LOAD FROM FLUORESCENT
LIGHTS, 12-AND 16-HOUR OPERATION

27
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

The magnitude of the storage effect is determined B. The cooling load at 8 p.m. for the same conditions.
largely by the thermal capacity or heat holding capacity Solution:
of the materials surrounding the space. The thermal The weight per sq ft of floor area of this room (values
capacity of a material is the weight times the specific obtained from Chapter 5) is:
heat of the material. Since the specific heat of most
construction material is approximately 0.20 Btu/ (lb) (F), Outside wall = (20x8) – (16x5) X126lb/sq ft
20x20
the thermal capacity is directly proportional to the
weight of the material. Therefore, the data in the tables (Table 21, page 66)
is based on weight of the materials surrounding the = 25.2 lb/sq ft floor area
space, per square foot of floor area. 20x8x3
Partitions = ½ 20x20 X22lb/sq ft
Use of Tables 7 thru 12 (Table 26, page 70)
Storage Load Factors, = 13.2 lb/sq ft floor area
Solar and Light Heat Gain
12-, 16-, and 24-hour Operation, Floor =½ 20x20 X59lb/sq ft
20x20
Constant Space Temperature
Table 7 thru 11 are used to determine the actual (Table 29, page 73)
coolingload from the solar heat gain with a constant = 29.5 lb/sq ft floor area
temperature maintained within the space for different 20x20
types of construction and periods of operation. With Ceiling = ½ 20x20 X59lb/sq ft
both the 12- and 16-hour factors, the starting time is
assumed to be 6 a.m. suntime (7 a.m. Daylight Saving (Table 29, page 73)
Time). The weight per sq ft of types of construction are = 29.5 lb/sq ft floor area
listed in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66-76.
The actual cooling load is determined by NOTE: One-half of he partition, floor and ceiling thickness is
multiplying the storage load factor from these tables for used, assuming that the spaces above and below are
any or all times by the peak solar heat gain for the conditioned and are utilizing the other halves for
particular exposure, month and latitude desired. Table storage of heat.
6 is a compilation of the peak solar heat gains for each Total weight per sq ft of floor area
exposure, month and latitude. These values are = 25.2 + 13.2 + 29.5 + 29.5 = 97.4 lb/sq ft.
extracted from Table 15, page 44. The peak solar heat The overall factor for the window with the white venetian blind is
gain is also to be multiplied by either or both the 0.56 (Table 16, page 52) and the correction for steel sash =
applicable over-all factor for shading devices (Table 1/.85.
16, page 52) and the corrections listed under Table 6. A. Storage factor, 4 p.m. = 0.66 (Table 7)
Reduction in solar heat gain from the shading of the The peak solar heat gain for a west exposure in July at 40°
window by reveals and/or overhang should also be North latitude = 164 Btu/(hr)(sq ft), (Table 6).
utilized. Actual cooling load

Example 1 – Actual Cooling Load, Solar Heat Gain = (5 x 16 x 164 x .56 x 1 ) x 0.66 = 5700 Btu/hr
Given: .85
A 20 ft × 20 ft × 8 ft outside office room with 6-inch sand B. Storage factor, 8 p.m. = .20 (Table 7)
aggregate concrete floor, with a floor tile finish, 21/2-inch Actual cooling load
solid sand plaster partitions, no suspended ceiling, and a
12-inch common brick outside wall with 5/8-inch sand = (5 x 16 x 164 x .56 x 1 ) x .20 = 1730
aggregate plaster finish on inside surface. A 16 ft×5 ft .85
steel sash window with a white venetian blind is in the Table 12 is used to determine the actual cooling
outside wall and the wall faces west. load from the heat gain from lights. These data may
Find: also be used to determine the actual cooling load from:
A. The actual cooling load from ths solar heat gain in 1. People – except in densely populated areas
July at 4 p.m., 40° North latitude with the air such as auditoriums, theaters, etc. The radiant
conditioning equipment operating 24 hours during heat exchange from the body is reduced in
the peak load periods and a constant temperature situations like this because there is relatively
maintained within the room.

28
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

less surface available for the body to radiate maintained at 78 F db with 24-hour operation during the
to. peak load periods.
2. Some appliances and machines that operate Find:
periodically, with hot exterior surfaces such as The actual cooling load at 4 p.m. (with the lights turned on
ovens, dryers, hot tanks, etc. as the people arrive at 8 a.m.).
NOTE: For Items 1 and 2 above, use values listed for Solution:
fluorescent exposed lights. The time elapsed after the lights are turned on is 8 hours (8
a.m. to 4 p.m.).
Example 2 – Actual Cooling Load, Lights and People Storage load factor = .87 (Table 12).
Given: Sensible heat gain from people = 215 Btu/hr
The same room as in Example 1 with a light heat gain of 3 (Table 48, page 100)
watts per sq ft of floor area not including ballast, exposed Actual cooling load
fluorescent lights and 4 people. The room temperature to be = [(3×3.4×1.25×20×20) + (4×215) ] × .87
= 5190 Btu/hr.

29
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 6-PEAK SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS*

Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
NORTH EXPOSURE NORTH LATITUDE SOUTH
LAT. MONTH N† NE E SE S SW W NW Horiz MONTH LAT.
June 59 156 147 42 14 42 147 156 226 Dec
July & May 48 153 152 52 14 52 152 153 233 Nov & Jan
Aug & April 25 141 163 79 14 79 163 141 245 Oct & Feb
0°° Sept & March 10 118 167 118 14 118 167 118 250 Sept & March 0°
Oct & Feb 10 79 163 141 34 141 163 79 245 Aug & April
Nov & Jan 10 52 152 153 67 153 152 52 233 July & May
Dec 10 42 147 156 82 156 147 42 226 June
June 40 153 155 55 14 55 155 153 243 Dec
July & May 30 148 158 66 14 66 158 148 247 Nov & Jan
Aug & April 13 130 163 94 14 94 163 130 250 Oct & Feb
10° Sept & March 10 103 164 127 28 127 164 103 247 Sept & March 10°
Oct & Feb 10 66 155 149 73 149 155 66 230 Aug & April
Nov & Jan 9 37 143 161 106 101 143 37 210 July & May
Dec 9 28 137 163 120 163 137 28 202 June
June 26 154 160 73 14 73 160 154 250 Dec
July & May 19 138 163 85 14 85 163 138 251 Nov & Jan
20° Aug & April 11 118 165 113 26 113 165 118 247 Oct & Feb 20°
Sept & March 10 87 163 140 65 140 163 87 233 Sept & March
Oct & Feb 9 52 147 160 111 160 147 52 208 Aug & April
Nov & Jan 8 26 128 164 141 164 128 26 180 July & May
Dec 8 18 121 167 149 167 121 18 170 June
June 20 139 161 90 21 90 161 139 250 Dec
July & May 16 131 164 100 30 100 164 131 246 Nov & Jan
Aug & April 11 108 165 129 63 129 165 108 235 Oct & Feb
30° Sept & March 9 90 158 152 105 152 158 90 212 Sept & March 30°
Oct & Feb 8 39 135 163 145 163 135 39 179 Aug & April
Nov & Jan 7 16 116 162 159 162 116 16 145 July & May
Dec 6 12 105 162 163 162 105 12 131 June
June 17 133 162 111 54 111 162 133 237 Dec
July & May 15 127 164 125 69 125 164 127 233 Nov & Jan
Aug & April 11 102 162 146 102 146 162 102 214 Oct & Feb
40° Sept & March 9 58 149 162 140 162 149 58 183 Sept & March 40°
Oct & Feb 7 35 122 163 162 163 122 35 129 Aug & April
Nov & Jan 5 12 100 156 166 156 100 12 103 July & May
Dec 5 10 86 148 165 148 86 10 85 June
June 16 126 164 135 93 135 164 126 220 Dec
July & May 14 117 163 143 106 143 163 117 211 Nov & Jan
Aug & April 11 94 158 157 138 157 158 94 185 Oct & Feb
50° Sept & March 8 58 138 163 158 163 138 58 148 Sept & March 50°
Oct & Feb 5 29 105 157 167 157 105 29 94 Aug & April
Nov & Jan 4 9 64 127 153 127 64 9 53 July & May
Dec 3 7 47 116 141 116 47 7 40 June
5 SE E NE N NW W SW Horiz
EXPOSURE SOUTH LATITUDE
Solar Gain Steel Sash or Haze Altitude Dewpoint Dewpoint South Lat
Correction No Sash -15% (Max) +0.7% per 1000 ft Above 67 F Below 67 F Dec or Jan
X 1/.85 or 1.17 -7% per 10 F +7% per 10 F +7%

* Abstracted from Table 15, page 43.

†Solar heat gain on North exposure (inNorth Latitudes) or on South exposure (in South latitudes) consists primarily of diffuse radiation which is
essentially constant throughout the day. The solar heat gain values for this exposure are the average for the 12 hr period (6 a.m. to 6 p.m.). The
storage factors in Tables 7 thru 11 assume that the solar heat gain on the North (or South) exposure is constant.

30
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 7-STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

WITH INTERNAL SHADE*
24 Hour Operation, Constant Space Temperature†
WEIGHT§ SUN TIME
EXPOSURE (lb per sq AM PM AM EXPOSURE
(North Lat)
ft of floor area) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 (South Lat)
150 & over .47 .58 .54 .42 .27 .21 .20 .19 .18 .17 .16 .14 .12 .09 .08 .07 .06 .06 .05 .05 .04 .04 .04 .03
Northeast 100 .48 .60 .57 .46 .30 .24 .20 .19 .17 .16 .15 .13 .11 .08 .07 .06 .05 .05 .04 .04 .03 .03 .02 .02 Southeast
30 .55 .76 .73 .58 .36 .24 .19 .17 .15 .13 .12 .11 .07 .04 .02 .02 .01 .01 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 & over .39 .56 .62 .59 .49 .33 .23 .21 .20 .18 .17 .15 .12 .10 .09 .08 .08 .07 .06 .05 .05 .05 .04 .04
East 100 .40 .58 .65 .63 .52 .35 .24 .22 .20 .18 .16 .14 .12 .09 .08 .07 .06 .05 .05 .04 .04 .03 .03 .02 East
30 .46 .70 .80 .79 .64 .42 .25 .19 .16 .14 .11 .09 .07 .04 .02 .02 .01 .01 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 & over .04 .28 .47 .59 .64 .62 .53 .41 .27 .24 .21 .19 .16 .14 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06 .06 .05 .05
Southeast 100 .03 .28 .47 .61 .67 .65 .57 .44 .29 .24 .21 .18 .15 .12 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06 .05 .05 .04 .04 .03 Northeast
30 0 .30 .57 .75 .84 .81 .69 .50 .30 .20 .17 .13 .09 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 & over .06 .06 .23 .38 .51 .60 .66 .67 .64 .59 .42 .24 .22 .19 .17 .15 .13 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .07
South 100 .04 .04 .22 .38 .52 .63 .70 .71 .69 .59 .45 .26 .22 .18 .16 .13 .12 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06 .06 .05 North
30 .10 .21 .43 .63 .77 .86 .88 .82 .56 .50 .24 .16 .11 .08 .05 .04 .02 .02 .01 .01 0 0 0 0
150 & over .08 .08 .09 .10 .11 .24 .39 .53 .63 .66 .61 .47 .23 .19 .18 .16 .14 .13 .11 .10 .09 .08 .08 .07
Southwest 100 .07 .08 .08 .08 .10 .24 .40 .55 .66 .70 .64 .50 .26 .20 .17 .15 .13 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06 .05 Northwest
30 .03 .04 .06 .07 .09 .23 .47 .67 .81 .86 .79 .60 .26 .17 .12 .08 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 0 0
150 & over .08 .09 .09 .10 .10 .10 .10 .18 .36 .52 .63 .65 .55 .22 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07
West 100 .07 .08 .08 .09 .09 .09 .09 .18 .36 .54 .66 .68 .60 .25 .20 .17 .15 .13 .11 .10 .08 .07 .06 .05 West
30 .03 .04 .06 .07 .08 .08 .08 .19 .42 .65 .81 .85 .74 .30 .19 .13 .09 .06 .05 .03 .02 .02 .01 0
150 & over .08 .09 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .16 .33 .49 .61 .60 .19 .17 .15 .13 .12 .10 .09 .08 .08 .07 .06
Northwest 100 .07 .08 .09 .09 .10 .10 .10 .10 .16 .34 .52 .65 .64 .23 .18 .15 .12 .11 .09 .08 .07 .06 .06 .05 Southwest
30 .03 .05 .07 .08 .09 .09 .10 .10 .17 .39 .63 .80 .79 .28 .18 .12 .09 .06 .04 .03 .02 .02 .01 0
North 150 & over .08 .37 .67 .71 .74 .76 .79 .81 .83 .84 .86 .87 .88 .29 .26 .23 .20 .19 .17 15 .14 .12 .11 .10 South
and 100 .06 .31 .67 .72 .76 .79 .81 .83 .85 .87 .88 .90 .91 .30 .26 .22 .19 .16 .15 .13 .12 .10 .09 .08 and
Shade 30 0 .25 .74 .83 .88 .91 .94 .96 .96 .98 .98 .99 .99 .26 .17 .12 .08 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 .01 Shade
Equation: Cooling Load, Btu/hr = [Peak solar heat gain, Btu/(hr) (sq ft), (Table 6)]
× [Window area, sq ft]
× [Shade factor, Haze factor, etc., (Chapter 4)]
× [Storage factor, (above Table at desired time)]
* Internal shading device is any type of shade located on the inside of the glass.
†These factors apply when maintaining a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE in the space during the operating period. Where the temperature is
allowed to swing, additional storage will result during peak load periods. Refer to Table 13 for applicable storage factors.
§ Weight per sq ft of floor- (Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room on Bldg Exterior (One or more outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room in Bldg Interior (No outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + (Weight of Floor, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions and Ceiling, lb)
Basement Room (Floor on ground) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, Partitons, Floors, Ceilings, Structural Members and Supports,lb)
Entire Building or Zone =
Air Conditioned Floor Area, sq ft
With rug on floor-Weight of floor should be multiplied by 0.50 to compensate for insulating effect of rug.
Weights per sq ft of common types of construction are contained in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66 thru 76.

31
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 8-STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

WITH BARE GLASS OR WITH EXTERNAL SHADE‡
24 Hour Operation, Constant Space Temperature†
WEIGHT§ SUN TIME
EXPOSURE (lb per sq AM PM AM EXPOSURE
(North Lat) ft of floor area) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 (South Lat)
150 & over .17 .27 .33 .33 .31 .29 .27 .25 .23 .22 .20 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .07 .06 .06
Northeast 100 .19 .31 .38 .39 .36 .34 .27 .24 .22 .21 .19 .17 .16 .14 .12 .10 .07 .08 .07 .06 .05 .05 .04 .03 Southeast
30 .31 .56 .65 .61 .46 .33 .26 .21 .18 .16 .14 .12 .09 .06 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 .01 0 0 0 0
150 & over .16 .26 .34 .39 .40 .38 .34 .30 .28 .26 .23 .22 .20 .18 .16 .14 .13 .12 .10 .09 .08 .08 .07 .06
East 100 .16 .29 .40 .46 .46 .42 .36 .31 .28 .25 .23 .20 .18 .15 .14 .12 .11 .09 .08 .08 .06 .06 .05 .04 East
30 .27 .50 .67 .73 .68 .53 .38 .27 .22 .18 .15 .12 .09 .06 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 .01 .01 0 0 .01
150 & over .08 .14 .22 .31 .38 .43 .44 .43 .39 .35 .32 .29 .26 .23 .21 .19 .16 .15 .13 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08
Southeast 100 .05 .12 .23 .35 .44 .49 .51 .47 .41 .36 .31 .27 .24 .21 .18 .16 .14 .12 .10 .09 .08 .08 .06 .06 Northeast
30 0 .18 .40 .59 .72 .77 .72 .60 .44 .32 .23 .18 .14 .09 .07 .05 .03 .02 .01 .01 .01 0 0 0
150 & over .10 .10 .13 .20 .28 .35 .42 .48 .51 .51 .48 .42 .37 .33 .29 .26 .23 .21 .19 .17 .15 .14 .13 .12
South 100 .07 .06 .12 .20 .30 .39 .48 .54 .58 .57 .53 .45 .37 .31 .27 .23 .20 .18 .16 .14 .12 .11 .10 .08 North
30 0 0 .12 .29 .48 .64 .75 .82 .81 .75 .61 .42 .28 .19 .13 .09 .06 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 0 0
150 & over .11 .10 .10 .10 .10 .14 .21 .29 .36 .43 .47 .46 .40 .34 .30 .27 .24 .22 .20 .18 .16 .14 .13 .12
Southwest 100 .09 .09 .08 .09 .09 .14 .22 .31 .42 .50 .53 .51 .44 .35 .29 .26 .22 .19 .17 .15 .13 .12 .11 .09 Northwest
30 .02 .03 .05 .06 .08 .12 .34 .53 .68 .78 .78 .68 .46 .29 .20 .14 .09 .07 .05 .03 .02 .02 .01 .01
150 & over .12 .11 .11 .10 .10 .10 .10 .13 .19 .27 .36 .42 .44 .38 .33 .29 .26 .23 .21 .18 .16 .15 .13 .12
West 100 .09 .09 .09 .09 .09 .09 .10 .12 .19 .30 .40 .48 .51 .42 .35 .30 .25 .22 .19 .16 .14 .13 .11 .09 West
30 .02 .03 .05 .08 .07 .07 .08 .14 .29 .49 .67 .76 .75 .53 .33 .22 .15 .11 .08 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01
150 & over .10 .10 .10 .47 .10 .10 .10 .10 .12 .17 .25 .34 .39 .34 .29 .26 .23 .20 .18 .16 .14 .13 .12 .10
Northwest 100 .08 .09 .09 .57 .09 .09 .09 .09 .11 .19 .29 .40 .46 .40 .32 .26 .22 .19 .16 .14 .13 .11 .10 .08 Southwest
30 .02 .04 .05 .82 .08 .09 .10 .10 .13 .27 .48 .65 .73 .49 .31 .21 .16 .10 .07 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01
North 150 & over .16 .23 .33 .47 .52 .57 .61 .66 .69 .72 .74 .59 .52 .46 .42 .37 .34 .31 .27 .25 .23 .21 .17 South
and 100 .11 .33 .44 .57 .62 .66 .70 .74 .76 .79 .80 .60 .51 .44 .37 .32 .29 .27 .23 .21 .18 .16 .13 and
Shade 30 0 .48 .66 .82 .87 .91 .93 .95 .97 .98 .98 .52 .34 .24 .16 .11 .07 .05 .04 .02 .02 .01 .01 Shade
Equation: Cooling Load, Btu/hr = [Peak solar heat gain, Btu/(hr) (sq ft), (Table 6)]
× [Window area, sq ft]
× [Shade factor, Haze factor, etc., (Chapter 4)]
× [Storage factor, (above Table at desired time)]
‡Bare glass-Any window with no inside shading device. Windows with shading devices on the outside or shaded by external projections are
considered bare glass.
†These factors apply when maintaining a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE in the space during the operating period. Where the temperature is
allowed to swing, additional storage will result during peak load periods. Refer to Table 13 for applicable storage factors.
§ Weight per sq ft of floor- (Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room on Bldg Exterior (One or more outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room in Bldg Interior (No outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + (Weight of Floor, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions and Ceiling, lb)
Basement Room (Floor on ground) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, Partitons, Floors, Ceilings, Structural Members and Supports,lb)
Entire Building or Zone =
Air Conditioned Floor Area, sq ft
With rug on floor-Weight of floor should be multiplied by 0.50 to compensate for insulating effect of rug.
Weights per sq ft of common types of construction are contained in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66 thru 76.

32
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 9-STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

WITH INTERNAL SHADING DEVICE*
16 Hour Operation, Constant Space Temperature†
WEIGHTS SUN TIME
EXPOSURE (lb per sq AM PM EXPOSURE
(North Lat) ft of floor area) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (South Lat)
150 & over .53 .64 .59 .47 .31 .25 .24 .22 .18 .17 .16 .14 .12 .09 .08 .07
Northeast 100 .53 .65 .61 .50 .33 .27 .22 .21 .17 .16 .15 .13 .11 .08 .07 .06 Southeast
30 .56 .77 .73 .58 .36 .24 .19 .17 .15 .13 .12 .11 .07 .04 .02 .02
150 & over .47 .63 .68 .64 .54 .38 .27 .25 .20 .18 .17 .15 .12 .10 .09 .08
East 100 .46 .63 .70 .67 .56 .38 .27 .24 .20 .18 .16 .14 .12 .09 .08 .07 East
30 .47 .71 .80 .79 .64 .42 .25 .19 .16 .14 .11 .09 .07 .04 .02 .02
150 & over .14 .37 .55 .66 .70 .68 .58 .46 .27 .24 .21 .19 .16 .14 .12 .11
Southeast 100 .11 .35 .53 .66 .72 .69 .61 .47 .29 .24 .21 .18 .15 .12 .10 .09 Northeast
30 .02 .31 .57 .75 .84 .81 .69 .50 .30 .20 .17 .13 .09 .05 .04 .03
150 & over .19 .18 .34 .48 .60 .68 .73 .74 .64 .59 .42 .24 .22 .19 .17 .15
South 100 .16 .14 .31 .46 .59 .69 .76 .70 .69 .59 .45 .26 .22 .18 .16 .13 North
30 .12 .23 .44 .64 .77 .86 .88 .82 .56 .50 .24 .16 .11 .08 .05 .04
150 & over .22 .21 .20 .20 .20 .32 .47 .60 .63 .66 .61 .47 .23 .19 .18 .16
Southwest 100 .20 .19 .18 .17 .18 .31 .46 .60 .66 .70 .64 .50 .26 .20 .17 .15 Northwest
30 .08 .08 .09 .09 .10 .24 .47 .67 .81 .86 .79 .60 .26 .17 .12 .08
150 & over .23 .23 .21 .21 .20 .19 .18 .25 .36 .52 .63 .65 .55 .22 .19 .17
West 100 .22 .21 .19 .19 .17 .16 .15 .23 .36 .54 .66 .68 .60 .25 .20 .17 West
30 .12 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .09 .19 .42 .65 .81 .85 .74 .30 .19 .13
150 & over .21 .21 .20 .19 .18 .18 .17 .16 .16 .33 .49 .61 .60 .19 .17 .15
Northwest 100 .19 .19 .18 .17 .17 .16 .16 .15 .16 .34 .52 .65 .23 .18 .15 .12 Southwest
30 .12 .11 .11 .11 .11 .11 .11 .10 .17 .39 .63 .80 .79 .28 .18 .12
North 150 & over .23 .58 .75 .79 .80 .80 .81 .82 .83 .84 .86 .87 .88 .39 .35 .31 South
and 100 .25 .46 .73 .78 .82 .82 .83 .84 .85 .87 .88 .89 .90 .40 .34 .29 and
Shade 30 .07 .22 .69 .80 .86 .93 .94 .95 .97 .98 .98 .99 .99 .35 .23 .16 Shade
Equation: Cooling Load, Btu/hr = [Peak solar heat gain, Btu/(hr) (sq ft), (Table 6)]
× [Window area, sq ft]
× [Shade factor, Haze factor, etc., (Chapter 4)]
× [Storage factor, (above Table at desired time)]

*Internal shading device is any type of shade located on the inside of the glass.
†These factors apply when maintaining a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE in the space during the operating period. Where the temperature is
allowed to swing, additional storage will result during peak load periods. Refer to Table 13 for applicable storage factors.
§ Weight per sq ft of floor- (Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room on Bldg Exterior (One or more outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room in Bldg Interior (No outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + (Weight of Floor, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions and Ceiling, lb)
Basement Room (Floor on ground) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, Partitons, Floors, Ceilings, Structural Members and Supports,lb)
Entire Building or Zone =
Air Conditioned Floor Area, sq ft

With rug on floor-Weight of floor should be multiplied by 0.50 to compensate for insulating effect of rug.
Weights per sq ft of common types of construction are contained in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66 thru 76.

33
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 10-STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

WITH BARE GLASS OR WITH EXTERNAL SHADE‡
16 Hour Operation, Constant Space Temperature†
WEIGHT§ SUN TIME
EXPOSURE (lb per sq AM PM EXPOSURE
(North Lat) ft of floor area) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (South Lat)
150 & over .28 .37 .42 .41 .38 .36 .33 .31 .23 .22 .20 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12
Northeast 100 .28 .39 .45 .45 .41 .39 .31 .27 .22 .21 .19 .17 .16 .14 .12 .10 Southeast
30 .33 .57 .66 .62 .46 .33 .26 .21 .18 .16 .14 .12 .09 .06 .04 .03
150 & over .29 .38 .44 .48 .48 .46 .41 .36 .28 .26 .23 .22 .20 .18 .16 .14
East 100 .27 .38 .48 .54 .52 .48 .41 .35 .28 .25 .23 .20 .18 .15 .14 .12 East
30 .29 .51 .68 .74 .69 .53 .38 .27 .22 .18 .15 .12 .09 .06 .04 .03
150 & over .24 .29 .35 .43 .49 .53 .53 .51 .39 .35 .32 .29 .26 .23 .21 .19
Southeast 100 .19 .24 .33 .44 .52 .57 .57 .53 .41 .36 .31 .27 .24 .21 .18 .16 Northeast
30 .03 .20 .41 .60 .73 .77 .72 .60 .44 .32 .23 .18 .14 .09 .07 .05
150 & over .33 .31 .32 .37 .43 .49 .55 .60 .57 .51 .48 .42 .37 .33 .29 .26
South 100 .27 .24 .28 .34 .42 .50 .58 .60 .60 .57 .53 .45 .37 .31 .27 .23 North
30 .06 .04 .15 .31 .49 .65 .75 .82 .81 .75 .61 .42 .28 .19 .13 .09
150 & over .35 .32 .30 .28 .26 .28 .30 .37 .43 .47 .46 .40 .34 .30 .27 .24
Southwest 100 .31 .28 .25 .24 .22 .26 .33 .40 .46 .50 .53 .51 .44 .35 .29 .26 Northwest
30 .11 .10 .10 .09 .10 .14 .35 .54 .68 .78 .78 .68 .46 .29 .20 .14
150 & over .38 .34 .32 .28 .26 .25 .23 .25 .26 .27 .36 .42 .44 .38 .33 .29
West 100 .34 .31 .28 .25 .23 .22 .21 .21 .23 .30 .40 .48 .51 .43 .35 .30 West
30 .17 .14 .13 .11 .11 .10 .10 .15 .29 .49 .67 .76 .75 .53 .33 .22
150 & over .33 .30 .28 .26 .24 .23 .22 .20 .18 .17 .25 .34 .39 .34 .29 .26
Northwest 100 .30 .28 .25 .23 .22 .20 .19 .17 .17 .19 .29 .40 .46 .40 .32 .26 Southwest
30 .18 .14 .12 .12 .12 .12 .12 .11 .13 .27 .48 .65 .73 .49 .31 .21
North 150 & over .31 .57 .64 .68 .72 .73 .73 .74 .74 .75 .76 .78 .78 .59 .52 .46 South
and 100 .30 .47 .60 .67 .72 .74 .77 .78 .79 .80 .81 .82 .83 .60 .51 .44 and
Shade 30 .04 .07 .53 .70 .78 .84 .88 .91 .93 .95 .97 .98 .99 .62 .34 .24 Shade
Equation: Cooling Load, Btu/hr = [Peak solar heat gain, Btu/(hr) (sq ft), (Table 6)]
× [Window area, sq ft]
× [Shade factor, Haze factor, etc., (Chapter 4)]
× [Storage factor, (above Table at desired time)]

‡Bare glass-Any window with no inside shading device. Windows with shading devices on the outside or shaded by external projections are
considered bare glass.
†These factors apply when maintaining a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE in the space during the operating period. Where the temperature is
allowed to swing, additional storage will result during peak load periods. Refer to Table 13 for applicable storage factors.
§ Weight per sq ft of floor- (Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room on Bldg Exterior (One or more outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room in Bldg Interior (No outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + (Weight of Floor, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions and Ceiling, lb)
Basement Room (Floor on ground) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, Partitons, Floors, Ceilings, Structural Members and Supports,lb)
Entire Building or Zone =
Air Conditioned Floor Area, sq ft

With rug on floor-Weight of floor should be multiplied by 0.50 to compensate for insulating effect of rug.
Weights per sq ft of common types of construction are contained in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66 thru 76.

34
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 11-STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

12 Hour Operation, Constant Space Temperature†
WEIGHT§ SUN TIME
EXPOSURE (lb per sq AM PM AM EXPOSURE
(North Lat) ft of floor area) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 (South Lat)
150 & over .59 .67 .62 .49 .33 .27 .25 .24 .22 .21 .20 .17 .34 .42 .47 .45 .42 .39 .36 .33 .30 .29 .26 .25
Northeast 100 .59 .68 .64 .52 .35 .29 .24 .23 .20 .19 .17 .15 .35 .45 .50 .49 .45 .42 .34 .30 .27 .26 .23 .20 Southeast
30 .62 .80 .75 .60 .37 .25 .19 .17 .15 .13 .12 .11 .40 .62 .69 .64 .48 .34 .27 .22 .18 .16 .14 .12
150 & over .51 .66 .71 .67 .57 .40 .29 .26 .25 .23 .21 .19 .36 .44 .50 .53 .53 .50 .44 .39 .36 .34 .30 .28
East 100 .52 .67 .73 .70 .58 .40 .29 .26 .24 .21 .19 .16 .34 .44 .54 .58 .57 .51 .44 .39 .34 .31 .28 .24 East
30 .53 .74 .82 .81 .65 .43 .25 .19 .16 .14 .11 .09 .36 .56 .71 .76 .70 .54 .39 .28 .23 .18 .15 .12
150 & over .20 .42 .59 .70 .74 .71 .61 .48 .33 .30 .26 .24 .34 .37 .43 .50 .54 .58 .57 .55 .50 .45 .41 .37
Southeast 100 .18 .40 .57 .70 .75 .72 .63 .49 .34 .28 .25 .21 .29 .33 .41 .51 .58 .61 .61 .56 .49 .44 .37 .33 Northeast
30 .09 .35 .61 .78 .86 .82 .69 .50 .30 .20 .17 .13 .14 .27 .47 .64 .75 .79 .73 .61 .45 .32 .23 .18
150 & over .28 .25 .40 .53 .64 .72 .77 .77 .73 .67 .49 .31 .47 .43 .42 .46 .51 .56 .61 .65 .66 .65 .61 .54
South 100 .26 .22 .38 .51 .64 .73 .79 .79 .77 .65 .51 .31 .44 .37 .39 .43 .50 .57 .64 .68 .70 .68 .63 .53 North
30 .21 .29 .48 .67 .79 .88 .89 .83 .56 .50 .24 .16 .28 .19 .25 .38 .54 .68 .78 .84 .82 .76 .61 .42
150 & over .31 .27 .27 .26 .25 .27 .50 .63 .72 .74 .69 .54 .51 .44 .40 .37 .34 .36 .41 .47 .54 .57 .60 .58
Southwest 100 .33 .28 .25 .23 .23 .35 .50 .64 .74 .77 .70 .55 .53 .44 .37 .35 .31 .33 .39 .46 .55 .62 .64 .60 Northwest
30 .29 .21 .18 .15 .14 .27 .50 .69 .82 .87 .79 .60 .48 .32 .25 .20 .17 .19 .39 .56 .70 .80 .79 .69
150 & over .63 .31 .28 .27 .25 .24 .22 .29 .46 .61 .71 .72 .56 .49 .44 .39 .36 .33 .31 .31 .35 .42 .49 .54
West 100 .67 .33 .28 .26 .24 .22 .20 .28 .44 .61 .72 .73 .60 .52 .44 .39 .34 .31 .29 .28 .33 .43 .51 .57 West
30 .77 .34 .25 .20 .17 .14 .13 .22 .44 .67 .82 .85 .77 .56 .38 .28 .22 .18 .16 .19 .33 .52 .69 .77
150 & over .68 .28 .27 .25 .23 .22 .20 .19 .24 .41 .56 .67 .49 .44 .39 .36 .33 .30 .28 .26 .26 .30 .37 .44
Northwest 100 .71 .31 .27 .24 .22 .21 .19 .18 .23 .40 .58 .70 .54 .49 .41 .35 .31 .28 .25 .23 .24 .30 .39 .48 Southwest
30 .82 .33 .25 .20 .18 .15 .14 .13 .19 .41 .64 .80 .75 .53 .36 .28 .24 .19 .17 .15 .17 .30 .50 .66
North 150 & over .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .75 .75 .79 .83 .84 .86 .88 .88 .91 .92 .93 .93 South
and 100 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 .81 .84 .86 .89 .91 .93 .93 .94 .94 .95 .95 .95 and
Shade 30 1.00 1.00 Shade
Equation: Cooling Load, Btu/hr = [Peak solar heat gain, Btu/(hr) (sq ft), (Table 6)]
× [Window area, sq ft]
× [Shade factor, Haze factor, etc., (Chapter 4)]
× [Storage factor, (above Table at desired time)]
*Internal shading device is any type of shade located on the inside of the glass.
‡Bare glass-Any window with no inside shading device. Windows with shading devices on the outside or shaded by external projections are
considered bare glass.
†These factors apply when maintaining a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE in the space during the operating period. Where the temperature is
allowed to swing, additional storage will result during peak load periods. Refer to Table 13 for applicable storage factors.
§ Weight per sq ft of floor- (Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room on Bldg Exterior (One or more outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room in Bldg Interior (No outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Walls, lb) + (Weight of Floor, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions and Ceiling, lb)
Basement Room (Floor on ground) =
Floor Area in Room, sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, Partitons, Floors, Ceilings, Structural Members and Supports,lb)
Entire Building or Zone =
Air Conditioned Floor Area, sq ft

With rug on floor-Weight of floor should be multiplied by 0.50 to compensate for insulating effect of rug.
Weights per sq ft of common types of construction are contained in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66 thru 76.

35
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 12-STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, HEAT GAIN-LIGHTS*

Lights On 10 Hours† with Equipment Operating 12, 16 and 24 Hours, Constant Space Temperature
EQUIP.
OPER- WEIGHT
ATION (lb per sq ft NUMBER OF HOURS AFTER LIGHTS ARE TURNED ON
Hours of floor area) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
150 & over .37 .67 .71 .74 .76 .79 .81 .83 .84 .86 .87 .29 .26 .23 .20 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08
Fluorescent Lights Exposed
24 100 .31 .67 .72 .76 .79 .81 .83 .85 .87 .88 .90 .30 .26 .22 .19 .16 .15 .13 .12 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06
30 .25 .74 .83 .88 .91 .94 .96 .96 .98 .98 .99 .26 .17 .12 .08 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 .01 0 0
150 & over .60 .82 .83 .84 .84 .84 .85 .85 .86 .88 .90 .32 .28 .25 .23 .19
16 100 .46 .79 .84 .86 .87 .88 .88 .89 .89 .90 .90 .30 .26 .22 .19 .16
30 .29 .77 .85 .89 .92 .95 .96 .96 .98 .98 .99 .26 .17 .12 .08 .05
150 & over .63 .90 .91 .93 .93 .94 .95 .95 .95 .96 .96 .37
12 100 .57 .89 .91 .92 .94 .94 .95 .95 .96 .96 .97 .36
30 .42 .86 .91 .93 .95 .97 .98 .98 .99 .99 .99 .26
150 & over .34 .55 .61 .65 .68 .71 .74 .77 .79 .81 .83 .39 .35 .31 .28 .25 .23 .20 .18 .16 .15 .14 .12 .11
Lights Recessed in Susp.

24 100 .24 .56 .63 .68 .72 .75 .78 .80 .82 .84 .86 .40 .34 .29 .25 .20 .18 .17 .15 .14 .12 .10 .09 .08
Incandescent Lights.
Ceiling or Exposed

30 .17 .65 .77 .84 .88 .92 .94 .95 .97 .98 .98 .35 .23 .16 .11 .07 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 .01 0 0
Fluorescent

150 & over .58 .75 .79 .80 .80 .81 .82 .83 .84 .86 .87 .39 .35 .31 .28 .25
16 100 .46 .73 .78 .82 .82 .82 .83 .84 .85 .87 .88 .40 .34 .29 .25 .20
30 .22 .69 .80 .86 .89 .93 .94 .95 .97 .98 .98 .35 .23 .16 .11 .07
150 & over .69 .86 .89 .90 .91 .91 .92 .93 .94 .95 .95 .50
12 100 .58 .85 .88 .88 .90 .92 .93 .94 .94 .94 .95 .48
30 .40 .81 .88 .91 .93 .96 .97 .97 .98 .99 .99 .35
150 & over .23 .33 .41 .47 .52 .57 .61 .66 .69 .72 .74 .59 .52 .46 .42 .37 .34 .31 .27 .25 .23 .21 .18 .16
Fluorescent or Incandescent
Ceiling and Ceiling Plenum
Lights Recessed in Susp.

24 100 .17 .33 .44 .52 .56 .61 .66 .69 .74 .77 .79 .60 .51 .37 .37 .32 .30 .27 .23 .20 .18 .16 .14 .12
30 0 .48 .66 .76 .82 .87 .91 .93 .95 .97 .98 .52 .34 .16 .16 .11 .07 .05 .04 .02 .02 .01 0 0
Return System.

150 & over .57 .64 .68 .72 .73 .73 .74 .74 .75 .76 .78 .59 .52 .42 .42 .37
16 100 .47 .60 .67 .72 .74 .77 .78 .79 .80 .81 .82 .60 .51 .37 .37 .32
30 .07 .53 .70 .78 .84 .88 .91 .93 .95 .97 .98 .52 .34 .16 .16 .11
150 & over .75 .79 .83 .84 .86 .88 .89 .91 .91 .93 .93 .75
12 100 .68 .77 .81 .84 .86 .88 .89 .89 .92 .93 .93 .72
30 .34 .72 .82 .87 .89 .92 .95 .95 .97 .98 .98 .52
†These factors apply when maintaining a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE in the space during the operating period. Where the temperature is
allowed to swing, additional storage will result during peak load periods. Refer to Table 13 for applicable storage factors.
with lights operating the same number of hours as the time of equipment operation, use a load factor of 1.00.

†Lights On for Shorter or Longer Period than 10 Hours 3. Equipment operating for 12 hours:
Occasionally adjustments may be required to take account of lights Follow procedure in Step 2, except in Step 2b add values of 12th
operating less or more than the 10 hours on which the table is based. The hour to that designated 0, 13th hour to the 1st hour, etc.
following is the procedure to adjust the load factors: B-WITH LIGHTS IN OPERATION FOR LONGER PERIOD THAN 10 HOURS
A-WITH LIGHTS IN OPERATION FOR SHORTER PERIOD THAN 10 HOURS and the equipment operating 12, 16 or 24 hours at the time of the overall peak
and the equipment operating 12, 16 or 24 hours at the time of the overall peak load, extrapolate load factors as follows:
load, extrapolate load factors as follows: 1. Equipment operating for 24 hours:
1. Equipment operating for 24 hours: a. Use the load factors as listed through 10th hour and extrapolate
a. Use the storage load factors as listed up to the time the lights are beyond the 10th hour at the rate of the last 4 hours.
turned off. b. Follow the same procedure as in Step 1b of “A” except shift load
b. Shift the load factors beyond the 10th hour (on the right of heavy line) factors beyond 10th hour now to the right, dropping off the last few
to the left to the hour the lights are turned off. This leaves last few hours.
hours of equipment operation without designated load factors. 2. Equipment operating for 16 hours or 12 hours:
c. Extrapolate the last few hours at thee same rate of reduction as the a. Use the load factors in 24-hour equipment operation table as listed
end hours in the table. through 10th hour and extrapolate beyond the 10th hour at the rate of
2. Equipment operating for 16 hours: the last 4 hours.
a. Follow the procedure in Step 1, using the storage load factor values b. Follow the procedure in Step 1b of “A” except shift the load factors
in 24-hour equipment operation table. beyond 10th hour now to the right.
b. Now construct a new set of load factors by adding the new values c. For 16-hour equipment operation, follow the procedure in Steps 2b
for the 16th hour to that denoted 0, 17th hour to the 1st hour, etc. and 2c of “A”.
b. The load factors for the hours succeeding the switching- off the d. For 12-hor equipment operation, follow the procedure in Step 3 of
lights are as in Steps 1b and 1c. “A”.

36
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

Example
Adjust values for 24-hour equipment operation and derive new values for 16-hour equipment operation for fluorescent lights in operation 8
and 13 hours, and an enclosure of 150 lb/sq ft of floor.
EQUIP WEIGHT§ LIGHTS
OPERATION (lb per sq ft NUMBER OF HOURS AFTER LIGHTS ARE TURNED ON ON
Hours of floor area) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Hours
.37 .67 .71 .74 .76 .79 .81 .83 .84 .86 .87 .89 .90 .92 .29 .26 .23 .20 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12 .11 13
24 150 .37 .67 .71 .74 .76 .79 .81 .83 .84 .29 .26 .23 .20 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06 8
.37 .67 .71 .74 .76 .79 .81 .83 .84 .86 .87 .29 .26 .23 .20 .19 .17 .15 .14 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 10
.60 .87 .90 .91 .91 .93 .93 .94 .94 .95 .95 .96 .96 .97 .29 .26 13
16 150 .51 .79 .82 .84 .85 .87 .88 .89 .90 .29 .26 .23 .20 .19 .17 .15 8
.60 .82 .83 .84 .84 .84 .85 .85 .86 .88 .90 .32 .28 .25 .23 .19 10

§ Weight per sq ft of floor- (Weight of Outside Wall, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room on Bldg Exterior (One or more outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room,sq ft
½(Weight of Partitions, Floor and Ceiling, lb)
Room in Bldg Interior (No outside walls) =
Floor Area in Room,sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, lb) + (Weight of Floor, lb) + ½ (Weight of Partitions and Ceiling, lb)
Basement Room (Floor on ground) =
Floor Area in Room,sq ft
(Weight of Outside Wall, Partitions, Floors, Ceilings, Structural Members and Supports, lb)
Entire Building or Zone =
Air Conditioned Floor Area, sq ft

With rug on floor-Weight of floor should be multiplied by 0.50 to compensate for insulating effect of rug.
Weights per sq ft of common types of construction are contained in Tables 21 thru 33, pages 66 thru 76.

SPACE TEMPERATURE SWING The solid curve is the actual cooling load from the
In addition to the storage of radiant heat with a solar heat gain on a west exposure with a constant
constant room temperature, heat is stored in the space temperature, 24-hour operation. Assume that
building structure when the space temperature is the maximum cooling capacity available is represented
forced to swing.If the cooling capacity supplied to the by A, and that the capacity is controlled to maintain a
space matches the cooling load, the temperature in constant temperature at partial load. When the actual
thespace remains constant throughout the operating cooling load exceeds the available cooling capacity,
period. On the other hand, if the cooling capacity the temperature will swing as shown in the lower curve.
supplied to the space is lower than the actual cooling The actual cooling load with temperature swing is
load at any point, the temperature in the space will rise. shown by the dotted line. This operates in a similar
Ad the space temperature increases, less heat is manner with different periods of operation and with
convected from the surface and more radiant heat is different types of construction.
stored in the structure. This process of storing NOTE: When a system is designed for a temperature swing, the
additional heat is illustrated in Fig. 11. maximum swing occurs only at the peak on design days,
which are defined as those days when all loads
simultaneously peak. Under normal operating conditions,
the temperature remains constant or close to constant.

Basis of Table 13
-- Storage Factors,
Space Temperature Swing
The storage factors in Table 13 were computed
FIG. 11-ACTUAL COOLING LOAD WITH VARYING using essentially the same procedure as Tables 7 thru
ROOM TEMPERATURE 12 with the exception that the equipment capacity

37
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

available was limited and the swing in room directly proportional to the weight of the material.
temperature computed. Therefore, the data in the tables is based on weight of
The magnitude of the storage effect is determined the materials surrounding the space, per square foot of
largely by the thermal capacity or heat holding capacity floor area.
of the materials surrounding the space. It is limited by
the amount of heat available for storage. Load patterns Use of Table 13
for different applications vary approximately as shown -- Storage Factors,
in the first column of Table 13. For instance, an office Space Temperature Swing
building has a rather large varying load with a high Table 13 is used to determine the reduction in
peak that occurs intermittently. An interior zone has an cooling load when the space temperature is forced to
intermittent peak but the load pattern is relatively swing by reducing the equipment capacity below that
constant. A hospital, on the other hand, has a constant required to maintain the temperature constant. This
base load which is present for 24 hours with an reduction is to be subtracted from the room sensible
additional intermittent load occurring during daylight heat.
hours. The thermal capacity of a material is the weight NOTE: This reduction is only taken at the time of peak cooling
times the specific heat of the material. Since the load.
specific heat of most construction material is
approximately 0.20 Btu/(lb)(F), the thermal capacity is

38
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

Example 3 – Space Temperature Swing theater, etc., where the precooled temperature can be
Given: maintained as the control point and the temperature
The same room as in Example 1, page 28. swing increased to 8 F or 10 F.
Find:
The actual cooling load at 4 p.m. from sun, lights, and DIVERSITY OF COOLING LOADS
people with 3 F temperature swing in the space. Diversity of cooling load results from the probable
Solution: non-occurrence of part of the cooling load on a design
The peak sensible cooling load in this room from the sun, day. Diversity factors are applied to the refrigeration
lights, and people (neglecting transmission infiltration, capacity in large air conditioning systems. These
ventilation and other internal heat gain) is factors vary with location, type and size of the
5700+5190 = 10,890 Btu/hr. (Examples 1 and 2.) application, and are based entirely on the judgment of
NOTE: The peak cooling load in this room occurs at the engineer.
approximately 4 p.m. The solar and light loads are Generally, diversity factors can be applied to people
almost at their peak at 4 p.m. Although the transmission and light loads in large multi-story office, hotel or
across the large glass window peaks at about 3 p.m., the apartment buildings. The possibility of having all of the
peak infiltration and ventilation load also occurs at 3 p.m. people present in the building and all of the lights
and the relatively small transmission load across the wall operating at the time of peak load are slight. Normally,
peaks much later at about 12 midnight. The sum of these in large office buildings, some people will be away from
loads results in the peak cooling load occurring at about the office on other business. Also, the lighting
4 p.m. in the spaces with this exposure. arrangement will frequently be such that the lights in the
The weight of the materials surrounding the room in Example 1 is vacant offices will not be on. In addition to lights being
97.4 lb/sq ft of floor area. off because the people are not present, the normal
Reduction in cooling load for a 3 F swing (Table 13) maintenance procedure in large office buildings usually
= 20 × 20 × 1.4 × 3 = 1680 Btu/hr results in some lights being inoperative. Therefore, a
Cooling load = 10,890 - 1680 = 9210 Btu/hr. diversity factor on the people and light loads should be
(For comparison purposes, the instantaneous heat gain applied for selecting the proper size refrigeration
from sun, lights, and people in this particular room is equipment.
14,610 Btu/hr.) The size of the diversity factor depends on the size
Since the normal thermostat setting is about 75 F or 76 F db, the of the building and the engineer’s judgment of the
design temperature (78 F = 75 F thermostat setting +3 F swinng) circumstances involved. For example, the diversity
occurs only on design peak days at the time of peak load. factor on a single small office with 1 or 2 people is 1.0
Under partial load operation, the room temperature is between or no reduction. Expanding this to one floor of a
75 F db and 78 F db, or at the thermostat setting (75 F), building with 50 to 100 people, 5% to 10% may be
depending on the load. absent at the time of peak load, and expanding to a 20,
30 or 40-story building, 10% to 20% may be absent
PRECOOLING AS A MEANS OF INCREASING during the peak. A building with predominantly sales
STORAGE offices would have many people out in the normal
Precooling a space below the temperature normally course of business.
desired increases the storage of heat at the time of This same concept applies to apartments and
peak load, only when the precooling temperature is hotels. Normally, very few people are present at the
maintained as the control point. This is because the time the solar and transmission loads are peaking, and
potential temperature swing is increased, thus adding the lights are normally turned on only after sundown.
to the amount of heat stored at the time of peak load. Therefore, in apartments and hotels, the diversity factor
Where the space is precooled to a lower temperature can be much greater than with office buildings.
and the control point is reset upward to a comfortable These reductions in cooling load are real and
condition when the occupants arrive, no additional should be made where applicable. Table 14 lists some
storage occurs. In this situation, the cooling unit shuts typical diversity factors, based on judgment and
off and there is no cooling during the period of warming experience.
up. When the cooling unit begins to supply cooling
again, the cooling load is approximately up to the point
it would have been without any precooling.
Precooling is very useful in reducing the cooling
load in applications such as churches, supermarkets,

39
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 3. Heat Storage, Diversity And Stratification

TABLE 14-TYPICAL DIVERSITY FACTORS is about 25% (the rest is radiation); the light load is
FOR LARGE BUILDINGS about 50% with fluorescent (20^ with incandescent),
(Apply to Refrigeration Capacity) and the wall transmission load about 40%.
TYPE OF DIVERSITY FACTOR In any room with a high ceiling, a large part of the
APPLICATION People Lights convection load being released above the supply air
Office .75 to .90 .70 to .85 stream will stratify at the ceiling or roof level. Some will
Apartment, Hotel .40 to .60 .30 to .50 be induced into the supply air stream. Normally, about
Department Store .80 to .90 .90 to 1.0
Industrial* .85 to .95 .80 to .90 80% is stratified and 20% induced in the supply air. If
Equation: air is exhausted through the ceiling or roof, this
Cooling Load (for people and lights), Btu/hr convection load released abovethe supply air may be
= (Heat Gain, Btu/hr, Chapter 7) subtracted from the air conditioning load. This results in
× (Storage Factor, Table 12) ×(Diversity Factor, a large reduction in load if the air is to be exhausted. It
above table) is not normally practical to exhaust more air than
*A diversity factor should also be applied to the machinery load. necessary, as it must be made up by bringing outdoor
Refer to Chapter 7. air through the apparatus. This usually results in a
larger increase in load than the reduction realized by
Use of Table 14 exhausting air.
-- Typical Diversity Factors for Large Buildings Nominally, about a 10 F to 20 F rise in exhaust air
The diversity factors listed in Table 14 are to be temperature may be figured as load reduction if there is
used as a guide in determining a diversity factor for any enough heat released by convection above the supply
particular application. The final factor must necessarily air stream.
be based on judgment of the effect of the many Hot air stratifies at the ceiling event with no exhaust
variables involved. but rapidly builds up in temperature, and no reduction
in load should be taken where air is not exhausted
STRATIFICATION OF HEAT through the ceiling or roof.
There are generally two situations where heat is With suspended ceilings, some of the convective
stratified and will reduce the cooling load on the air heat from recessed lights flows into the plenum space.
conditioning equipment: Also, the radiant heat within the room (sun, lights,
1. Heat may be stratified in rooms with high people, etc.) striking the ceiling warms it up and causes
ceilings where air is exhausted through the roof heat to flow into the plenum space. These sources of
or ceiling. heat increase the temperature of air in the plenum
2. Heat may be contained above suspended space which causes heat to flow into the underside of
ceilings with recessed lighting and/or ceiling the floor structure above. When the ceiling plenum is
plenum return systems used as a return air system, some of the return air flows
The first situation generally applies to industrial through and over the light fixture, carrying more of the
applications, churches, auditoriums, and the like. The convective heat into the plenum space.
second situation applies to applications such as office Containing heat within the ceiling plenum space
buildings, hotels, and apartments. With both cases, the tends to “flatten’ both the room and equipment load.
basic fact that hot air tends to rise makes it possible to The storage factors for estimating the load with the
stratify load such as convection from the roof, above conditions are contained in Table 12.
convection from lights, and convection from the upper
part of the walls. The convective portion of the roof load

40
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

CHAPTER 4. SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

SOLAR HEAT – DIRECT AND DIFFUSE heat gain to the conditioned space consists of the
The solar heat on the outer edge of the earth’s transmitted heat plus about 40% of the heat that is
atmosphere is about 445 Btu/(hr)(sq ft) on December absorbed in the glass.
21 when the sun is closest to the earth, and about 415
Btu/(hr)(sq ft) on June 21 when it is farthest away. The
amount of solar heat outside the earth’s atmosphere
varies between these limits throughout the year. °
The solar heat reaching the earth’s surface is
reduced considerably below these figures because a
large part of it is scattered, reflected back out into
space, and absorbed by the atmosphere. The
scattered radiation is termed Diffuse or sky radiation,
and is more or less evenly distributed over the earth’s
surface because it is nothing more than a reflection
from dust particles, water vapor and ozone in the
atmosphere. The solar heat that comes directly through
the atmosphere is termed direct radiation. The
relationship between the total and the direct and diffuse
radiation at any point on earth is dependent on the
following two factors:
1. The distance traveled through the atmosphere FIG. 12-REACTION ON SOLAR HEAT (R), ORDINARY
to reach the point on the earth. GLASS, 30 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
2. The amount of haze in the air.
As the distance traveled or the amount of haze
increases, the diffuse radiation component increases
but the direct component decreases. As either or both
of these factors increase, the overall effect is to reduce
the total quantity of heat reaching the earth’s surface.
ORDINARY GLASS
Ordinary glass is specified as crystal glass of
single thickness and single or double strength. The
solar heat gain through ordinary glass depends on its
location on the earth’s surface (latitude), time of day,
time of year, and facing direction of the window.The
direct radiation component results in a heat gain to the
conditioned space only when the window is in the direct
rays of the sun, whereas the diffuse radiation
component results in a heat gain, even when the FIG. 13-REACTION ON SOLAR HEAT (R), ORDINARY
window is not facing the sun. GLASS, 80 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Ordinary glass absorbs a small portion of the solar
heat (5% to 6%) and reflects or transmits the rest. The NOTE: The 40% of the absorbed solar heat going into the space
amount reflected or transmitted depends on the angle is derived from the° following reasoning:
of incidence. (The angle of incidence is the angle
between the perpendicular to the window surface and 1. The outdoor film coefficient is approximately 2.8 Btu/ (hr)
the sun’s rays, Fig. 18, page 55.) At low angles of (sq ft) (deg F) with a 5 mph wind velocity during the
incidence, about 89% or 87% is transmitted and 8% or summer.
9% is reflected, as shown in Fig. 12. As the angle of
incidence increases, more solar heat is reflected and
less is transmitted, as shown in Fig. 13. The total solar

41
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

2. The inside film coefficient is approximately 1.8 Btu/ (hr) (sq NOTE: The sash area equals
ft) (deg F) because, in the average system design, air approximately 85% of the masonry
velocities across the glass are approximately 100-200 fpm. opening (or frame opening with
3. If outdoor temperature is equal to room temperature, the frame walls) with wood sash
glass windows, 90% of masonry
temperature is above both. Therefore absorbed heat opening with double hung metal
sash windows, and 100% of
flowing in = 1.8x100 = 39.2%,or 40% masonry opening with casement
1.8+2.8 windows.
Absorbed heat flowing out = 2.8x100 = 60.8%, or 60%
1.8+2.8 FIG. 14
4. As the outdoor temperature rises, the glass temperature WINDOW AREAS
also irises, causing more of the absorbed heat to flow into
the space. This can be accounted for by adding the 2. No haze in the air.
transmission of heat across the glass (caused by 3. Sea level elevation.
temperature difference between inside and outdoors) to the 4. A sea level dewpoint temperature of 66.8 F (95 F
constant 40% of the absorbed heat going inside. db, 75 F wb) which approximately corresponds
5. This reasoning applies equally well when the outdoor to 4 centimeters of precipitable water vapor.
temperature is below the room temperature. Precipitable water vapor is all of the water vapor
in a column of air from sea level to the outer
Basis of Table 15 edge of the atmosphere.
- Solar heat Gain thru Ordinary Glass If these conditions do not apply, use the correction
Table 15 provides data for 0°, 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, factors at the bottom of each page of Table 15.
and 50° latitudes, for each month of the year and for
each hour of the day. This table includes the direct and Use of Table 15
diffuse radiation and that portion of the heat absorbed - Solar Heat Gain thru Ordinary Glass
in the glass which gets into the space. It does not The bold face values in Table 15 indicate the
include the transmission of heat across the glass maximum solar heat gain for the month for each
caused by a temperature difference between the exposure. The bold face values that are boxed
outdoor and inside air. (See Chapter 5 for “U” values.) indicate the yearly maximums for each exposure.
The data in Table 15 is based on the following Table 15 is used to determine the solar heat gain
conditions:- thru ordinary glass at any time, in any space, zone or
1. A glass area equal to 85% of the sash area.This building.
is typical for wood sash windows. For metal sash To determine the actual cooling load due to the
windows, the glass area is assumed equal to 100% of solar heat gain, refer to Chapter 3, “Heat Storage,
the sash area because the conductivity of the metal Diversity and Stratification.”
sash is very high and the solar heat absorbed in the
sash is transmitted almost instantaneously. CAUTION – Where Estimation Multi-Exposure Rooms
Or Buildings
If a haze factor is used on one exposure to
determine the peak room or building load, the diffuse
component listed for the other exposures must be
divided by the haze factor to result in the actual room or
building peak load. This is because the diffuse
component increases with increasing haze, as
explained on page 41.

42
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

Example 1 – Peak Solar Heat Gain (2 Exposures)

Since the time at which the peak solar load occurs in a Example 2 – Solar Gain Correction Factors
space with 2 exposures is not always apparent, the solar heat (Bottom Table 15)
gain is generally calculated at more than one time to determine The conditions on which Table 15 is based do not apply to
its peak. all locations, since many cities are above sea level, and many
have different design dew points and some haze in their
Given: atmosphere.
A room with equal glass areas on the West and South at
40° North latitude. Given:
A west exposure with steel casement windows
Find: Location – Topeka, Kansas
Peak solar heat gain. Altitude – 991 ft
Design dewpoint – 69.8 F
Solution: 39° North latitude
From Table 15
Solar heat gain- Find:
September 22 2:00 3:00 4:00 p.m. Peak solar heat gain
West 99 1:39 149
South 110 81 44 Solution:
Total 209 220 193 By inspection of Table 15 The boxed boldface values for
Solar heat gain- peak solar heat gain, occurring at 4:00 p.m. on July 23
October 23 2:00 3:00 4:00 p.m. = 164 Btu/(hr) (sq ft)
West 88 122 117 Assume a somewhat hazy condition.
South 137 104 59 Altitude correction = 1.007 (bottom Table 15)
Total 225 226 176 Dewpoint difference = 69.8-66.8 = 3 F
Solar heat gain- Dewpoint correction = 1 – (3/10×.07) = .979
November 21 2:00 3:00 4:00 p.m. (bottom Table 15)
West 74 100 91 Haze correction = 1 - .10 = .90 (bottom Table 15)
South 139 104 59 Steel sash correction = 1/.85 (bottom Table 15)
Total 213 204 150 Solar heat gain at 4:00 p.m., July 23
The peak solar heat gain to this room occurs at 3:00 p.m. = 164×1.007×.979×.90×1/.85
on October 23. The peak room cooling load does not = 171 Btu/ (hr)(sq ft)
necessarily occur at the same time as the peak solar heat gain.
because the peak transmission load, people land, etc., may
occur at some other time.

43
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

44
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

45
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

46
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

47
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

48
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

49
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

°
°

FIG. 15-REACTION ON SOLAR HEAT (R), 52% HEAT

ABSORBING GLASS, 30 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
ALL GLASS TYPES – WITH AND WITHOUT
SHADING DEVICES FIG. 16-REACTION ON SOLAR HEAT (R), ¼ -INCH
Glass, other than ordinary glass, absorbs more PLATE GLASS, WHITE VENETIAN BLIND, 30 ANGLE
solar heat because it OF INCIDENCE
1. May be thicker, or
2. May be specially treated to absorb solar heat back through the glass (Fig. 16) wherein some of it is
(heat absorbing glass). absorbed. (Refer to Item 8, page 51, for absorptivity,
These special glass types reduce the transmitted reflectivity and transmissibility of common shading
solar heat but increase the amount of absorbed solar devices at 30° angle of incidence.)
heat flowing into the space. Normally they reflect The solar heat gain thru glass with an inside
slightly less than ordinary glass because part of the shading device may be expressed as follows:
reflection takes place on the inside surface. A portion Q = [.4ag +tg (asd +tsd+rgrsd+.4agrsd)] R
of heat reflected from the inside surface is absorbed in .88
passing back through the glass. The overall effect,
however, is to reduce the solar heat gain to the Where:
conditioned space as shown in Fig. 15. (Refer to Item Q = solar heat gain to space, Btu/ (hr)(sq ft)
8, page 51, for absorptivity, reflectivity and R = total solar intensity, Btu/(hr)(sq ft), (From Table 15)
transmissibility of common types of glass at 30° angle a = solar absorptivity
of incidence.) t = solar transmissibility
The solar heat gain factor through 52% heat r = solar reflectivity
absorbing glass as compared to ordinary glass is g = glass
.64F/.88R = .728 or .73. This multiplier (.73) is used sd = shading device
with Table 15 to determine the solar heat gain thru 52% .88 = conversion factor from Fig. 12
heat absorbing glass. Multipliers for various types of For drapes the above formula changes as follows,
glass are listed in Table 16. caused by the hot air space between glass and drapes:
The effectiveness of a shading device depends on R
Q = [.24ag +tg (.85asd +tsd+rgrsd+.24agrsd)] .88
its ability to keep solar heat from the conditioned space.
All shading devices reflect and absorb a major portion
of the solar gain, leaving a small portion to be The transmission factor U for glass with 100% drape
transmitted. The outdoor shading devices are much is 0.80 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (F).
more effective than the inside devices because all of
the reflected solar heat is kept out and the absorbed The solar heat gain factor thru the combination in
heat is dissipated to the outdoor air. Inside devices Fig. 16 as compared to ordinary glass is .49R/.88R =
necessarily dissipate their absorbed heat within the .557 or .56 (Refer to Table 16 for 1 4 -inch regular plate
conditioned space and must also reflect the solar heat glass with a white venetian blind.)

50
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

NOTE: Actually the reaction on the solar heat reflected back 6. Outdoor canvas awnings ventilated at sides and top.
through the glass from the blind is not always identical (See Table 16 footnote).
tot he first pass as assumed in this example. The first 7. Since Table 15 is based on the net solar heat gain
pass through the glass filters out most of solar radiation thru ordinary glass, all calculated solar heat factors
that is to be absorbed in the glass, and the second are divided by .88 (Fig. 12).
pass absorbs somewhat less. For simplicity, the 8. The average absorptivity, reflectivity and
reaction is assumed identical, since the quantities are transmissability for common glass and shading
normally small on the second pass. devices at a 30° angle of incidence along with
shading factors appear in the table below.
Basis of Table 16
Over-all Factors for Solar Heat Gain thru Glass, Use of Table 16
With and Without Shading Devices - Over-all Factors for Solar Heat Gain thru Glass,
The factors in Table 16 are based on: With and Without Shading Devices
1. An outdoor film coefficient of 2.8 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) The factors in Table 16 are multiplied by the values
(deg F) at 5 mph wind velocity. in Table 15 to determine the solar heat gain thru
2. An inside film coefficient of 1.8 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg different combinations of glass and shading devices.
F), 100-200 fpm. This is not 1.47 as normally used, The correction factors listed under Table 15 are to be
since the present practice in well designed used if applicable. Transmission due to temperature
systems is to sweep the window with a stream of difference between the inside and outdoor air must be
air. added to the solar heat gain to determine total gain thru
3. A 30° angle of incidence which is the angle at glass.
which most exposures peak. The 30° angle of Example 3 – Partially Drawn Shades
incidence is approximately the balance point on Occasionally it is necessary to estimate the cooling load in a building
reduction of solar heat coming through the where the blinds are not to be fully drawn. The procedure is illustrated in the
atmosphere and the decreased transmissibility of following example:
glass. Above the 30° angle the transmissibility of Given:
glass decreases, and below the 30° angle the West exposure, 40° North latitude
atmosphere absorbs or reflects more. Thermopane window with white venetian blind on inside, 3 4 drawn.
4. All shading devices fully drawn, except roller Find:
shades. Experience indicates that roller shads are Peak solar heat gain.
seldom fully drawn, so the factors have been Solution:
slightly increased. By inspection of Table 15, the boxed boldface values for peak solar heat
5. Venetian blind slats horizontal at 45° and shading gain, occurring at 4:00 p.m. on July 23
screen slats horizontal at 17°. = 164 Btu/(hr) (sq ft)

TYPES OF GLASS OR Absorptivity Reflectivity Transmissibility

SHADING DEVICES* (a) (r) (t) Solar Factor†
Ordinary Glass .06 .08 .86 1.00
Regular Plate, ¼ “ .15 .08 .77 .94
Glass, Heat Absorbing by mfg. .05 (1 - .05 – a) -- --
Venetian Blind, Light Color .37 .51 .12 .56‡
Medium Color .58 .39 .03 .65‡
Dark Color .72 .27 .01 .75‡
Fiberglass Cloth, Off White (5.72-61/58) .05 .60 .35 .48‡
Cotton Cloth, Beige (6.18-91/36) .26 .51 .23 .56‡
Fiberglass Cloth, Light Gray .30 .47 .23 .59‡
Fiberglass Cloth, Tan (7.55-57/29) .44 .42 .14 .64‡
Glass Cloth, White, Golden Stripes .05 .41 .54 .65‡
Fiberglass Cloth, Dark Gray .60 .29 .11 .75‡
Dacron Cloth, White (1.8-86/81) .02 .28 .70 .76‡
Cotton Cloth, Dark Green, Vinyl Coated
(similar to roller shade) .82 .15 .00 .88‡
Cotton Cloth, Dark Green (6.06-91/36) .02 .28 .70 .76‡

*Factors for various draperies are given for guidance only since †Compared to ordinary glass.
the actual drapery material may be different in color and ‡For a shading device in combination with ordinary glass.
texture; figures in parentheses are ounces per sq yd, and yarn
count warp/filling. Consult manufacturers for actual values.

51
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

Thermopane windows have no sash; therefore, sash area Find:

correction = 1/.85 (bottom Table 15). Peak solar heat gain.
In this example, ¾ of the window is covered with the venetian Solution:
blind and ¼ is not; therefore, the solar heat gain factor equals By inspection of Table 15 the boxed boldface value for peak
¾ of the overall factor + ¼ of the glass factor. solar heat gain, occurring at 4:00 p.m. on July 23
Factor for ¾ drawn = (3/4×.52)+(1/4×.80) (Table 16) = 164 Btu/(hr) (sq ft).
= .59 Steel sash window correction = 1/.85 (bottom Table 15).
Solar heat gain = 164× .85 .59 Solex “R” glass absorbs 50.9% of the solar heat (footnotes to
Table 16) which places this glass in the 48% to 56% absorbing
= 114 Btu/ (hr) (sq ft). range.
From Table 16, the factor = .73.
Example 4-Peak Solar Heat Gain thru Solex “R” Glass
Given: Solar heat gain =164x.73
.85 = 141 Btu/(hr) (sq ft)
West exposure, 40° North latitude
¼” Solex “R” glass in steel sash, double hung window

TABLE 16-OVER-ALL FACTORS FOR SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS

WITH AND WITHOUT SHADING DEVICES*
Apply Factors to Table 15
Outdoor wind velocity, 5 mph-Angle of incidence, 30 – Shading devices fully covering window
INSIDE OUTSIDE
GLASS VENETIAL BLIND* OUTSIDE SHADING OUTSIDE
FACTOR 45° horiz. or vertical VENETIAN BLIND SCREEN† AWNING‡
NO or ROLLER SHADE 45° horiz. slats 17° horiz. slats vent. sides & top
SHADE Light on
Light Medium Dark Light Outside Medium** Dark§ Light Med. or
Color Color Color Color Dark on Color Color Color Dark
Inside Color
ORDINARY GLASS 1.00 .56 .65 .75 .15 .13 .22 .15 .20 .25
REGULAR PLATE (1/4 inch) .94 .56 .65 .74 .14 .12 .21 .14 .19 .24
HEAT ABSORBING GLASS††
40 to 48% Absorbing .80 .56 .62 .72 .12 .11 .18 .12 .16 .20
48 to 56% Absorbing .73 .53 .59 .62 .11 .10 .16 .11 .15 .18
56 to 70% Absorbing .62 .51 .54 .56 .10 .10 .14 .10 .12 .16
DOUBLE PANE
Ordinary Glass .90 .54 .61 .67 .14 .12 .20 .14 .18 .22
Regular Plate .80 .52 .59 .65 .12 .11 .18 .12 .16 .20
48 to 56% Absorbing outside; .52 .36 .39 .43 .10 .10 .11 .10 .10 .13
Ordinary Glass inside.
48 to 56% Absorbing outside; .50 .36 .39 .43 .10 .10 .11 .10 .10 .12
Regular Plate inside.
TRIPLE PANE
Ordinary Glass .83 .48 .56 .64 .12 .11 .18 .12 .16 .20
Regular Plate .69 .47 .52 .57 .10 .10 .15 .10 .14 .17
PAINTED GLASS
Light Color .28
Medium Color .39
Dark Color .50
STAINED GLASS‡‡
Amber Color .70
Dark Red .56
Dark Blue .60
Dark Green .32
Greyed Green .46
Light Opalescent .43
Dark Opalescent .37
Footnotes for Table 16 appear on next page.

52
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

Example 5-Approximation of Over-all Factor

Given:
A combination as in Fig. 16 backed on the inside with another
pane of 1 4 -inch regular plate glass.
°
Find:
The over-all factor.
Solution:
Figure 17 shows the distribution of solar heat. The heat
absorbed between the glass panes (dead air space) is
divided 45% and 55% respectively between the in and out
flow. The heat absorbed within the glass panes is divided
20% in and 80% out for the outer pane, and 75% in and 25%
FIG. 17-REACTION ON SOLAR HEAT (R), ¼ -INCH out for the inner pane. These divisions are based on
PLATE GLASS, WHITE VENETIAN BLING, ¼ -INCH reasoning partially stated in the notes under Fig. 13, which
PLATE GLASS, 30 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE assume the outdoor film coefficient of 2.8 Btu/ (hr)(sq ft) (deg
F), the indoor film coefficient of 1.8 Btu/(hr)(sq ft) (deg F), and
APPROXIMATION OF FACTORS FOR the over-all thermal conductance of the air space of 1.37 Btu/
COMBINATIONS NOT FOUND IN TABLE 16 (hr)(sq ft)(deg F)
Occasionally combinations of shading devices and
types of glass may be encountered that are not Heat gain to space (Fig. 17)
covered in Table 16. These factors can be = (.75× .15×.12×.77R) + (.77×.12×.77R)
approximated (1) by using the solar heat gain flow + .45 [(.37×.77R) + (.08×.51×.77R)
diagrams in Fig. 15 and 16, (2) by applying the + (.08×.12×.77R)]
absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissibility of glass and + .20 [(.15R) + (.15×.51×.77R)]
shades listed in the table on page 51, or determined = .2684R or .27R
from manufacturer, and (3) by distributing heat Solar heat gain factor as compared to ordinary glass
absorbed within the dead air space and glass panes = .27R/ .88F = .31
(Fig. 17).
Equations: Solar Gain Without Shades = (Solar Data from Table 15) × (Glass Factor from table)
Solar Gain With Shades = (Solar Data from Table 15) × (Over-all Factor from table)
Solar Gain With Shades Partially Drawn = (Solar Data from Table 15) ×
[(Fraction Drawn × Over-all Factor) + (1 – Fraction Drawn) × (Glass Factor)]
Footnotes for Table 16: **Commercial shade, aluminum. Metal slats 0.057 inches wide,
*Shading devices fully drawn except roller shades. For fully drawn roller 17.5 per inch.
shades, multiply light colors by .73, medium colors by .95, and dark colors by ††Most heat absorbing glass used in comfort air conditioning is
1.08. in the 40% to 56% range; industrial applications normally use 56% to 70%. The
° At solar altitudes below
†Factors for solar altitude angles of 40 or greater. following table presents the absorption qualities of the most common glass
° pass thru the slats. Use following multipliers:-
40, some direct solar rays types:-
MULTIPLIERS FOR SOLAR ALTITUDES BELOW 40
Approximate Sun Time, July 23 Solar Multiplier ° SOLAR RADIATION ABSORBED BY HEAT ABSORBING GLASS
Altitude Trade Thick- Solar
30° Lat. 40° Lat. 50° Lat. Angle Med. Dark Name or Manufacturer ness Color Radiation
(deg) Color Color Descrip- (in.) Absorbed
6:00 a.m. 5:45 a.m. 5:30 a.m. 10 2.09 3.46 tion (%)
6:00 p.m. 6:15 p.m. 6:30 p.m. Aklo Blue Ridge Glass Corp. 1/8 Pale Blue-Green 56.6
6:45 a.m. 6:40 a.m. 6:30 a.m. 20 1.59 2.66 Aklo Blue Ridge Glass Corp. 1/4 Pale Blue-Green 69.7
5:15 p.m. 5:20 p.m. 5:30 p.m. Coolite Mississippi Glass Co. 1/8 Light Blue 58.4
7:30 a.m. 7:30 a.m. 7:30 a.m. 30 1.09 1.67 Coolite Mississippi Glass Co. 1/4 Light Blue 70.4
4:30 p.m. 4:30 p.m. 4:30 p.m. L.O.F. Libbey-Owens-Ford 1/4 Pale Blue-Green 48.2
‡With outside canvas awnings tight against building on sides and top, Solex R Pittsburgh Plate Glass
Co. 1/4 Pale Green 50.9
multiply over-all factor by 1.4.
‡‡ With multicolor windows, use the predominant color.
Commercial shade bronze. Metal slats 0.05 inches 0.05 inches wide,
17 per inch.

53
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

Since glass block windows have no sash, the

factors in Table 17 have been increased to include the
GLASS BLOCK 1/.85 multiplier in Table 15.
Glass block differs from sheet glass in that there is Use of Table 17
an appreciable absorption of solar heat and a fairly - Solar Heat Gain Factors for Glass Block,
long time lag before the heat reaches the inside (about With and Without Shading Devices
3 hours). This is primarily caused by the thermal The factors in Table 17 are used to determine the
storage capacity of the glass block itself. The high solar heat gain thru all types of glass block.
absorption of heat increases the inside surface The transmission of heat caused by a difference
temperature of the sunlit glass block which may require between the inside and outdoor temperatures must also
lower room temperatures to maintain comfort conditions be figured, using the appropriate “U” value, Chapter 5.
as explained in Chapter 2.
Shading devices on the outdoor side of glass block Example 6-Peak Solar Heat Gain, Glass Block
are almost as effective as with any other kind of glass Given:
since they keep the heat away from the glass. Shading West exposure, 40° North latitude
devices on the inside are not effective in reducing the Glass block window
heat gain because most of the heat reflected is Find:
absorbed in the glass block. Peak solar heat gain
Solution:
Basis of Table 17 By inspection of Table 15, the peak solar heat gain occurs
- Solar Heat Gain Factors for Glass block, on July 23.
With and Without Shading Devices Solar heat gain
The factors in Table 17 are the average of tests At 4:00 p.m. = (.39×164) + (.21× 43) = 73
conducted by the ASHAE on several types of glass At 5:00 p.m. = (.39×161) + (.21× 98) = 84
block. At 6:00 p.m. = (.39×118) + (.21×144) = 76
Peak solar heat gain occurs at 5:00 p.m. on July 23.

TABLE 17-SOLAR HEAT GAIN FACTORS FOR GLASS BLOCK

WITH AND WITHOUT SHADING DEVICES*
Apply Factors to Table 15
EXPOSURE MULTIPLYING FACTORS FOR GLASS BLOCK
IN NORTH Instantaneous Absorption EXPOSURE
LATITUDES Transmission Transmission IN SOUTH
Factor Factor Time Lag LATITUDES
(Bi) (Ba) Hours
Northeast .27 .24 3.0 Southeast
East .39 .21 3.0 East
Southeast .35 .22 3.0 Northeast
South North
Summer† .27 .24 3.0 Summer†
Winter† .39 .22 3.0 Winter†
Southwest .35 .22 3.0 Northwest
West .39 .21 3.0 West
Northwest .27 .24 3.0 Southwest

*Factors include correction for no sash with glass block windows. †Use the summer factors for all latitudes, North or South. Use the winter
factor for intermediate seasons, 30° to 50° North or South latitude.
Where:
Equations: Bi = Instantaneous transmission factor from Table 17.
Solar heat gain without shading devices Ba = Absorption transmission factor from Table 17.
= (Bi×li) + (Ba×la) li = Solar heat gain value from Table 15 for the desired time
Solar heat gain with outdoor shading devices and wall facing.
= (Bi×lI+ Ba×la×.25 la = Solar heat gain value from Table 15 for 3 hours earlier than
Solar heat gain with inside shading devices li and same wall facing.
= (Bi×lI+ Ba×la)×.90

54
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

SHADING FROM REVEALS, OVERHANGS,

FINS AND ADJACENT BUILDINGS
All windows are shaded to a greater or lesser
degree by the projections close to it and by buildings
around it. This shading reduces the solar heat gain
through these windows by keeping the direct rays of
the sun off part of all of the window. The shaded
portion has only the diffuse component striking it.
Shading of windows is significant in monumental type
buildings where the reveal may be large, even at the
time of peak solar heat gain. Chart 1, this chapter, is
presented to simplify the determination of the shading
of windows by these projections.
Basis of Chart 1
- Shading from Reveals, Overhangs, Fins and Adjacent
Buildings
The location of the sun is defined by the solar FIG. 18-SOLAR ANGLES
azimuth angle and the solar altitude angle as shown in
Fig. 18. The solar azimuth angle is the angle in a
horizontal plane between North and the vertical plane
passing through the sun and the point on earth. The
solar altitude angle is the angle in a vertical plane
between the sun and a horizontal plane through a point
on earth. The location of the sun with respect to the
particular wall facing is defined by the wall solar
azimuth angle and the solar altitude angle. The wall
solar azimuth angle is the angle in the horizontal plane
between the perpendicular to the wall and the vertical
plane passing through the sun and the point on earth.
The shading of a window by a vertical projection
alongside the window (see Fig. 19) is the tangent of the
wall solar azimuth angle (B), times depth of the
projection. The shading of a window by a horizontal
projection above the window is the tangent of angle (X),
a resultant of the combined effects of the altitude angle
(A) and the wall solar azimuth angle (B), times the FIG. 19-SHADING BY WALL PROJECTIONS
depth of the projection.
Tan A, solar altitude angle 2. Locate the solar azimuth angle on the scale in
Tan X = upper part of Chart 1.
Cos B,wall solar azimuth angle 3. Proceed horizontally to the exposure desired.
The upper part of Chart 1 determines the tangent of 4. Drop vertically to “Shading from Side” scale.
the wall solar azimuth angle and the bottom part 5. Multiply the depth of the projection (plan view)
determines tan X. by the “Shading from Side.”
6. Locate the solar altitude angle on the scale in
Use of Chart 1 lower part of Chart 1.
- Shading from Reveals, Overhangs, Fins and adjacent 7. Move horizontally until the “Shading from Side”
Buildings value (45 deg. lines) determined in Step 4 is
The procedure to determine the top and side intersected.
shading from Chart 1 is. 8. Drop vertically to “Shading from Top” from
1. Determine the solar azimuth and altitude angles intersection.
from Table 18. 9. Multiply the depth of the projection (elevation
view) by the “Shading from Top.”

55
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

FIG. 21-SHADING OF REVEAL AND OVERHANG

Length of building in shade, L
= 85-15-(.1×75) = 62.5 ft
Height of building in shade, H = 100-(75×.7) = 47.5 ft
The air conditioned building is shaded to a height of 47.5 it
and 62.5 ft along the face at 4:00 p.m. on July 23.

Example 8-Shading of Window by Reveals

Given:
A steel casement window on the west side with an 8-inch
reveal.
Find:
Shading by the reveal at 2 p.m. on July 23, 40° North
Latitude.
Solution:
FIG. 20-SHADING OF BUILDING BY ADJACENT From Table 18, solar azimuth-angle = 242°
BUILDING solar altitude angle = 57°
From Chart 1, shading from side reveal = .6×8 = 4.8 in.
Example 7 – Shading of Building by Adjacent Building shading from top reveal = 1.8×8 = 14.4 in.
Given:
Buildings located as shown in Fig. 20. Example 9 – Shading of Window by Overhang and Reveal
Find: Given:
Shading at 4 p.m., July 23, of building to be air conditioned. The same window as in Example 8 with a 2 ft overhang 6
Solution: inches above the window.
It is recommended that the building plans and elevations be Find:
sketched to scale with approximate location of the sun, to Shading by reveal and overhang a 2 p.m. on July 23, 40°
enable the engineer to visualize the shading conditions. North Latitude.
From Table 18, solar azimuth angle = 267° Solution:
solar altitude angle = 35° Refer to Fig. 21.
From Chart 1, shading from side = .1 ft/ft Shading from side reveal (same as Example 8) = 4.8 in.
shading from top = .7 ft/ft Shading from overhang = 1.8× (24+8) = 57.6 in.
Since the overhang is 6 inches above the window, the portion
of window shaded = 57.6 – 6.0 = 51.6 in.

56
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

57
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 4. Solar Heat Gain Thru Glass

58
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

CHAPTER 5. HEAT AND WATER VAPOR FLOW

THRU STRUCTURES

This chapter presents the methods and data for q = UA∆te

determining the sensible and latent heat gain or loss where q = heat flow, Btu/hr
thru the outdoor structures of a building or thru a U = transmission coefficient,
structure surrounding a space within the building. It Btu/(hr)(sq ft) (deg F temp diff)
also presents data for determining and preventing A = area of surface, sq ft
water vapor condensation on the enclosure surfaces of ∆te = equiv temp diff F
within the structure materials.
Heat flows from one point to another whenever a Heat loss thru the exterior construction (walls and
temperature difference exists between the two points; roof) is normally calculated at the time of greatest heat
the direction of flow is always towards the lower flow. This occurs early in the morning after a few hours
temperature. Water vapor also flows form one point to of very low outdoor temperatures. This approaches
another whenever a difference in vapor pressure exists steady state heat flow conditions, and for all practical
between the two points; the direction of flow is towards purposes may be assumed as such.
the point of low vapor pressure. The rate at which the Heat flow thru the interior construction (floors,
heat or water vapor will flow varies with the resistance ceilings and partitions) is caused by a difference in
to flow between the two points in the material. If the temperature of the air on both sides of the structure.
temperature and vapor pressure of the water vapor This temperature difference is essentially constant thru
correspond to saturation conditions at any point, out the day and, therefore, the heat flow can be
condensation occurs. determined from the steady state heat flow equation,
using the actual temperatures on either side.
HEAT FLOW THRU BUILDING STRUCTURES
Heat gain thru the exterior construction (walls and EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE-
roof) is normally calculated at the time of greatest heat SUNLIT AND SHADED WALLS AND ROOFS
flow. It is caused by solar heat being absorbed at the The process of transferring heat thru a wall under
exterior surface and by the temperature difference indicated unsteady state conditions may be visualized
between the outdoor and indoor air. Both heat sources by picturing a 12-inch brick wall sliced into 12 one-inch
are highly variable thruout any one day and, therefore, sections. Assume that temperatures in each slice are
result in unsteady state heat flow thru the exterior all equal at the beginning, and that the indoor and
construction. This unsteady state flow is difficult to outdoor temperatures remain constant.
evaluate for each individual situation; however, it can When the sun shines on this wall, most of the solar
be handled best by means of an equivalent heat is absorbed in the first slice, Fig. 22. This raises
temperature difference across the structure. the temperature of the first slice above that of the
The equivalent temperature difference is that outdoor air and the second slice, causing heat to flow
temperature difference which results in the total heat to the outdoor air and also to the second slice, Fig. 23.
flow thru the structure as caused by the variable solar The amount of heat flowing in either direction depends
radiation and outdoor temperature. The equivalent on the resistance to heat flow within the wall and thru
temperature difference across the structure must take the outdoor air film. The heat flow into the second slice,
into account the different types of construction and in turn, raises its temperature, causing heat to flow into
exposures, time of day, location of the building the third slice, Fig. 24. This process of absorbing heat
(latitude), and design conditions. The heat flow thru the and passing some on to the next slice continues thru
structure may then be calculated, using the steady the wall to the last or 12th slice where the remaining
state heat flow equation with the equivalent temperature heat is transferred to the inside by convection and
difference. radiation. For this particular wall, it takes approximately

59
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

FIG. 22-SOLAR HEAT ABSORBED IN FIRST SLICE

FIG. 25-BEHAVIOR OF ABSORBED SOLAR HEAT DURING
SECOND TIME INTERVAL PLUS ADDITIONAL SOLAR
HEAT ABSORBED DURING THIS INTERVAL

FIG. 23-BEHAVIOR OR ABSORBED SOLAR HEAT

DURING SECOND TIME INTERVAL

FIG. 26-BEHAVIOR OF ABSORBED SOLAR HEAT DURING

THIRD TIME INTERVAL PLUS ADDITIONAL SOLAR
HEAT ABSORBED DURING THIS INTERVAL
The solar heat absorbed at each time interval by
the outdoor surface of the wall throughout the day goes
thru this same process. Figs. 25 and 26 show the total
solar heat flow during the second and third time
FIG. 24-BEHAVIOR OF ABSORBED SOLAR HEAT intervals.
DURING THIRD TIME INTERVAL A rise in outdoor temperature reduces the amount
7 hours for solar heat to pass thru the wall into the of absorbed heat going to the outdoors and more flows
room. Because each slice must absorb some heat thru the wall.
before passing it on, the magnitude of heat released to This same process occurs with any type of wall
inside space would be reduced to about 10% of that construction to a greater or lesser degree, depending
absorbed in the slice exposed to the sun. on the resistance to heat flow thru the wall and the
These diagrams do not account for possible thermal capacity of the wall.
changes in solar intensity or outdoor temperature.

60
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

NOTE: The thermal capacity of a wall or roof is the Example 1 – Equivalent Temperature Difference, Roof
density of the material in the wall or roof, times Given:
the specific heat of the material, times the A flat roof exposed to the sun, with built-up roofing,1 1 2 in. insulation,3 in.
volume. wood deck and suspended acoustical tile ceiling.
This progression of heat gain to the interior may Room design temperature = 80 F db
occur over the full 24-hour period, and may result in a Outdoor design temperature = 95 F db
heat gain to the space during the night. If the Daily range = 20 deg F
equipment is operated less than 24 hours, i.e. either Find:
skipping the peak load requirement or as a routine Equivalent temperature difference at 4 p.m. July.
procedure, the peak load requirement or as a routine Solution:
procedure, the nighttime radiation to the sky and the Wt/sq ft = 8 + 2 + 2 = 12 lb/sq ft (Table 27, page 71)
lowering of the outdoor temperature may decrease the Equivalent temperature difference
transmission gain and often may reverse it. Therefore, = 43 deg F (Table 20, interpolated)
the heat gain estimate (sun and transmission thru the
roof and outdoor walls), even with equipment operating Example 2 – Daily Range and Design Temperature Difference
less than 24 hours, may be evaluated by the use of the Correction
equivalent temperature data presented in Tables 19 At times the daily range may be more or less than 20 deg F; the difference
and 20. between outdoor and room design temperatures may be more or less than 15
Basis of Tables 19 and 20 deg F. The corrections to be applied to the equivalent temperature difference
- Equivalent Temperature Difference for Sunlit and for combinations of these two variables are listed in the notes following Tables
Shaded Walls and Roofs 19 and 20.
Table 19 and 20 are analogue computer Given:
calculations using Schmidt’s method based on the The same roof as in Example 1
following conditions: Room design temperature = 78 F db
1. Solar heat in July at 40° North latitude. Outdoor design temperature = 95 F db
2. Outdoor daily range of dry-bulb temperatures, Daily range = 26 deg F
20 deg F. Find:
3. Maximum outdoor temperature of 95 F db and Equivalent temperature difference under changed conditions
a design indoor temperature of 80 F db, i.e. a Solution:
design difference of 15 deg F. Design temperature difference = 17 deg F
4. Dark color walls and roofs with absorptivity of Daily range = 26 deg F
0.90. For light color, absorptivity is 0.50; for Correction to equivalent temperature difference
medium color, 0.70. = -1 deg F (Table 20A, interpolated)
5. Sun time. Equivalent temperature difference = 43 – 1 = 42 deg F
The specific heat of most construction materials is
approximately 0.20 Btu/(lb)(deg F); the thermal Example 3 – Other Months and Latitudes
capacity of typical walls or roofs is proportional to the Occasionally the heat gain thru a wall or roof must be known for months and
weight per sq ft; this permits easy interpolation. latitudes other than those listed in Note 3 following Table 20. This equivalent
temperature difference is determined from the equation in Note 3. This
Use of Tables 19 and 20 equation adjusts the equivalent temperature difference for solar radiation only.
- Equivalent Temperature Difference for Sunlit and Additional correction may have to be made for differences between outdoor
Shaded Wall and Roofs and indoor design temperatures other than 15 deg F. Refer to Tables 19 and
The equivalent temperature differences in Tables 20, pages 62 and 63, and to the correction Table 20A. Corrections for these
19 and 20 are multiplied by the transmission differences must be made first; then the corrected equivalent temperature
coefficients listed in Tables 21 thru 33 to determine the differences for both sun and shade must be applied in corrections for latitude.
heat gain thru walls and roofs per sq ft of area during Given:
the summer. The total weight per sq ft of walls and 12 in. common brick wall facing west, with no interior finish, located in
roofs is obtained by adding the weights per sq ft of New Orleans, 30° North latitude.
each component of a given structure. These weights Find:
and shown in italics and parentheses in Tables 21 thru Equivalent temperature difference in November at 12 noon.
33. Find:
Equivalent temperature difference in November at 12 noon.

61
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

Solution: = 95 – 15 = 80 F
The correction for design temperature difference is as follows: With and 80 F db room design, the outdoor to indoor difference is 80 – 80 = 0
deg F
Example 3, contd Average daily range in New Orleans
Summer design dry-bulb for New Orleans = 13 deg F (Table 1, page 11)
= 95 F db (Table 1, page 11) The design difference of 0 deg F and a 13 deg F daily range results in a –11.5
Winter design dry-bulb for New Orleans deg F addition to the equivalent temperature difference, by interpolation in
= 20 F db (Table 1 page 11) Table 20A.
Yearly range = 75 deg F Equivalent temperature differences for 12 in. brick wall in New Orleans at 12
Correction in outdoor design temperature for November and a noon in November:
yearly range of 75 deg F ∆tem for west wall in sun
= -15 F (Table 3, page 19) = 7 (Table 19)-11.5 = -4.5 deg F
Outdoor design dry-bulb temperature in November at 3 p.m.

TABLE 19-EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (DEG F)

FOR DARK COLORED† , SUNLIT AND SHADED WALLS*
Based on Dark Colored Walls; 95 F db Outdoor Design Temp; Constant 80F db Room Temp;
20 deg F Daily Range; 24-hour Operation; July and 40 N. Lat.†
WEIGHTS SUN TIME
EXPOSURE OF WALL‡ AM PM AM
(lb/sq ft) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
20 5 15 22 23 24 19 14 13 12 13 14 14 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -3 -4 -2
Northeast 60 -1 -2 - 2 5 24 22 20 15 10 11 12 13 14 13 12 11 10 8 6 4 2 1 0 -1
100 4 3 4 4 4 10 16 15 14 12 10 11 12 12 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 6 5 5
140 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 10 14 16 14 12 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 8 7 7
20 1 17 30 33 36 35 32 20 12 13 14 14 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -1 -2 -3 -3
East 60 -1 -1 0 21 30 31 31 19 14 13 12 13 14 13 12 11 10 8 5 4 3 1 1 0
100 5 5 6 8 14 20 24 25 24 20 18 16 14 14 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 7 6
140 11 10 10 9 8 9 10 15 18 19 18 17 16 14 12 13 14 14 14 13 13 12 12 12
20 10 6 13 19 26 27 28 26 24 19 16 15 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -1 -1 -2 -2
Southeast 60 1 1 0 13 20 24 28 26 25 21 18 15 14 13 12 11 10 8 6 5 4 3 3 2
100 7 7 6 6 6 11 16 17 18 19 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 10 10 9 9 8 8 7
140 9 8 8 8 8 7 6 11 14 15 16 18 16 15 14 13 12 12 12 11 11 10 10 9
20 -1 -2 -4 1 4 14 22 27 30 28 26 20 16 12 10 7 6 3 2 1 1 0 0 -1
South 60 -1 -3 -4 -3 -2 7 12 20 24 25 26 23 20 15 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 1 0 -1
100 4 4 2 2 2 3 4 8 12 15 16 18 18 15 14 11 10 9 8 8 7 6 6 5
140 7 6 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 7 10 13 14 15 16 16 14 12 10 10 9 9 8 7
20 -2 -4 -4 -2 0 4 6 19 26 34 40 41 42 30 24 12 6 4 2 1 1 0 -1 -1
Southwest 60 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 8 12 24 32 35 36 35 34 20 10 7 6 5 4 4 3 3
100 7 5 6 5 4 5 6 7 8 12 14 19 22 23 24 23 22 15 10 10 9 9 8 7
140 8 8 8 8 8 7 6 6 6 7 8 9 10 15 18 19 20 13 8 8 8 8 8 8
20 -2 -3 -4 -2 0 3 6 14 20 32 40 45 48 34 22 14 8 5 2 1 0 0 -1 -1
West 60 2 1 0 0 0 2 4 7 10 19 26 34 40 41 36 28 16 10 6 5 4 3 3 2
100 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 10 12 17 20 25 28 27 26 19 14 12 11 10 9 8
140 12 11 10 9 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 11 12 14 16 21 22 23 22 20 18 16 15 13
20 -3 -4 -4 -2 0 3 6 10 12 19 24 33 40 37 34 18 6 4 2 0 -1 -1 -2 -2
Northwest 60 -2 -3 -4 -3 -2 0 2 6 8 10 12 21 30 31 32 21 12 8 6 4 3 1 0 -1
100 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 9 12 17 20 21 22 14 8 7 7 6 6 5
140 8 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 9 10 14 18 19 20 16 7 11 10 9
20 -3 -3 -4 -3 -2 1 4 8 10 12 14 13 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 13 - 1 - 2 -2
North 60 -3 -3 - 4 -3 -2 -1 0 3 6 8 10 11 12 12 12 10 8 6 4 2 -1 0 -1 -2
(Shade) 100 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 2 2 1
140 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 4 3 2 2 1
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
AM PM AM
SUN TIME
Equation: Heat Gain Thru Walls, Btu/hr = (Area, sq ft) × (equivalent temp diff) × (transmission coefficient U, Tables 21 thru 25)
*All values are for the both insulated and uninsulated walls.
†For other conditions, refer to corrections on page 64.
‡“Weight per sq ft” values for common types of construction are listed in Tables 21 thru 25.
For wall constructions less than 20 lb/sq ft, use listed values of 20 lb/sq ft.

62
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

∆te8 for west wall in shade Wt/sq ft of wall = 120 lb/sq ft (Table 21)
= 0 (Table 19) – 11.5 = -11.5 deg F
No correction is needed for the time of day; this is accounted for in ∆tes = - 11.5 deg F as corrected (Table 19 and 20A)
Table 19.
∆tem = - 4.5 deg F as corrected (Table 19 and 20A)
The correction for different solar intensity is
Rs = 116 Btu/hr (Table 15, page 44)
Rs (∆t ∆t ) = Rs ∆t + (1- Rs ) ∆t
∆te = ∆tes +
Rm em es Rm em Rm es Rm = 164 Btu/hr (Table 15, page 44)
∆te = -11.5+ 116
164 [-45-.5-(-11.5)]
= - 6.5 deg F ( Novemder , 12 Noon)

TABLE 20-EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (DEG F)

FOR DARK COLORED†, SUNLIT AND SHADED ROOFS*
Based on 95 F db Outdoor Design Temp; Constant 80 F db Room Temp; 20 deg F Daily Range;
24-hour Operation; July and 40° N. Lat.†
WEIGHTS SUN TIME
CONDI- OF ROOF‡ AM PM AM
TION (lb/sq ft) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
10 -4 -6 -7 -5 -1 7 15 24 32 38 43 46 45 41 35 28 22 16 10 7 3 1 - 1 -3
Exposed 20 0 -1 -2 -1 2 9 16 23 30 36 41 43 43 40 35 30 25 20 15 12 8 6 4 2
to 40 4 3 2 3 6 10 16 23 28 33 38 40 41 39 35 32 28 24 20 17 13 11 9 6
Sun 60 9 8 6 7 8 11 16 22 27 31 35 38 39 38 36 34 31 28 25 22 18 16 13 11
80 13 12 11 11 12 13 16 22 26 28 32 35 37 37 35 34 34 32 30 27 23 20 18 14
Covered 20 -5 -2 0 2 4 10 16 19 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 6 2 1 1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
with 40 -3 -2 -1 -1 0 5 10 13 15 15 16 15 15 14 12 10 7 5 3 1 -1 -2 -3 -3
Water 60 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 2 5 7 10 12 14 15 16 15 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 0
20 -4 -2 0 2 4 8 12 15 18 17 16 15 14 12 10 6 2 1 0 -1 -2 -2 -3 -3
Sprayed 40 -2 -2 -1 -1 0 2 5 9 13 14 14 14 14 13 12 9 7 5 3 1 0 0 -1 -1
60 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 0 2 5 8 10 12 13 14 13 12 11 10 8 6 4 2 1 0 -1
20 -5 -5 -4 -2 0 2 6 9 12 13 14 13 12 10 8 5 2 1 0 -1 -3 -4 -5 -5
Shaded 40 -5 -5 -4 -3 -2 0 2 5 8 10 12 13 12 11 10 8 6 4 2 0 -1 -3 -4 -5
60 -3 -3 -2 -2 -2 -1 0 2 4 6 8 9 10 10 10 9 8 6 4 2 1 0 -1 -2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
AM PM AM
SUN TIME
Equation: Heat Gain Thru Roofs, Btu/hr = (Area, sq ft) × (equivalent temp diff) × (transmission coefficient U, Tables 27 or 28)
*With attic ventilated and ceiling insulated roofs, reduce equivalent temp diff 25%
For peaked roofs, use the roof area projected on a horizontal plane.
†For other conditions, refer to corrections on page 64.
‡“Weight per sq ft” values for common types of construction are listed in Tables 27 or 28.

63
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 20A-CORRECTIONS TO EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES (DEG F)

OUTDOOR
DESIGN
FOR MONTH
AT 3 P.M. DAILY RANGE (deg F)
MINUS
ROOM TEMP
(deg F) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
-30 -39 -40 -41 -42 -43 -44 -45 -46 -47 -48 -49 -50 -51 -52 -53 -54 -55
-20 -29 -30 -31 -32 -33 -34 -35 -36 -37 -38 -39 -40 -41 -42 -43 -44 -45
-10 -19 -20 -21 -22 -23 -24 -25 -26 -27 -28 -29 -30 -31 -32 -33 -34 -35
0 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20 -21 -22 -23 -24 -25
5 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20
10 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15
15 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10
20 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
25 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
30 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
35 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
40 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15

Corrections to Equivalent Temperature Differences in Tables 19 & ∆te8 = equivalent temperature difference for same wall or roof in
20 for Conditions Other Than Basis of Table shade at desired time of day, corrected if necessary for
1. Outdoor Design Temperature Minus Room Temperature Greater design conditions.
or Less Than 15 deg F db, and/or Daily Range Greater or Less ∆tem = equivalent temperature difference for wall or foof
Than 20 deg F db: exposed to the sun for desired time of day, corrected if
Add the corrections listed in Table 20A, where the outdoor necessary for design conditions.
design temperature (Table 1, page 10) minus the room or indoor R8 = maximum solar heat gain in Btu/(hr) (sq ft) thru glass for
design temperature (table 4, page 20) is different from 15 deg F wall facing or horizontal for roofs, for month and latitude
db, or the daily range is different from the 20 deg F db on which desired, Table 15, page 44, or Table 6, page 29.
Table 19 and 20 are based. Rm = maximum solar heat gain in Btu/(hr)(sq ft) thru glass for
This correction is to be applied to both equivalent temperature wall facing or horizontal for roofs, for July at 40 North
difference values, exposed to sun and shaded walls or roof. latitude, Table 15, page 44, or Table 6, page 29.
2. Shaded walls Example 3 illustrates the procedure.
For shaded walls on any exposure, use the values of equivalent 4. Light or medium color wall or roof
temperature difference listed for north (shade), corrected if Light color wall or roof:
necessary as shown in Correction 1.
3. Latitudes other than 40° North and for other months with different .50 (∆t - ∆t ) = .55 ∆t + .45 ∆t
∆te = ∆tes +
solar intensities. Tables 19 and 20 values are approximately .90 em es em es

correct for the east or west wall in any latitude during the hottest Medium color wall or roof:
weather. In lower latitudes when the maximum solar altitude is
80° to 90° (the maximum occurs at noon), the temperature ∆te = ∆tes + .70 (∆t - ∆t ) = .78 ∆t + .22 ∆t
difference for either south or north wall is approximately the same .90 em es em es

as a north or shade wall. See Table 18 for solar altitude where:

angles.The temperature differential ∆te for any wall facing or roof ∆te = equivalent temperature difference for month and time of
and for any latitude for any month is approximated as follows: day desired.
∆te8 = equivalent temperature difference for same wall or roof in
∆te = ∆tes +
Rs (∆t ∆t ) = Rs ∆t + (1- Rs ) ∆t shade at desired time of day, corrected if necessary for
Rm em es Rm em Rm es design conditions.
where ∆tem = equivalent temperature difference for wall or foof
∆te = equivalent temperature difference for month and time of exposed to the sun for desired time of day, corrected if
day desired. necessary for design conditions.

64
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

Note: Light color = white, cream, etc. conditions, the coefficient for summer conditions
Medium color = light green, light blue, gray, etc. will be:
Dark color = dark blue, dark red, dark brown, etc. 1. Thermal resistance R (winter) of wall
5. Other latitude, other month, light or medium color walls or roof.
The combined formulae are: = 1 = 1 = 3.33
U 0.3
Light color walls or roof
Rs ∆tem + (1- .55 Rs ) ∆tes 2. Outdoor film thermal resistance (winter)
∆te = .55 + = 0.17 (Table 34)
Rm Rm 3. Thermal resistance of wall without outdoor air film
(winter = 3.33 – 0.17 = 3.16
Medium color walls or roof. 4. Outdoor film thermal resistance (summer)
Rs ∆tem + (1- .78 Rs ) ∆tes = 0.25 (Table 34)
∆te = .78 + 5. Thermal resistance of wall with outdoor air film
Rm Rm (summer) = 3.16 + 0.25 = 3.41
6. Transmission coefficient U of wall in summer
5. For South latitudes, use the following exposure values from
Table 19: = 1 = 1 = 0.294
R 3.41
South Latitude Use Exposure Value
Northeast Southeast 7. Difference between summer and winter transmission
East East becomes greater with larger U values and less with
Southeast Northeast smaller U values.
South North (shade) Use of Tables 21 thru 33
Southwest Northwest - Transmission Coefficients U for Walls, Roofs, Partitions,
West West Ceilings, floors, Doors, and Windows
Northwest Southwest The transmission coefficients may be used for
North (shade) South calculating the heat flow for both summer and winter
conditions for the average application.
TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U Example 4 – Transmission Coefficients
Transmission coefficient or U value is the rate at Given:
which heat is transferred thru a building structure in Btu/ Masonry partition made of 8 in. hollow clay tile, both sides
(hr)(sq ft)(deg F temp diff). The rate times the finished, metal lath plastered on furring with 3 4 in. sand
temperature difference is the heat flow thru the structure. plaster.
The reciprocal of the U value for any wall is the total Find:
resistance of this wall to heat flow to the of heat. The total Transmission coefficient
resistance of any wall to heat flow is the summation of the Solution:
resistance in each component of the structure and the Transmission coefficient U
resistances of the outdoor and inside surface films. The = 0.18 Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(deg F), Table 26, page 70
transmission coefficients listed in Tables 21 thru 33 have Example 5 – Transmission Coefficient, Addition of Insulation
been calculated for the most common types of The transmission coefficients listed in Tables 21 thru 30 do not
construction. include insulation (except for flat roofs, Table 27, page 71).
Frequently, fibrous insulation or reflective insulation is included in
the exterior building structure. The transmission coefficient for the
Basis of Tables 21 thru 33 typical constructions listed in Table 21 thru 30, with insulation, may
- Transmission Coefficients U for Walls, Roofs, Partitions, be determined from Table 31, page 75.
Ceilings, Floors, Doors, and Windows Given:
Table 21 thru 33 contain calculated U values based Masonry wall consisting of 4 in. face brick, 8 in. concrete cinder
on the resistance listed in Table 34, page 78. The block, metal lath plastered on furring with 3 4 in. sand plaster
resistance of the outdoor surface film coefficient for and 3 in. of fibrous insulation in the stud space.
Find:
summer and winter conditions and the inside surface film Transmission coefficient.
is listed in Table 34. Solution:
Note: The difference between summer and winter Refer to Tables 22 and 31.
transmission coefficients for a typical wall is U value for wall without insulation
negligible. For example, with a transmission = 0.24 Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(deg F)
U value for wall with insulation
coefficient of 0.3 Btu/(hr)(sq ft) (F) for winter = 0.07 Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(deg F)

65
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

66
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

67
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

68
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

69
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

70
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

71
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

72
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

73
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

74
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 32-TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-FLAT ROOFS WITH ROOF-DECK INSULATION

SUMMER AND WINTER
Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F temp diff)
U VALUE OF ROOF Addition of Roof-Deck Insulation
BEFORE ADDING Thickness (in.)
ROOF DECK
INSULATION ½ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3
.60 .33 .22 .17 .14 .12 .10
.50 .29 .21 .16 .14 .12 .10
.40 .26 .19 .15 .13 .11 .09
.35 .24 .18 .14 .12 .10 .09
.30 .21 .16 .13 .12 .10 .09
.25 .19 .15 .12 .11 .09 .08
.20 .16 .13 .11 .10 .09 .08
.15 .12 .11 .09 .08 .08 .07
.10 .09 .08 .07 .07 .06 .05

TABLE 33-TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-WINDOWS, SKYLIGHTS,

DOORS & GLASS BLOCK WALLS
Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F temp diff)
GLASS
Vertical Glass Horizontal Glass
Single Double Triple Single Double (1/4”)
Air Space Thickness (in.) ¼ ½ ¾ -4 ¼ ½ ¾ -4 Summer Winter Summer Winter
Without Storm Windows 1.13 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.41 0.36 0.34 0.86 1.40 0.50 0.70
With Storm Windows 0.54 0.43 0.64
DOORS
Nominal Thickness U U
of Wood (inches) Exposed Door With Storm Door
1 0.69 0.35
1¼ 0.59 0.32
1½ 0.52 0.30
1¾ 0.51 0.30
2 0.46 0.28
2½ 0.38 0.25
3 0.33 0.23
Glass (3/4” Herculite) 1.05 0.43
HOLLOW GLASS BLOCK WALLS
Description* U
5¾×5¾×37/8” Thick—Nominal Size 6×6×4 (14) 0.60
7¾×7¾×37/8” Thick--Nominal Size 8×8×4 (14) 0.56
11¾×11¾×37/8” Thick—Nominal Size 12×12×4 (16) 0.52
7¾×7¾×37/8” Thick with glass fiber screen dividing the cavity (14) 0.48
11¾×11¾×37/8” Thick with glass fiber screen dividing the cavity (16) 0.44
Equation: Heat Gain or Loss, Btu/hr = (Area, sq ft) × (U value) × (outdoor temp – inside temp)
*Italicized numbers in parentheses indicate weight in lb per sq ft.

75
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

CALCULATION OF TRANSMISSION Example 6 – Calculation of U Value

COEFFICIENT U Given:
For types of construction not listed in Tables 21 thru A wall as per Fig. 27
33, calculate the U value as follows:
1. Determine the resistance of each component of a
given structure and also the inside and outdoor air
surface films from Table 34.
2. Add these resistances together,
R = r1+r2+r3+. . . . . rn 1
3. Take the resistances, U =
R
Basis of Table 34 FIG. 27-OUTDOOR WALL
- Thermal Resistance R, Building and Insulating Materials
Table 34 was extracted from the 1958 ASHAE Guide Find:
and the column “weight per sq ft” added. Transmission coefficient in summer.
Solution:
Use of Table 34 Refer to Table 34.
- Thermal Resistance R, Building and Insulating Materials Resistance
The thermal resistances for building materials are Construction R
listed in two columns. One column lists the thermal 1. Outdoor air surface (7 1 2 mph wind) 0.25
resistance per inch thickness, based on conductivity, 2. Stone facing, 2 in. (2 × .08) 0.16
while the other column lists the thermal resistance for a 3. Hollow clay tile, 8” 1.85
given thickness or construction, based on conductance. 4. Sand aggregate plaster, 2 in. (2 × .20) 0.40
5. Inside air surface (still air) 0.68
___________
Total Resistance 3.34
1 1
u = = = 0.30 Btu/(hr)(sq ft) (deg F)
R 3.34

76
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 34-THERMAL RESISTANCES R-BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS

(deg F per Bu)/(hr) (sq ft)
RESISTANCE R
THICK- DENSITY WEIGHT Per Inch For Listed
NESS (lb per (lb per Thickness Thickness
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION (in.) cu ft) sq ft) 1 1
K C
BUILDING MATERIALS
BUILDING Asbestos-Cement Board 120 - 0.25 -
BOARD Asbestos-Cement Board 1/8 120 1.25 - 0.03
Boards, Gypsum or Plaster Board 3/8 50 1.58 - 0.32
Panels, Gypsum or Plaster Board 1/2 50 2.08 - 0.45
Sheathing, Plywood 34 - 1.25 -
etc Plywood 1/4 34 0.71 - 0.31
Plywood 3/8 34 1.06 - 0.47
Plywood 1/2 34 1.42 - 0.63
Plywood or Wood Panels 3/4 34 2.13 - 0.94
Wood Fiber Board, Laminated or Homogeneous 26 - 2.38 -
31 - 2.00 -
Wood Fiber, Hardboard Type 65 - 0.72 -
Wood Fiber, Hardboard Type 1/4 65 1.35 - 0.18
Wood, Fir or Pine Sheathing 25/32 32 2.08 - 0.98
Wood, Fir or Pine 1 5/8 32 4.34 - 2.03
BUILDING Vapor Permeable Felt - - - 0.06
PAPER Vapor Seal, 2 layers of Mopped 15 lb felt - - - 0.12
Vapor Seal, Plastic Film - - - Negl
WOODS Maple, Oak, and Similar Hardwoods 45 - 0.91 -
Fir, Pine, and Similar Softwoods 32 - 1.25 -
MASONRY Brick, Common 4 120 40 - .80
UNITS Brick, Face 4 130 43 - .44
Clay Tile, Hollow:
1 Cell Deep 3 60 15 - 0.80
1 Cell Deep 4 48 16 - 1.11
2 Cells Deep 6 50 25 - 1.52
2 Cells Deep 8 45 30 - 1.85
2 Cells Deep 10 42 35 - 2.22
3 Cells Deep 12 40 40 - 2.50
Concrete Blocks, Three Oval Core 3 76 19 - 0.40
Sand & Gravel Aggregate 4 69 23 - 0.71
6 64 32 - 0.91
8 64 43 - 1.11
12 63 63 - 1.28
Cinder Aggregate 3 68 17 - 0.86
4 60 20 - 1.11
6 54 27 - 1.50
8 56 37 - 1.72
12 53 53 - 1.89
Lightweight Aggregate 3 60 15 - 1.27
(Expanded Shale, Clay, Slate or 4 52 17 - 1.50
Slag; Pumice) 8 48 32 - 2.00
12 43 43 - 2.27
Gypsum Partition Tile:
3”×12” ×30” solid 3 45 11 - 1.26
3” ×12” ×30” 4-cell 3 35 9 - 1.35
4” ×12” ×30” 3-cell 4 38 13 - 1.67
Stone, Line or Sand 150 - 0.08 -

77
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 34-THERMAL RESISTANCES R-BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS (Contd)

(deg F per Bu)/(hr) (sq ft)
RESISTANCE R
THICK- DENSITY WEIGHT Per Inch For Listed
NESS (lb per (lb per Thickness Thickness
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION (in.) cu ft) sq ft) 1 1
K C
BUILDING MATERIALS, (CONT.)
MASONRY Cement Mortar 116 - 0.20 -
MATERIALS Gypsum-Fiber Concrete 87½ % gypsum,
Concretes 12½ % wood chips 51 - 0.60 -
Lightweight Aggregates 120 - 0.19 -
Including Expanded 100 - 0.28 -
Shale, Clay or Slate 80 - 0.40 -
Expanded Slag; Cinders 60 - 0.59 -
Pumice; Perlite; Vermiculite 40 - 0.86 -
Also, Cellular Concretes 30 - 1.11 -
20 - 1.43 -
Sand & Gravel or Stone Aggregate (Oven Dried) 140 - 0.11 -
Sand & Gravel or Stone Aggregate (Not Dried) 140 - 0.08 -
Stucco 116 - 0.20 -
PLASTERING Cement Plaster, Sand Aggregate 116 - 0.20 -
MATERIALS Sand Aggregate 1/2 116 4.8 - 0.10
Sand Aggregate 3/4 116 7.2 - 0.15
Gypsum Plasten:
Lightweight Aggregate 1/2 45 1.88 - 0.32
Lightweight Aggregate 5/8 45 2.34 - 0.39
Lightweight Aggregate on Metal Lath 3/4 45 2.80 - 0.47
Perlite Aggregate 45 - 0.67 -
Sand Aggregate 105 - 0.18 -
Sand Aggregate 1/2 105 4.4 - 0.09
Sand Aggregate 5/8 105 5.5 - 0.11
Sand Aggregate on Metal Lath 3/4 105 6.6 - 0.13
Sand Aggregate on Wood Lath 105 - - 0.40
Vermiculite Aggregate 45 - 0.59 -
ROOFING Asbestos-Cement Shingles 120 - - 0.21
Asphalt Roll Roofing 70 - - 0.15
Asphalt Shingles 70 - - 0.44
Built-up Roofing 3/8 70 2.2 - 0.33
Slate 1/2 201 8.4 - 0.05
Sheet Metal - - Negl -
Wood Shingles 40 - - 0.94
SIDING Shingles
MATERIALS Wood, 16”, 7½ “ exposure - - - 0.87
(On Flat Wood, Double, 16”, 12” exposure - - - 1.19
Surface) Wood, Plus Insul Backer Board, 5/16” - - - 1.40
Siding
Asbestos-Cement, ¼” lapped - - - 0.21
Asphalt Roll Siding - - - 0.15
Asphalt Insul Siding, ½” Board - - - 1.45
Wood, Drop, 1”×8” - - - 0.79
Wood, Bevel, ½”×8”, lapped - - - 0.81
Wood, Bevel, ¾×”10”, lapped - - - 1.05
Wood, Plywood, 3/8”, lapped - - - 0.59
Structural Glass - - - 0.10
FLOORING Asphalt Tile 1/8 120 1.25 - 0.04
MATERIALS Carpet and Fibrous Pad - - - 2.08
Carpet and Rubber Pad 1 - - - 1.23
Ceramic Tile - - - 0.08
Cork Tile 1/8 25 - 2.22 -
Cork Tile 25 0.26 - 0.28
Felt, Flooring - - - 0.06
Floor Tile 1/8 - - - 0.05
Linoleum 1/8 80 0.83 - 0.08
Plywood Subfloor 5/8 34 1.77 - 0.78
Rubber or Plastic Tile 1/8 110 1.15 - 0.02
Terrazzo 1 140 11.7 - 0.08
Wood Subfloor 25/32 32 2.08 - 0.98
Wood, Hardwood Finish 3/4 45 2.81 - 0.68

78
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 34-THERMAL RESISTANCES R-BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS (Contd)

(deg F per Bu)/(hr) (sq ft)
RESISTANCE R
THICK- DENSITY WEIGHT Per Inch For Listed
NESS (lb per (lb per Thickness Thickness
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION (in.) cu ft) sq ft) 1 1
K C
INSULATING MATERIALS
BLANKET AND BATT* Cotton Fiber 0.8 - 2.0 - 3.85 -
Mineral Wool, Fibrous Form 1.5 – 4.0 - 3.70 -
Processed From Rock, Slag, or Glass
Wood Fiber 3.2 – 3.6 - 4.00 -
Wood Fiber, Milti-layer Stitched Expanded 1.5 – 2.0 - 3.70 -
BOARD AND SLABS Glass Fiber 9.5 - 4.00 -
Wood or Cane Fiber
Acoustical Tile 1/2 22.4 .93 - 1.19
Acoustical Tile 3/4 22.4 1.4 - 1.78
Interior Finish (Tile, Lath, Plank) 15.0 - 2.86 -
Interior Finish (Tile, Lath, Plank) 1/2 15.0 0.62 - 1.43
Roof Deck Slab
Sheathing (Impreg or Coated) 20.0 - 2.63 -
Sheathing (Impreg or Coated) 1/2 20.0 0.83 - 1.32
Sheathing (Impreg or Coated) 25/32 20.0 1.31 - 2.06
Cellular Glass 9.0 - 2.50 -
Cork Board (Without Added Binder) 6.5 – 8.0 - 3.70 -
Hog Hair (With Asphalt Binder) 8.5 - 3.00 -
Plastic (Foamed) 1.62 - 3.45 -
Wood Shredded (Cemented in Preformed Slabs) 22.0 - 1.82 -
LOOSE FILL Macerated Paper or Pulp Products 2.5 – 3.5 - 3.57 -
Wood Fiber: Redwood, Hemlock, or Fir 2.0 – 3.5 - 3.33 -
Mineral Wool (Glass, Slag, or Rock) 2.0 – 5.0 - 3.33 -
Sawdust or Shavings 8.0 – 15.0 - 2.22 -
Vermiculite (Expanded) 7.0 - 2.08 -
ROOF INSULATION All Types
Preformed, for use above deck
Approximately 1/2 15.6 .7 - 1.39
Approximately 1 15.6 1.3 - 2.78
Approximately 1 1/2 15.6 1.9 - 4.17
Approximately 2 15.6 2.6 - 5.26
Approximately 2 1/2 15.6 3.2 - 6.67
Approximately 3 15.6 3.9 - 8.33
AIR
AIR SPACES POSITION HEAT FLOW
Horizontal Up (Winter) ¾ -4 - - - 0.85
Horizontal Up (Summer) ¾ -4 - - - 0.78
Horizontal Down (Winter) ¾ - - - 1.02
Horizontal Down (Winter) 1½ - - - 1.15
Horizontal Down (Winter) 4 - - - 1.23
Horizontal Down (Winter) 8 - - - 1.25
Horizontal Down (Summer) ¾ - - - 0.85
Horizontal Down (Summer) 1½ - - - 0.93
Horizontal Down (Summer) 4 - - - 0.99
Sloping 45° Up (Winter) ¾ -4 - - - 0.90
Sloping 45° Down (Summer) ¾ -4 - - - 0.89
Vertical Horiz. (Winter) ¾ -4 - - - 0.97
Vertical Horiz. (Summer) ¾ -4 - - - 0.86
AIR FILM POSITION HEAT FLOW
Horizontal Up - - - 0.61
Sloping 45° Up - - - 0.62
Still Air Vertical Horizontal - - - 0.68
Sloping 45° Down - - - 0.76
Horizontal Down - - - 0.92
15 Mph Wind Any Position (For Winter) Any Direction - - - 0.17
7½ Mph Wind Any Position (For Summer) Any Direction - - - 0.25
*Includes paper backing and facing if and. In cases where the insulation froms a boundary (highjly refiective) of on air space, refer to Table 31, page 75

79
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

HEAT LOSS THRU BASEMENT WALLS AND Example 7- Heat Loss in a Basement
FLOORS BELOW THE GROUND LEVEL Given:
The loss through the floor is normally small and Basement-100’×40’×9’
relatively constant year round because the ground Basement temp-65 F db, heated continuously
temperature under the floor varies only a little throughout Outdoor temp-o° F db
the year. The ground is a very good heat sink and can Grade line-6 ft above basemen floor
absorb or lose a large amount of heat without an Walls and floors-12 in. concrete (80 lb/cu ft)
appreciable change in temperature at about the 8 ft level. Find:
Above the 8 ft level, the ground temperature varies with Heat loss from basement
the outdoor temperature, with the greatest variation at the Solution:
surface and a decreasing variation down to the 8 ft depth. 1. Heat loss above ground
The heat loss thru a basement wall may be appreciable H = UA1(tb - toa)
and it is difficult to calculate because the ground = 0.18 × (200+80) × 3 × (65-0) = 9828 Btu/hr
temperature varies with depth. Tables 35 thru 37 have 2. Heat loss thru walls and outside strip of floor below ground.
been empirically calculated to simplify the evaluation of H = LpQ (tb - toa)
heat loss thru basement walls and floors. = (200+80) × 1.05 × (65-0) = 19,100 Btu/hr
The heat loss thru a slab floor is large around the 3. Heat loss thru floor
perimeter and small in the center. This is because the H = UA2 (tb - tg)
ground temperature around the perimeter varies with the = 0.05×(100×40) ×(65-55) = 2000 Btu/hr
outdoor temperature, whereas the ground temperature in = 30,928 Btu/hr
the middle remains relatively constant, as with basement
floors. Total Heat Loss
where U = Heat transmission coefficient of wall above
Basis of Tables 35 thru 37 ground (Table 21) and floor (Table 35) in Btu/(hr)
- Heat Loss thru Masonry Floors and Walls in Ground (sq ft) (deg F)
Tables 35 thru 37 are based on empirical data. The A1 = Area of wall above ground, sq ft
perimeter factors listed in Table 36 were developed by A2 = Entire floor area, sq ft
calculating the heat transmitted for each foot of wall to an Lp = Perimeter of wall, ft
8 ft depth. The ground was assumed to decrease the Q = Perimeter factor (Table 36)
transmission coefficient, thus adding resistance between tb = Basement dry-bulb temp, F
the wall and the outdoor air. The transmission tg = Ground temp, F, (Table 37)
coefficients were then added to arrive at the perimeter toa = Outdoor design dry-bulb temp, F
factors.
TABLE 35-TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-
Use of Tables 35 thru 37 MASONRY FLOORS AND WALLS IN GROUND
- Heat Loss thru Masonry Floors and Walls in Ground (Use only in conjunction with Table 36)
The transmission coefficients listed in Table 35 may Transmission
be used for any thickness of uninsulated masonry floors Floor or Wall Coefficient U
Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg f)
where there is good contact between the floor and the *Basement Floor .05
ground. Portion of Wall
The perimeter factors listed in Table 36 are used for exceeding 8 feet .08
below ground level
estimating heat loss thru basement walls and the outside
strip of basement floors. This factor can be used only *Some additional floor loss is included in perimeter factor, see
when the space is heated continuously. If there is only Table 36.
occasional heating, calculate the heat loss using the wall Equations:
or floor transmission coefficients as listed in Tables 21 Heat loss through floor, Btu/hr = (area of floor, sq ft)
thru 33 and the temperature difference between the × (U value) × (basement-ground temp).
basement and outdoor air or ground as listed in Table 37. Heat loss through wall below 8 foot line, Btu/hr
The heat loss in a basement is determined by adding = (area of wall below 8 ft line, sq ft) × (U value)
the heat transferred thru the floor, the walls and the × (basement-ground temp).
outside strip of the floor and the portion of the wall above
the ground level.

80
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

NOTE: The factors in Tables 35 and 36 may be used for any TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS-
thickness of uninsulated masonry wall or floor, but there must be a PIPES IN WATER OR BRINE
good contact (no air space which may connect to the outdoors) Heat transmission coefficients for copper and steel
between the ground and the floor or wall. Where the ground is dry pipes are listed in Tables 38 and 39. These coefficients
and sandy, or where there is cinder fill along wall or where the wall may be useful in applications such as cold water or brine
has a low heat transmission coefficient, the perimeter factor may be storage systems and ice skating rinks.
reduced slightly.
Basis of Tables 38 and 39
TABLE 36-PERIMETER FACTORS - Transmission coefficients, Pipes in Water or Brine
FOR ESTIMATING HEAT LOSS THROUGH BASEMENT WALLS Table 38 is for ice coated pipes in water, based on a
AND OUTSIDE STRIP OF BASEMENT FLOOR heat transfer film coefficient, inside the pipe, of 150 Btu/
(Use only in conjunction with Table 35) (hr)(sq ft internal pipe surface)(deg F).
Distance of Floor Perimeter Factor Table 39 is for pipes in water or brine based on a heat
From Ground Level (q) transfer of 18 Btu/(hr)(sq ft external pipe surface) (deg F)
2 Feet above .90
At ground level .60 in water, 14 Btu in brine. It is also based on a low rate of
2 Feet below .75 circulation on the outside of the pipe and 10 F to 15 F
4 Feet below .90 temperature difference between water or brine and
6 Feet below 1.05
8 Feet below 1.20 refrigerant. High rates of circulation will increase the heat
Equations: transfer rate. For special problems, consult heat transfer
Heat loss about perimeter, Btu/hr = (perimeter of wall, ft) reference books.
× (perimeter factor) × (basement-outdoor temp).

TABLE 37-GROUND TEMPERATURES

FOR ESTIMATING HEAT LOSS THROUGH BASEMENT FLOORS
Outdoor Design Temp (F) -30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20
Ground Temp (F) 40 45 50 55 60 65

TABLE 38- TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-ICE COATED PIPES IN WATER

Btu/(hr) (lineal ft pipe) (deg F between 32 F db and refrig temp)
Copper
Pipe Copper Pipe With Steel Pipe Steel Pipe With
Size Ice Thickness (Inches) Size Ice Thickness (Inches)
(Inches Nominal
O.D.) 1/2 1 1 1/2 2 (Inches) 1/2 1 1 1/2 2 3
5/8 6.1 4.5 3.8 3.4 1/2 7.2 5.2 4.4 3.9 3.4
3/4 7.1 5.1 4.2 3.8 3/4 8.7 6.1 5.1 4.5 3.8
7/8 8.0 5.7 4.7 4.1 1 10.6 7.2 5.8 5.1 4.2
1 1/8 9.8 6.7 5.4 4.7 1 1/2 13.0 8.6 6.8 5.9 4.8

TABLE 39- TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-PIPES IMMERSED IN WATER OR BRINE

Btu/(hr) (lineal ft pipe) (deg F between 32 F db and refrig temp)
Outside water film coefficient = 18 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F)
Outside brine film coefficient = 14 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F)
Water refrigerant temp = 10 F to 15 F
Copper Pipe Pipes Steel Pipe Pipes Pipes
Size in Nominal Size in in
(Inches O.D.) Water (Inches) Water Brine
1/2 2.4 1/2 4.0 3.1
5/8 2.9 3/4 5.0 3.9
3/4 3.5 1 6.2 4.8
1 1/8 5.3 1 1/4 7.8 6.1

81
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

WATER VAPOR FLOW THRU BUILDING Use of Table 40

STRUCTURES - Water Vapor Transmission thru Various Materials
Water vapor flows thru building structures, resulting in Table 40 is used to determine latent heat gain from
a latent load whenever a vapor pressure difference exists water vapor transmission thru building structures in the
across a structure. The latent load from this source is high and low dewpoint applications where the air
usually insignificant in comfort applications and need be moisture content must be maintained.
considered only in low or high dewpoint applications.
Water vapor flows from high to lower vapor pressure at Example 8 – Water Vapor Transmission
a rate determined by the permeability of the structure. Given:
This process is quite similar to heat flow, except that there A 40 ft × 40 ft × 8 ft laboratory on second floor requiring inside
is transfer of mass with water vapor flow. As heat flow design conditions of 40 F db, 50% rh, with the outdoor design
can be reduced by adding insulation, vapor flow can be conditions at 95 F db, 75 F wb. The outdoor wall is 12 inch brick
reduced by vapor barriers. The vapor barrier may be with no windows. The partitions are metal lath and plaster on both
paint (aluminum or asphalt), aluminum foil or galvanized sides of studs. Floor and ceiling are 4 inch concrete.
iron. It should always be placed on the side of a Find:
structure having the higher vapor pressure, to prevent The latent heat gain from the water vapor transmission.
the water vapor from flowing up to the barrier and Solution:
condensing within the wall. Gr/lb at 95 F db, 75 F wb = 99 (psych chart)
Gr/lb at 40 F db, 50% rh = 18 (psych chart)
Basis of Table 40 Moisture content difference = 81 gr/lb
- Water Vapor Transmission thru Various Materials Assume that the dewpoint in the areas surrounding the
The values for walls, floors, ceilings and partitions laboratory is uniform and equal to the outdoor dewpoint.
have been estimated from the source references listed in Latent heat gain:
the bibliography. The resistance of a homogeneous
material to water vapor transmission has been assumed Outdoor wall = 40x8
100
x 81 x .04 (Table 40.)
to be directly proportional to the thickness, and it also has = 10.4 Btu/hr
been assumed that there is no surface resistance to water
vapor flow. The values for permeability of miscellaneous Floor and ceilings = 2x 40x40
100 x 81 x .10
materials are based on test results.
NOTE: Some of the values for walls, roofs, etc., have = 259 Btu/hr
been increased by a safety factor because Partitions = 3x 40x8 x81x1.0
conclusive data is not available. 100 = 777 Btu/hr
Total Latent Heat Gain = 1046.4 Btu/hr

82
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 40- WATER VAPOR TRANSMISSION THRU VARIOUS MATERIALS

PERMEANCE
Btu/(hr) (100 sq ft)
(gr/lb diff) latent heat
With
With 2 Coats Aluminum
DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL OR CONSTRUCTION No Vapor Vapor-seal Foil Mounted
Seal Unless Paint on on One Side
Noted Under Smooth of Paper
Description Inside Cemented
Surface* to Wall†
WALLS
Brick -- 4 inches .12 .075 .024
-- 8 inches .06 .046 .020
-- 12 inches .04 .033 .017
-- per inch of thickness .49 -- --
Concrete -- 6 inches .067 .050 .021
-- 12 inches .034 .029 .016
-- per inch of thickness .40 -- --
Frame -- with plaster interior finish .79 .16 .029
-- same with asphalt coated insulating board lath .42 .14 .028
Tile—hollow clay (face, glazed)--4 inches .013 .012 .0091
--hollow clay (common) )--4 inches .24 .11 .025
--hollow clay, 4 inch face and 4 inch common .012 .011 .0086
CEILINGS AND FLOORS
Concrete--4 inches .10 .067 .023
--8 inches .051 .040 .019
Plaster on wood or metal lath on joist—no flooring 2.0 .18 .030
Plaster on wood or metal lath on joist—flooring .50 .14 .028
Plaster on wood or metal lath on joists—double flooring .40 .13 .028
PARTITIONS
Insulating Board ½ inch on both sides of studding 4.0 .19 .030
Wood or metal lath and plaster on both sides of studding 1.0 .17 .029
ROOFS
Concrete--2 inches, plus 3 layer felt roofing .02 .018
--6 inches, plus 3 layer felt roofing .02 .018
Shingles, sheathing, rafters--plus plaster on wood or metal lath 1.5 .18
Wood –1 inch, plus 3 layer felt roofing .02 .018
--2 inches, plus 3 layer felt roofing .02 .018
MISCELLANEOUS
Air Space, still air 3 5/8 inch 3.6
1 inch 13.0
Building Materials
Masonite--1 thickness, 1/8 inch 1.1 .17 .027
--5 thicknesses .32
Plaster on wood lath 1.1
--plus 2 coats aluminum paint -- .12
Plaster on gypsum lath 1.95 --
--ditto plus primer and 2 coats lead and oil paint -- .13
Plywood--1/4 inch Douglas fir (3 ply) .63
--ditto plus 2 coats asphalt paint -- .087
--ditto plus 2 coats aluminum paint -- .13
--1/2 inch Douglas fir (5 ply) .27
--ditto plus 2 coats asphalt paint -- .041
--ditto plus 2 coats aluminum paint -- .12
Wood--Pine .508 inch .33
--ditto plus 2 coats aluminum paint -- .046
--spruce, .508 inch .20
Insulating Materials
Corkboard, 1 inch thick .63
Interior finish insulating board, ½” 5.0 – 7.0
--ditto plus 2 coats water emulsion paint 3.0 – 4.0
--ditto plus 2 coats varnish base paint .1 – 1.0
--ditto plus 2 coats lead and oil paint .17
--ditto plus wall linoleum .03 - .06

83
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

TABLE 40- WATER VAPOR TRANSMISSION THRU VARIOUS MATERIALS (Contd)

PERMEANCE
Btu/(hr) (100 sq ft)
(gr/lb diff) latent heat
With
With 2 Coats Aluminum
DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL OR CONSTRUCTION No Vapor Vapor-seal Foil Mounted
Seal Unless Paint on on One Side
Noted Under Smooth of Paper
Description Inside Cemented
Surface* to Wall†
MISCELLANEOUS
Insulating Materials, cont.
Insulating board lath 4.6 – 8.2
--ditto plus ½” plaster 1.5
--ditto plus ½” plaster, sealer, and flat coat of paint .16 - .31
Insulating board sheathing, 25/32” 2.6 – 6.1
--ditto plus asphalt coating both sides .046 – 1.0
Mineral wool (3 5/8 inches thick), unprotected 3.5
Packaging materials
Cellophane, moisture proof .01 – 0.25
Glassine (1 ply waxed or 3 ply plain) .0015 - .006
Kraft paper soaked with parafin wax, 4.5 lbs per 100 sq ft 1.4 – 3.1
Pliofilm .01 - .025
Paint Films
2 coats aluminum paint, estimated .05 - .2
2 coats asphalt paint, estimated .05 - .1
2 coats lead and oil paint, estimated .1 - .6
2 coats water emulsion, estimated 5.0 – 8.0
Papers
Duplex or asphalt laminae (untreated) 30-30, 3.1 lb per 100 sq ft .15 - .27
--ditto 30-60-30, 4.2 lb per 100 sq ft .051 - .091
Draft paper--1 sheet 8.1
--2 sheets 5.1
--aluminum foil on one side of sheet .016
--aluminum foil on both sides of sheet .012
Sheathing paper
Asphalt impregnated and coated, 7 lb per 100 sq ft .02 - .10
Slaters felt, 6 lb per 100 sq ft, 50% saturated with tar 1.4
Roofing Felt, saturated and coated with asphalt
25 lb. per sq ft .015
50 lb. per sq ft .011
Tin sheet with 4 holes 1/16 diameter .17
Crack 12 inches long by 1/32 inches wide (approximated from above) 5.2
*Painted surfaces: Two coats of a good vapor seal paint on a smooth surface give a fair vapor barrier. More surface treatment is required
on a rough surface than on a smooth surface. Data indicates that either asphalt or aluminum paint are good for vapor seals.
†Aluminum Foil on Paper: This material should also be applied over a smooth surface and joints lapped and sealed with asphalt.
The vapor barrier should always be placed on the side of the wall having the higher vapor pressure if condensation of moisture in wall is
possible.
Application: The heat gain due to water vapor transmission through walls may be neglected for the normal air conditioning or refrigeration
job. This latent gain should be considered for air conditioning jobs where there is a great vapor pressure difference between the room and
the outside, particularly when the dewpoint inside must be low. Note that moisture gain due to infiltration usually is of much greater
magnitude than moisture transmission through building structures.
Conversion Factors: To convert above table values to: grain/(hr) (sq ft) (inch mercury vapor pressure difference), multiply by 9.8.
grain/(hr) (sq ft) (pounds per sq inch vapor pressure difference), multiply by 20.0
To convert Btu latent heat to grains, multiply by 7000/1060 = 6.6.

84
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR Concealed condensation may cause wood, iron and
Whenever there is a difference of temperature and brickwork to deteriorate and insulation to lose its
pressure of water vapor across a structure, conditions insulating value. These effects may be corrected by the
may develop that lead to a condensation of moisture. following methods:
This condensation occurs at the point of saturation 1. Provide vapor barriers on the high vapor pressure
temperature and pressure. side.
2. In winter, ventilate the building to reduce the vapor
As water vapor flows thru the structure, its pressure within. No great volume of air change is
temperature decreases and, if at any point it reaches the necessary, and normal infiltration alone is frequently
dewpoint or saturation temperature, condensation begins. all that is required.
As condensation occurs, the vapor pressure decreases, 3. In winter, ventilate the structure cavities to remove
thereby lowering the dewpoint or saturation temperature vapor that has entered. Outdoor air thru vents
until it corresponds to the actual temperature. The rate at shielded from entrance of rain and insects may be
which condensation occurs is determined by the rate at used.
which heat is removed from the point of condensation. Condensation may also form on the surface of a
As the vapor continues to condense, latent heat of building structure. Visible condensation occurs when the
condensation is released, causing the dry-bulb surface of any material is colder than the dewpoint
temperature of the material to rise. temperature of the surrounding air. In winter, the
To illustrate this, assume a frame wall with wood condensation may collect on cold closet walls and attic
sheathing and shingles on the outside, plasterboard on roofs and is commonly observed as frost on window
the inside and fibrous insulation between the two. Also, panes. Fig. 29 illustrates the condensation on a window
assume that the inside conditions are 75 F db and 50% rh with inside winter design conditions of 70 F db and 40%
and the outdoor conditions are 0° F db and 80% rh. Refer rh. Point A represents the room conditions; point B, the
to Fig. 28. dewpoint temperature of the thin film of water vapor
The temperature and vapor pressure gradient adjacent to the window surface; and point C, the point at
decreases approximately as shown by the solid and which frost or ice appears on the window.
dashed lines until condensation begins (saturation point). Once the temperature drops below the dewpoint, the
At this point, the latent heat of condensation decreases vapor pressure at the window surface is also reduced,
the rate of temperature drop thru the insulation. This is thereby establishing a gradient of vapor pressure from
approximately indicated by the dotted line. the room air to the window surface. This gradient
Another cause of concealed condensation may be operates, in conjunction with the convective action within
evaporation of water from the ground or damp locations. Tive action within the room, to move water vapor
This water vapor may condense on the underside of the continuously to the window surface to be condensed, as
floor joints (usually near the edges where it is coldest) or long as the concentration of the water vapor is maintained
may flow up thru the outdoor side of the walls because of in a space.
stack effect and/or vapor pressure differences.

FIG. 28-CONDENSATION WITHIN FRAME WALL

85
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

FIG. 29-CONDENSATION ON WINDOW SURFACE

Visible condensation is objectionable as it causes Chart 2 is based upon a room dry-bulb temperature of
staining of surfaces, dripping on machinery and 70 F db and an inside film conductance of 1.46 Btu/(hr)
furnishings, and damage to materials in process of (sq ft) (deg F).
manufacture. Condensation of this type may be corrected
by the following methods: Use of Chart 2
1. Increase the thermal resistance of walls, roofs and - Maximum Room RH; No Wall, Roof or Glass
floors by adding insulation with vapor barriers to Condensation
prevent condensation within the structures. Chart 2 gives a rapid means of determining the
2. Increase the thermal resistance of glass by installing maximum room relative humidity which can be
two or three panes with air space(s) between. In maintained and yet avoid condensation with a 70 F db
extreme cases, controlled heat, electric or other, may room.
be applied between the glass of double glazed Example 9-Moisture Condensation
windows. Given:
3. Maintain a room dewpoint lower than the lowest 12 in. stone wall with 5/8 in. sand aggregate plaster
expected surface temperature in the room. Room temp – 70 F db
4. Decrease surface resistance by increasing the Outdoor temp - 0°F db
velocity of air passing over the surface. Decreasing Find:
the surface resistance increases the window surface Maximum room rh without wall condensation.
temperature and brings it closer to the room dry-bulb Solution:
temperature. Transmission coefficient U = 0.52 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F)
Basis of Chart 2 (Table 21, page 66)
- Maximum Room RH; No Wall, Roof or Glass Maximum room rh = 40.05%, (Chart 2)
Condensation Corrections in room relative humidity for room temperatures
Chart 2 has been calculated from the equation used to other than 70 F db are listed in the table under Chart 2. Values
determine the maximum room dewpoint temperature that other than those listed may be interpolated.
can exist with condensation. Example 10- Moisture Condensation
U (t rm − toa ) Given:
t dp = t rm − Same as Example 9, except room temp is 75 F db
ft
Find:
where t dp = dewpoint temp of room air, F db Maximum room rh without wall condensation
Solution:
t rm = room temp, F Transmission coefficient U = 0.52 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F)
U = transmission coefficient, Btu/(hr)(sq ft) (Example 9)
(deg F) Maximum room rh for 70 F db room temp = 40.05%
toa = outdoor temp, F (Example 9)
Rh correction for room temp of 75 F db with U factor of
f i = inside air film or surface conductance, 0.52 = -1.57% (bottom Chart 2).
Btu/(hr)(sq ft) (deg F) Maximum room rh = 40.05-1.57 = 38.48% or 38.5%

86
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 5. Heat And Water Vapor Flow Thru Structures

CORRECTION IN ROOM RH (%)

For Wall, Roof or Glass Transmission Coefficient U
Outdoor U = 1.1 U = .65 U = .35
Temp Room Temp (F db)
(F db) 60 80 60 80 60 80
-30 +1.0% -1.0% +1.5% -2.0% +2.5% -2.0%
-20 +1.0 -1.5 +2.5 -2.5 +3.0 -2.0
-10 +2.0 -2.0 +3.5 -3.0 +3.0 -2.0
0 +3.5 -2.5 +4.0 -4.0 +3.5 -2.5
10 +5.0 -3.5 +5.0 -4.5 +4.0 -3.0
20 +7.0 -4.0 +6.5 -5.0 +4.5 -3.5
30 +9.0 -7.5 +8.5 -6.0 +5.0 -4.0
40 +12.0 -9.5 +9.5 -7.5 +6.0 -4.5

87
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

CHAPTER 6. INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION

The data in this chapter is based on ASHAE tests This opposite direction flow balances at some
evaluating the infiltration and ventilation quantities of neutral point near the mid-height of the building.
outdoor air. These outdoor air quantities normally have a Air flow thru the building openings increases
different heat content than the air within the conditioned proportionately between the neutral point and
space and, therefore, impose a load on the air the top and the neutral point and bottom of the
conditioning equipment. building. The infiltration from stack effect is
In the case of infiltration, the load manifests itself greatly influenced by the height of the building
directly within the conditioned space. The ventilation air, and the presence of open stairways and
taken thru the conditioning apparatus, imposes a load elevators.
both on the space thru apparatus bypass effect, and The combined infiltration from wind velocity and
directly on the conditioning equipment. stack effect is proportional to the square root of the sum
The data in this chapter is based on ASHAE tests of the heads acting on it.
and years of practical experience. The increased air infiltration flow caused by stack
effect is evaluated by converting the stack effect force to
INFILTRATION an equivalent wind velocity, and then calculating the flow
Infiltration of air and particularly moisture into a from the wind velocity data in the tables.
conditioned space is frequently a source of sizable heat In building over 100 ft tall, the equivalent wind
gain or loss. The quantity of infiltration air varies velocity may be calculated from the following formula,
according to tightness of doors and windows, porosity of assuming a temperature difference of 70 F db (winter)
the building shell, height of the building, stairwells, and a neutral point at the mid-height of the building:
elevators, direction and velocity of wind, and the amount
of ventilation and exhaust air. Many of these cannot be Ve = √ V2 – 1.75a (for upper section of tall
accurately evaluated and must be based on the judgment bldgs – winter) (1)
of the estimator. Ve = √ V – 1.75b
2 (for lower section of tall
Generally, infiltration may be caused by wind bldgs – winter) (2)
velocity, or stack effort, or both: where Ve = equivalent wind velocity, mph
1. Wind Velocity-The wind velocity builds up a V = wind velocity normally calculated for
pressure on the windward side of the building and location, mph
a slight vacuum on the leeward side. The outdoor a = distance window is above mid-height, ft
pressure build-up causes air to infiltrate thru b = distance window is below mid-height, ft
crevices in the construction and cracks around the
windows and doors. This, in turn, causes a slight NOTE: The total crackage is considered when
build-up of pressure inside the building, resulting in calculating infiltration from stack effect.
an equal amount of exfiltration on the leeward side.
2. Difference in Density or Stack Effect – The INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS,
variations in temperatures and humidities produce SUMMER
differences in density of air between inside and Infiltration during the summer is caused primarily by
outside of the building. In tall buildings this density the wind velocity creating a pressure on the windward
difference causes summer and winter infiltration side. Stack effect is not normally a significant factor
and exfiltration as follows: because the density difference is slight, (0.073 lb/cu ft at
Summer – Infiltration at the top and exfiltration at 75 F db, 50% rh and 0.070 lb/cu ft at 95 F db, 75 F wb).
the bottom. This small stack effect in tall buildings (over 100 ft)
Winter – Infiltration at the bottom and exfiltration at causes air to flow in the top and out the bottom.
the top. Therefore, the air infiltrating in the top of the building,
because of the wind pressure, tends to flow down thru the
building and out the doors on the street level, thereby
offsetting some of the infiltration thru them.

88
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

In low buildings, air infiltrates thru open doors on the Use of Table 41
windward side unless sufficient outdoor air is introduced - Infiltration thru Windows and Doors, Summer
thru the air conditioning equipment to offset it; refer to The data in Table 41 is used to determine the
“Offsetting Infiltration with Outdoor Air.” infiltration thru windows and doors on the windward side
With doors on opposite walls, the infiltration can be with the wind blowing directly at them. When the wind
considerable if the two are open at the same time. direction is oblique to the windows or doors, multiply the
values in Tables 41a, b, c, d, by 0.60 and apply to total
Basis of Table 41 areas. For specific locations, adjust the values in Table
- Infiltration thru Windows and Doors, Summer 41 to the design wind velocity; refer to Table 1, page 10.
The data in Tables 41a, b and c is based on a wind During the summer, infiltration is calculated for the
velocity of 7.5 mph blowing directly at the window or windward side(s) only, because stack effect is small and,
door, and on observed crack widths around typical therefore, causes the infiltration air to flow in a downward
windows and doors. This data is derived from Table 44 direction in tall buildings (over 100 ft). Some of the air
which lists infiltration thru cracks around windows and infiltrating thru the windows will exfiltrate thru the windows
doors as established by ASHAE tests. on the leeward side(s), while the remaining infiltration air
Table 41d shows values to be used for doors on flows out the doors, thus offsetting some of the infiltration
opposite walls for various percentages of time that each thru the doors. To determine the net infiltration thru the
door is open. doors, determine the infiltration thru the windows on the
The data in Table 41e is based on actual tests of windward side, multiply this by .80, and subtract from the
typical applications. door infiltration. For low buildings the door infiltration on
the windward side should be included in the estimate.

TABLE 41-INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-SUMMER*

7.5 mph Wind Velocity†
TABLE 41a-DOUBLE HUNG WINDOWS‡
CFM PER SQ FT SASH AREA
DESCRIPTION Small-30×”72” Large-54”×96”
No W-Strip W-Strip Storm Sash No W-Strip W-Strip Storm Sash
Average Wood Sash .43 .26 .22 .27 .17 .14
Poorly Fitted Wood Sash 1.20 .37 .60 .76 .24 .38
Metal Sash .80 .35 .40 .51 .22 .25
TABLE 41b-CASEMENT TYPE WINDOWS‡
CFM PER SQ FT SASH AREA
DESCRIPTION Percent Openable Area
0% 25% 33% 40% 45% 50% 60% 66% 75% 100%
Rolled Section-Steel Sash
Industrial Pivoted .33 .72 - .99 - - - 1.45 - 2.6
Architectural Projected - .39 - - - .55 .74 - - -
Residential - - .28 - - .49 - - - 6.3
Heavy Projected - - - - .23 - - .32 .39 -
Hollow Metal-Vertically .27 .58 - .82 - - - 1.2 - 2.2
Pivoted

89
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

TABLE 41-INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-SUMMER* (Contd)

7.5 mph Wind Velocity†
Table 41c-DOORS ON ONE OR ADJACENT WALLS, CORNER ENTRANCES
CFM PER SQ FT AREA** CFM
DESCRIPTION No Use Average Use Standing Open
No Vestibute Vestibule
Revolving Doors-Normal Operation .8 5.2 - -
Panels Open - - 1,200 900
Glass Door-3/4” Crack 4.5 10.0 700 500
Wood Door (3”×7”) 1.0 6.5 700 500
Small Factory Door .75 6.5 - -
Garage & Shipping Room Door 2.0 4.5 - -
Ramp Garage Door 2.0 6.75 - -
TABLE 41d-SWINGING DOORS ON OPPOSITE WALLS
% Time CFM PER PAIR OF DOORS
2nd Door % Time 1st Door is Open
is Open 10 25 50 75 100
10 100 250 500 750 1,000
25 250 625 1250 1875 2,500
50 500 1250 2500 3750 5,000
75 750 1875 3750 5625 7,500
100 1000 2500 5000 7500 10,000
TABLE 41e-DOORS
CFM PER PERSON IN ROOM PER DOOR
APPLICATION 36” Swinging Door
72” Revolving Door No Vestibule Vestibule
Bank 6.5 8.0 6.0
Barber Shop 4.0 5.0 3.8
Candy and Soda 5.5 7.0 5.3
Cigar Store 20.0 30.0 22.5
Department Store (Small) 6.5 8.0 6.0
Dress Shop 2.0 2.5 1.9
Drug Store 5.5 7.0 5.3
Hospital Room - 3.5 2.6
Lunch Room 4.0 5.0 3.8
Men’s Shop 2.7 3.7 2.8
Restaurant 2.0 2.5 1.9
Shoe Store 2.7 3.5 2.6
*All values in Table 41 are based on the wind blowing directly at the window or door. When the wind direction is oblique to the window or door,
multiply the above values by 0.60 and use the total window and door area on the windward side(s).
†Based on a wind velocity of 7.5 mph. For design wind velocities different from the base, multiply the above values by the ratio of velocities.
‡Includes frame leakage where applicable.
** Vestibules may decrease the infiltration as much as 30% when the door usage is light. When door usage is heavy, the vestibule is of little value
for reducing infiltration.

Example 1-Infiltration in Tall Building, Summer

Given: Find:
A 20-story building in New York City oriented true Infiltration into the building thru doors and windows,
north. Building is 100 ft long and 100 ft wide with a disregarding outside air thru the equipment and the
floor-to-floor height of 12 ft. Wall area is 50% exhaust air quantity.
residential casement windows having 50% fixed sash. Solution:
There are ten 7 ft × 3 ft swinging glass doors on the The prevailing wind in New York City during the
street level facing south. summer is south, 13 mph (Table 1, page 10).

90
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

The infiltration thru revolving doors is caused by

Correction to Table 1 values for wind velocity displacement of the air in the door quadrants, is almost
= 13/7.5 = 1.73 independent of wind velocity and, therefore, cannot be
Glass area on south side offset by outdoor air.
= 20×12×100×.50 = 12,000 sq ft
Infiltration thru windows Basis of Table 42
=12,000×.49×1.73 = 10,200 cfm (Table 41b) - Offsetting Swinging Door Infiltration with Outdoor Air,
Infiltration thru doors Summer
=10×7×3×10×1.73 =3640 cfm (Table 41c) Some of the outdoor air introduced thru the apparatus
Since this building is over 100 ft tall, net infiltration thru exfiltrates thru the cracks around the windows and in the
doors = 3640-(10,200×.80) = -4520 cfm. construction on the leeward side. The outdoor air values
Therefore, there is no infiltration thru the doors on the have been increased by this amount for typical
street level on design days, only exfiltration. application as a result of experience.
OFFSETTING INFILTRATION WITH OUTDOOR, AIR, Use of Table 42
SUMMER - Offsetting Swinging Door Infiltration with Outdoor Air,
Completely offsetting infiltration by the introduction of Summer
outdoor air thru the air conditioning apparatus is normally Table 42 is used to determine the amount of outdoor
uneconomical except in buildings with few windows and air thru air conditioning apparatus required to offset
doors. The outdoor air so introduced must develop a infiltration thru swinging doors.
pressure equal to the wind velocity to offset infiltration.
This pressure causes exfiltration thru the leeward walls at Example 2-Offsetting Swinging Door Infiltration
a rate equal to wind velocity. Therefore, in a four sided Given:
building with equal crack areas on each side and the A restaurant with 3000 cfm outdoor air being introduced thru the
wind blowing against one side, the amount of outdoor air air conditioning apparatus. Exhaust fans in the kitchen remove
introduced thru the apparatus must be a little more than 2000 cfm. Two 7 ft × 3 ft glass swinging doors face the
three times the amount that infiltrates. Where the wind is prevailing wind direction. At peak load conditions, there are
blowing against two sides, the outdoor air must be a little 300 people in the restaurant.
more than equal to that which infiltrates. Find:
Offsetting swinging door infiltration is not quite as The net infiltration thru the outside doors.
difficult because air takes the path of least resistance, Solution:
normally an open door. Most of the outdoor air Infiltration thru doors = 300×2.5=750 cfm (Table 41e)
introduced thru the apparatus flows out the door when it Net outdoor air = 3000-2000=1000 cfm
is opened. Also, in tall building the window infiltration Only 975 cfm of outdoor air is required to offset 750 cfm of door
tends to flow out the door. infiltration (Table 42).
Therefore, there will be no net infiltration thru the outside doors
unless there are windows on the leeward side. If there are
window in the building, calculate as outlined in Example 1.

TABLE 42-OFFSETTING SWINGING DOOR INFILTRATION WITH OUTDOOR AIR-SUMMER

Net Outdoor Air* (cfm) Door Infiltration (cfm) Net Outdoor Air* (cfm) Door Infiltration (cfm)
140 100 1370 1100
270 200 1480 1200
410 300 1560 1300
530 400 1670 1400
660 500 1760 1500
790 600 1890 1600
920 700 2070 1800
1030 800 2250 2000
1150 900 2450 2200
1260 1000 2650 2400
*Net outdoor air is equal to the outdoor air quantity introduced thru the apparatus minus the exhaust air quantity.

91
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS, and west sides will allow infiltration but the wind is only 60%
WINTER effective. Correction for wind direction is .6.
Infiltration thru windows and doors during the winter Since this building is over 100 ft tall, stack effect causes infiltration
is caused by the wind velocity and also stack effect. The on all sides at the lower levels and exfiltration at the upper levels.
temperature differences during the winter are The total infiltration on the windward sides remains the same
considerably greater than in summer and, therefore, the because the increase at the bottom is exactly equal to the
density difference is greater; at 75 F db and 30% rh, decrease at the top. (For a floor-by-floor analysis, use equivalent
density is .0738; at 0° F db, 40% rh, density is .0865. wind velocity formulas.) Infiltration thru windows on the windward
Stack effect causes air to flow in at the bottom and out at sides of the lower levels
the top, and in many cases requires spot heating at the = 12,000 × 2× 1.12 × .6× .98 = 15,810 cfm.
doors on the street level to maintain conditions. In The total infiltration thru the windows on the leeward sides of the
applications where there is considerable infiltration on the building is equal to the difference between the equivalent velocity
street level, much of the infiltration thru the windows in the at the first floor and the design velocity at the midpoint of the
upper levels will be offset. building.
Ve = √ V2 + 1.75b
Basis of Table 43
- Infiltration thru Windows and Doors, Winter = √ (16.8)2 + (1.75 x 240 ) = 22.2 mph
The data in Table 43 is based on a wind velocity of 2
15 mph blowing directly at the window or door and on Ve – V = 22.2 – 16.8 = 5.4 mph
observed crack widths around typical windows and Total infiltration thru windows in lower half of building (upper half is
doors. The infiltration thru these cracks is calculated from exfiltration) on leeward side
Table 44 which is based on ASHAE tests. = 12,000 × 2 × 1/2 × (5.4/15) × 1/2 ×.98
= 2160 cfm (Table 43)
Use of Table 43
- Infiltration thru Windows and Doors, Winter NOTE: This is the total infiltration thru the windows on the
Table 43 is used to determine the infiltration of air leeward side. A floor-by-floor analysis should be made to
thru windows and doors on the windward side during the balance the system to maintain proper conditions on
winter. The stack effect in tall buildings increases the each floor.
infiltration thru the doors and windows on the lower levels (on leeward side)
and decreases it on the upper levels. Therefore, = 10 ×7 × 3 × (5.4/15) × 30
whenever the door infiltration is increased, the infiltration = 2310 cfm (Table 43c, average use, 1 and 2 story
thru the upper levels must be decreased by 80% of the building).
net increase in door infiltration. The infiltration from stack
effect on the leeward sides of the building is determined Example 4-Offsetting Infiltration with Outdoor Air
by using the difference between the equivalent velocity Any outdoor air mechanically introduced into the building offsets
(Ve) and the actual velocity (V) as outlined in Example 3. some of the infiltration. In Example 3 all of the outdoor air is
The data in Table 43 is based on the wind blowing effective in reducing the window infiltration. Infiltration is reduced
directly at the windows and doors. When the wind on two windward sides, and the air introduced thru the apparatus
direction is oblique to the windows and doors, multiply exfiltrates thru the other two sides.
the values by 0.60 and use the total window and door
area on the windward sides. Given:
The building described in Example 1 with .25 cfm/sq ft
Example 3-Infiltration in Tall Buildings, Winter supplied thru the apparatus and 40,000 cfm being exhausted
Given: from the building.
The building described in Example 1. Find:
Find: The net infiltration into this building.
The infiltration thru the doors and windows. Solution:
Solution: Net outdoor air = (.25×10,000×20)-40,000 = 10,000 cfm
The prevailing wind in New York City during the winter is NW Net infiltration thru windows
at 16.8 mph (Table 1, page 10) = 15,800+2160-10,000 = 7970 cfm
Correction on Table 43 for wind velocity is 16.8/15= 1.12. Since Net infiltration thru doors = 2310 cfm (Example 3)
the wind is coming from the Northwest, the crackage on the north Net infiltration into building = 7970+2310 = 10,280 cfm

92
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

TABLE 43-INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-WINTER*

15 mph Wind Velocity†

TABLE 43a-DOUBLE HUNG WINDOWS ON WINDOW SIDE‡

CFM PER SQ FT SASH AREA
DESCRIPTION Small-30×”72” Large-54”×96”
No W-Strip W-Strip Storm Sash No W-Strip W-Strip Storm Sash
Average Wood Sash .85 .52 .42 .53 .33 .26
Poorly Fitted Wood Sash 2.4 .74 1.2 1.52 .47 .74
Metal Sash 1.60 .69 .80 1.01 .44 .50
NOTE: W-Strip denotes weatherstrip.

TABLE 43b-CASEMENT TYPE WINDOWS ON WINDWARD SIDE‡

CFM PER SQ FT SASH AREA
DESCRIPTION Percent Openable Area
0% 25% 33% 40% 45% 50% 60% 66% 75% 100%
Rolled Section-Steel Sash
Industrial Pivoted .65 1.44 - 1.98 - - - 2.9 - 5.2
Architectural Projected - .78 - - - 1.1 1.48 - - -
Residential - - .56 - - .98 - - - 1.26
Heavy Projected - - - - .45 - - .63 .78 -
Hollow Metal-Vertically .54 1.19 - 1.64 - - - 2.4 - 4.3
Pivoted

TABLE 43c-DOORS ON ONE OR ADJACENT WINDWARD SIDES‡

CFM PER SQ FT AREA**
Average Use
DESCRIPTION Infrequent 1&2 Tall Building (ft)
Use Story Bldg. 50 100 200
Revolving Door 1.6 10.5 12.6 14.2 17.3
Glass Door-(3/16” Crack) 9.0 30.0 36.0 40.5 49.5
Wood Door 3’×7’ 2.0 13.0 15.5 17.5 21.5
Small Factory Door 1.5 13.0
Garage & Shipping Room Door 4.0 9.0
Ramp Garage Door 4.0 13.5
*All values in Table 43 are based on the wind blowing directly at the window or door. When the prevailing wind direction is oblique to the window
or door, multiply the above values by 0.60 and use the total window and door area on the windward side(s).
†Based on a wind velocity of 15 mph. For design wind velocities different from the base, multiply the table values by the ratio of velocities.
‡Stack effect in tall buildings may also cause infiltration on the leeward side. To evaluate this, determine the equivalent velocity (Ve) and subtract
the design velocity (V). The equivalent velocity is:

Ve = √ V2 – 1.75a (upper section)

Ve = √ V2 + 1.75b (lower section)
Where a and b are the distances above and below the mid-height of the building, respectively, in ft.
Multiply the table values by the ratio (Ve-V)/15 for doors and one half of the windows on the leeward side of the building. (Use values under “1
and 2 Story Bldgs” for doors on leeward side of tall buildings.)
**Doors on opposite sides increase the above values 25%. Vestibules may decrease the infiltration as much as 30% when door usage is light. If
door usage is heavy, the vestibule is of little value in reducing infiltration. Heat added to the vestibule will help maintain room temperature near
the door.

93
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

INFILTRATION-CRACK METHOD (Summer or Winter) Use of Table 44

The crack method of evaluating infiltration is more - Infiltration thru Windows and Doors, Crack Method
accurate than the area methods. It is difficult to establish Table 44 is used to determine the infiltration thru the
the exact crack dimensions but, in certain close tolerance doors and windows listed. This table does not take into
applications, it may be necessary to evaluate the load account winter stack effect which must be evaluated
accurately. The crack method is applicable both summer separately, using the equivalent wind velocity formulas
and winter. previously presented.
Basis of Table 44 Example 5-Infiltration thru Windows, Crack Method
- Infiltration thru Windows and Doors, Crack Method Given:
The data on windows in Table 44 are based on A 4 ft × 7 ft residential casement window facing south.
ASHAE tests. These test results have been reduced 20% Find:
because, as infiltration occurs on one side, a certain The infiltration thru this window:
amount of pressure builds up in the building, thereby Solution:
reducing the infiltration. The data on glass and factory Assume the crack widths are measured as follows:
doors has been calculated from observed typical crack Window frame-none, well sealed
widths. Window openable area-1/32 in. crack; length, 20 ft
Assume the wind velocity is 30 mph due south.
Infiltration thru window =20 × 2.1 = 42 cfm (Table 44)

TABLE 44-INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-CRACK METHOD-SUMMER-WINTER*

TABLE 44a-DOUBLE HUNG WINDOWS-UNLOCKED ON WINDWARD SIDE
CFM PER LINEAR FOOT OF CRACK
Wind Velocity-Mph
TYPE OF 5 10 15 20 25 30
DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW No W- W- No W- W- No W- W- No W- W- No W- W- No W- W-
Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip
Wood Sash
Average Window .12 .07 .35 .22 .65 .40 .98 .60 1.33 .82 1.73 1.05
Poorly Fitted Window .45 .10 1.15 .32 1.85 .57 2.60 .85 3.30 1.18 4.20 1.53
Poorly Fitted-with Storm Sash .23 .05 .57 .16 .93 .29 1.30 .43 1.60 .59 2.10 .76
Metal Sash .33 .10 .78 .32 1.23 .53 1.73 .77 2.3 1.00 2.8 1.27

TABLE 44b-CASEMENT TYPE WINDOWS ON WINDWARD SIDE

TYPE OF CFM PER LINEAR FOOT OF CRACK
DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW Wind velocity-Mph
5 10 15 20 25 30
Rolled Section-Steel Sash
Industrial Pivoted 1/16” crack .87 1.80 2.9 4.1 5.1 6.2
Architectural Projected 1/32” crack .25 .60 1.03 1.43 1.86 2.3
Architectural Projected 3/64” crack .33 .87 1.47 1.93 2.5 3.0
Residential casement 1/64” crack .10 .30 .55 .78 1.00 1.23
Residential Casement 1/32” crack .23 .53 .87 1.27 1.67 2.10
Heavy Casement Section Projected 1/64” crack .05 .17 .30 .43 .58 .80
Heavy Casement Section Projected 1/32” crack .13 .40 .63 .90 1.20 1.53
Hollow Metal-Vertically Pivoted .50 1.46 2.40 3.10 3.70 4.00
*Infiltration caused by stack effect must be calculated separately during the winter.
†No allowance has been made for usage. See Table 43 for infiltration due to usage.

94
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

TABLE 44-INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-CRACK METHOD-SUMMER-WINTER*

(Contd)
TABLE 44c-DOORS†ON WINDWARD SIDE
CFM PER LINEAR FOOT OF CRACK
TYPE OF DOOR Wind Velocity-mph
5 10 15 20 25 30
Glass Door-Herculite
Good Installation 1/16” crack 3.2 6.4 9.6 13.0 16.0 19.0
Average Installation 1/32” crack 4.8 10.0 14.0 20.0 24.0 29.0
Poor Installation 3/64” crack 6.4 13.0 19.0 26.0 26.0 38.0
Ordinary Wood or Metal
Well Fitted-W-Strip .45 .60 .90 1.3 1.7 2.1
Well Fitted-No W-Strip .90 1.2 1.8 2.6 3.3 4.2
Poorly Fitted-No W-Strip .90 2.3 3.7 5.2 6.6 8.4
Factory Door 1/8” crack 3.2 6.4 9.6 13.0 16.0 19.0

VENTILATION SCHEDULED VENTILATION

VENTILATION STANDARDS In comfort applications, where local codes permit, it
The introduction of outdoor air for ventilation of is possible to reduce the capacity requirements of the
conditioned spaces is necessary to dilute the odors given installed equipment by reducing the ventilation air
off by people, smoking and other internal air quantity at the time of peak load. This quantity can be
contaminants. reduced at the time of peak to, in effect, minimize the
The amount of ventilation required varies primarily outdoor air load. At times other than peak load, the
with the total number of people, the ceiling height and the calculated outdoor air quantity is used. Scheduled
number of people smoking. People give off body odors ventilation is recommended only for installations
which require a minimum of 5 cfm per person for operating more than 12 hours or 3 hours longer than
satisfactory dilution. Seven and one half cfm per person occupancy, to allow some time for flushing out the
is recommended. This is based on a population density building when no odors are being generated. It has been
of 50 to 75 sq ft per person and a typical ceiling height of found, by tests, that few complaints of stuffiness are
8 ft. With greater population densities, the ventilation encountered when the outdoor air quantity is reduced for
quantity should be increased. When people smoke, the short periods of time, provided the flushing period is
additional odors given off by cigarettes or cigars require available. It is recommended that the outdoor air quantity
a minimum of 15 to 25 cfm per person. In special be reduced to no less than 40% of the recommended
gathering rooms with heavy smoking, 30 to 50 cfm per quantity as listed in Table 45.
person is recommended. The procedure for estimating and controlling
scheduled ventilation is as follows:
Basis of Table 45 1. In estimating the cooling load, reduce the air
- Ventilation Standards quantity at design conditions to a minimum of
The data in Table 45 is based on test observation of 40% of the recommended air quantity.
the clean outdoor air required to maintain satisfactory 2. Use a dry-bulb thermostat following the cooling
odor levels with people smoking and not smoking. These and dehumidifying apparatus to control the
test results were then extrapolated for typical leaving dewpoint such that:
concentrations of people, both smoking and not smoking, a. With the dewpoint at design, the damper
for the applications listed. motor closes the outdoor air damper to 40%
of the design ventilation air quantity.
Use of Table 45 b. As the dewpoint decreases below design,
- Ventilation Standards the outdoor air damper opens to the design
Table 45 is used to determine the minimum and setting.
recommended ventilation air quantity for the listed 3. Another method which could be used is a
applications. In applications where the minimum values thermostat located in the leaving chilled water
are used and the minimum cfm per person and cfm per from the refrigeration machine.
sq ft of floor area are listed, use the larger minimum
quantity. Where the crowd density is greater than normal
or where better than satisfactory conditions are desired,
use the recommended values.

95
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

Example 6-Ventilation Air Quantity, Office Space 500 cfm will more than likely not maintain satisfactory conditions
within the space because the number of smokers is
Given: considerable. Therefore, 750 cfm should be used in this
A 5000 sq ft office with a ceiling height of 8 ft and 50 people. application.
Approximately 40% of the people smoke.
Find: NOTE: Many applications have exhaust fans. This means that the
The ventilation air quantity. outdoor air quantity must at least equal the exhausted air;
otherwise the infiltration rate will increase. Tables 46 and
Solution: 47 list the approximate capacities of typical exhaust fans.
The population density is typical, 100 sq ft per person, but the The data in these tables were obtained from published
number of smokers is considerable. ratings of several manufacturers of exhaust fans.
Recommended ventilation = 50 × 15 = 750 cfm (Table 45)
Minimum ventilation = 50 × 10 = 500 cfm (Table 45)

TABLE 45-VENTILATION STANDARDS

CFM PER PERSON CFM PER
APPLICATION SMOKING SQ FT OF FLOOR
Recommended Minimum* Minimum*
Average Some 20 15 -
{
Apartment De Luxe Some 30 25 .33
Banking Space Occasional 10 7½ -
Barber Shops Considerable 15 10 -
Beauty Parlors Occasional 10 7½ -
Broker’s Board Rooms Very Heavy 50 30 -
Cocktail Bars Heavy 30 25 -
Corridors (Supply or Exhaust) - - - .25
Department Stores None 7½ 5 .05
Directors Rooms Extreme 50 30 -
Drug Stores† Considerable 10 7½ -
Factories‡§ None 10 7½ .10
Five and Ten Cent Stores None 7½ 5 -
Funeral Parlors None 10 7½ -
Garage‡ - - - 1.0
Operating Rooms‡** None - - 2.0
Hospitals Private Rooms None 30 25 .33
Wards None 20 15 -
Hotel Roms Heavy 30 25 .33
Kitchen Restaurant† - - - 4.0
Residence - - - 2.0
Laboratories† Some 20 15 -
Meeting Rooms Very Heavy 50 30 1.25
General Some 15 10 -
Office Private None 25 15 .25
Private Considerable 30 25 .25
Cafeteria† Considerable 12 10 -
Restaurant Dining Room† Considerable 15 12 -
School Rooms‡ None - - -
Shop Retail None 10 7½ -
Theater‡ None 7½ 5 -
Theater Some 15 10 -
Toilets‡ (Exhaust) - - - 2.0
*When minimum is used, use the larger. §Use these values unless governed by other sources of contamination or by local codes.
‡See local codes which may govern. **All outdoor air is recommended to overcome explosion hazard of anesthetics.
†May be governed by exhaust..

96
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 6. Infiltration And Ventilation

TABLE 46-CENTRIFUGAL FAN TABLE 47-PROPELLER FAN CAPACITIES-

CAPACITIES FREE DELIVERY
Inlet Motor Outlet Fan Diameter Speed Capacity*
Diameter Capacity* Horsepower Velocity (in.) (rpm) (cfm)
(in.) (cfm) Range Range (fpm) 8 1500 500
4 50-250 1/70-1/20 800-2000 12 1140 825
6 100-550 1/20-1/6 500-2500 12 1725 1100
8 300-1000 1/20-1/2 850-2900 16 855 1000
10 600-2800 1/5-2 950-4300 16 1140 1500
12† 800-1600 1/8-1/2 1000-2000 18 850 1800
15† 1200-2500 ¼-1 1000-2000 18 1140 2350
18† 1700-3600 ¼-1 1/4 1000-2000 20 850 2400
21† 2300-5000 1/3-1 1/2 1000-2000 20 1140 2750
20 1620 3300
*These typical air capacities were obtained from published rating of *The capacities of fans of various manufacturers may vary ±10%
several manufacturers of nationally known exhaust fans, single from the values given above.
width, single inlet. Range of static pressures 1/4 to 1 1/4 inches.
Fans with inlet diameter 10 inches and smaller are direct
connected.
†The capacity of these fans has been arbitrarily taken at 1000 fpm
minimum and 2000 fpm maximum outlet velocity. For these fans
the usual selection probably is approximately 1500 fpm outlet
velocity for ventilation.

97
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL AND SYSTEM HEAT GAIN

INTERNAL HEAT GAIN levels of activity, and generally for occupancies longer
Internal heat gain is the sensible and latent heat than 3 hours. These have been adjusted for typical
released within the air conditioned space by the compositions of mixed groups of males and females for
occupants, lights, appliances, machines, pipes, etc. This the listed applications. The metabolic rate of women is
chapter outlines the procedures for determining the about 85% of that for a male, and for children about 75%.
instantaneous heat gain from these sources. A portion of The heat gain for restaurant applications has been
the heat gain from internal sources is radiant heat which increased 30 Btu/hr sensible and 30 Btu/hr latent heat per
is partially absorbed in the building structure, thereby person to include the food served.
reducing the instantaneous heat gain. Chapter 3, “Heat The data in Table 48 as noted are for continuous
Storage, Diversity and Stratification,” contains the data occupancy. The excess heat and moisture brought in by
and methods for estimating the actual cooling load from people, where short time occupancy is occurring (under
the heat sources referred to in the following text. 15 minutes), may increase the heat gain from people by
as much as 10%.
PEOPLE
Heat is generated within the human body by Use of Table 48
oxidation, commonly called metabolic rate. The - Heat Gain from People
metabolic rate varies with the individual and with his To establish the proper heat gain, the room design
activity level. The normal body processes are performed temperature and the activity level of the occupants must
most efficiently at a deep tissue temperature of about be known.
98.6 F; this temperature may vary only thru a narrow
range. However, the human body is capable of Example 1-Bowling Alley
maintaining this temperature, thru a wide ambient Given:
temperature range, by conserving or dissipating the heat A 10 lane bowing alley, 50 people, with a room design dry-bulb
generated within itself. temperature of 75 F. Estimate one person per alley bowling, 20
This heat is carried to the surface of the body by the of the remainder seated, and 20 standing.
blood stream and is dissipated by: Find:
1. Radiation from the body surface to the surrounding Sensible heat gain = (10×525)+(20×240)+(20×280)
surfaces. = 15,650 Btu/hr
2. Convection from the body surface and the Latent heat gain = (10×925)+(20×160)+(20×270)
respiratory tract to the surrounding air. = 17,850 Btu/hr
3. Evaporation of moisture from the body surface and
in the respiratory tract to the surrounding air. LIGHTS
The amount of heat dissipated by radiation and Lights generate sensible heat by the conversion of
convection is determined by the difference in temperature the electrical power input into light and heat. The heat is
between the body surface and its surroundings. The dissipated by radiation to the surrounding surfaces, by
body surface temperature is regulated by the quantity of conduction into the adjacent materials and by convection
blood being pumped to the surface; the more blood, the to the surrounding air. The radiant portion of the light
higher the surface temperature up to a limit of about 96 F. load is partially stored, and the convection portion may
The heat dissipated by evaporation is determined by the be stratified as described on page 39. Refer to Table 12,
difference in vapor pressure between the body and the page 35, to determine the actual cooling load.
air. Incandescent lights convert approximately 10% of
the power input into light with the rest being generated as
Basis of Table 48 heat within the bulb and dissipated by radiation,
- Heat Gain from People convection and conduction. About 80% of the power
Table 48 is based on the metabolic rate of an input is dissipated by radiation and only about 10% by
average adult male, weighing 150 pounds, at different convection and conduction, Fig. 30.

98
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

FIG. 31-CONVERSION OF ELECTRIC POWER TO

HEAT AND LIGHT WITH FLUORESCENT LIGHTS,
APPROXIMATE
FIG. 30-CONVERSION OF ELECTRIC POWER TO dissipated by conduction and convection. In addition to
HEAT AND LIGHT WITH INCANDESCENT LIGHTS, this, approximately 25% more heat is generated as heat
APPROXIMATE in the ballast of the fluorescent lamp, Fig. 31.
Fluorescent lights convert about 25% of the power Table 49 indicates the basis for arriving at the gross
input into light, with about 25% being dissipated by heat gain from fluorescent or incandescent lights.
radiation to the surrounding surfaces. The other 50% is
TABLE 48-HEAT GAIN FROM PEOPLE
Aver-
age
Met- Ad-
DEGREE OF TYPICAL abolic justed ROOM DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE
ACTIVITY APPLICATION Rate Met-
(Adult abolic 82 F 80 F 78 F 75 F 70 F
Male) Rate* Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr But/hr Btu/hr
Btu/hr Btu/hr Sensible Latent Sensible Latent Sensible Latent Sensible Latent Sensible Latent
Seated at rest Theater,
Grade School 390 350 175 175 195 155 210 140 230 120 260 90
Seated, very light
work High School 450 400 180 220 195 205 215 185 240 160 275 125
Office worker Offices, Hotels,
Apts., College 475
450 180 270 200 250 215 235 245 205 285 165
Standing, walking Dept., Retail, or
slowly Variety Store 550
Walking, seated Drug Store 550
500 180 320 200 300 220 280 255 245 290 210
Standing, walking
slowly Bank 550
Sedentary work Restaurant† 500 550 190 360 220 330 240 310 280 270 320 230
Light bench work Factory, light
work 800 750 190 560 220 530 245 505 295 455 365 385
Moderate dancing Dance Hall 900 850 220 630 245 605 275 575 325 525 400 450
Walking, 3 mph Factory, fairly
heavy work 1000 1000 270 730 300 700 330 670 380 620 460 540
Heavy work Bowling Alley‡
Factory 1500 1450 450 1000 465 985 485 965 525 925 605 845
*Adjusted Metabolic Rate is the metabolic rate to be applied to a †Restaurant-Values for this application include 60 Bu per hr for food
mixed group of people with a typical percent composition based on per Individual (30 Btu sensible and 30 Btu latent heat per hr).
the following factors: ‡Bowling-Assume one person per alley actually bowling and all others
Metabolic rate, adult female=Metabolic rate, adult male×0.85 sitting, metabolic rate 400 Btu per hr; or standing, 550 Btu per hr.
Metabolic rate, children =Metabolic rate, adult male×0.75

99
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

TABLE 49 – HEAT GAIN FROM LIGHT

TYPE HEAT GAIN* Btu/hr
Fluorescent Total Light Watts×1.25†×3.4 contribute additional moisture as a product of
Incandescent Total Light Watts×3.4 combustion. A properly designed hood with a positive
exhaust system removes a considerable amount of the
*Refer to Tables 12 and 13, pages 35-37 to determine actual generated heat and moisture from most types of
cooling load. appliances.
†Fluorescent light wattage is multiplied by 1.25 to include heat
gain in ballast. Basis of Tables 50 thru 52
- Heat Gain from Restaurant Appliances and
APPLIANCES Miscellaneous Appliances
Most appliances contribute both sensible and latent The data in these tables have been determined from
heat to a space. Electric appliances contribute latent manufacturers data, the American Gas Association data,
heat, only by virtue of the function they perform, that is, Directory of Approved Gas Appliances and actual tests
drying, cooking, etc, whereas gas burning appliances by Carrier Corporation.

TABLE 50-HEAT GAIN FROM RESTAURANT APPLIANCES

NOT HOODED*-ELECTRIC
MAIN- RECOM HEAT GAIN
OVERALL TYPE MFR TAIN- FOR AVG USE
APPLIANCE DIMENSIONS OF MAX ING Sensible Latent Total
Less Legs and CON- MISCELLANEOUS RATING RATE Heat Heat Heat
Handles (In.) TROL DATA Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr
Coffee Brewer-1/2 gal Man. 2240 306 900 220 1120
Warmer-1/2 gal Man. 306 306 230 90 320
4 Coffee Brewing Units Water heater—2000
with 41/2 gal Tank 20×30×26 H Auto. watts 16900 4800 1200 6000
Brewers—2960 watts
Coffee Urn--3 gal 15 Dia×34H Man. Black finish 11900 3000 2600 1700 4300
--3 gal 12×23 oval ×21H Auto. Nickel plated 15300 2600 2200 1500 3700
--5 gal 18 Dia ×37H Auto. Nickel plated 17000 3600 3400 2300 5700
Doughnut Machine 22×22×57H Auto. Exhaust system to
outdoors-1/2 hp motor 16000 5000 5000
Egg Boiler 10×13×25H Man. Med. ht. –550 watts
Low ht—275 watts 3740 1200 800 2000
Food Warmer with Plate Insulated, separate
Warmer, per sq ft top Auto. heating unit for each 1350 500 350 350 700
surface pot. Plate warmer in
base
Food Warmer without
Plate Warmer, per sq ft Auto. Ditto, without plate 1020 400 200 350 550
top surface warmer
Fry Kettle--111/2 lb fat 12 Dia×14H Auto. 8840 1100 1600 2400 4000
Fry Kettle—25 lb fal 16×18×12H Auto. Frying area 12”×14” 23800 2000 3800 5700 9500
Griddle, Frying 18×18×8H Auto. Frying top 18”×14” 8000 2800 3100 1700 4800
Grille, Meat 14×14×10H Auto. Cooking area 10”×12” 10200 1900 3900 2100 6000
Grille, Sandwich 13×14×10H Auto. Grill area 12”×12” 5600 1900 2700 700 3400
Roll Warmer 26×17×13H Auto. One drawer 1500 400 1100 100 1200
Toaster, Continuous 15×15×28H Auto. 2 Slices wide--
360 slices/hr 7500 5000 5100 1300 6400
Toaster, Continuous 20×15×28H Auto. 4 Slices wide--
720 slices/hr 10200 6000 6100 2600 8700
Toaster, Pop-Up 6×11×9H Auto. 2 Slices 4150 1000 2450 450 2900
Waffle Iron 12×13×10H Auto. One waffle 7” dia 2480 600 1100 750 1850
Waffle Iron for Ice Cream 14×13×10H Auto. 12 Cakes,
Sandwich each 2 1/2”×3 3/4” 7500 1500 3100 2100 5200
*If properly designed positive exhaust hood is used, multiply recommended value by .50.

100
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

Use of Tables 50 thru 52 The values in Tables 50 thru 52 are for unhooded
- Heat Gain from Restaurant Appliances and appliances. If the appliance has a properly designed
- Miscellaneous Appliances positive exhaust hood, reduce the sensible and the latent
The Maintaining Rate is the heat generated when the heat gains by 50%. A hood, to be effective, should extend
appliance is being maintained at operating temperature beyond the appliance approximately 4 inches per foot of
but not being used. height between the appliance and the face of the hood.
The Recommended for Average Use values are those The lower edge should not be higher than 4 feet above
which the appliance generates under normal use. These the appliance and the average face velocity across the
appliances seldom operate at maximum capacity during hood should not be less than 70 fpm.
peak load since they are normally warmed up prior to the
peak.

TABLE 51-HEAT GAIN FROM RESTAURANT APPLIANCES

NOT HOODED*--GAS BURNING AND STEAM HEATED

MAIN- RECOM HEAT GAIN

OVERALL TYPE MFR TAIN- FOR AVG USE
APPLIANCE DIMENSIONS OF MAX ING Sensible Latent Total
Less Legs and CON- MISCELLANEOUS RATING RATE Heat Heat Heat
Handles (In.) TROL DATA Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr
GAS BURNING
Coffee Brewer-1/2 gal Man. Combination brewer 3400 1350 350 1700
Warmer-1/2 gal Man. and warmer 500 500 400 100 500
Coffee Brewing Units 4 Brewers and 4½
with Tank 19×30×26 H gal tank 7200 1800 9000
Coffee Urn--3 gal 15” Dia×34H Auto. Black finish 3200 3900 2900 2900 5800
Coffee Urn --3 gal 12×23 oval ×21H Auto. Nickel plated 3400 2500 2500 5000
Coffee Urn --5 gal 18 Dia ×37H Auto. Nickel plated 4700 3900 3900 7800
Food Warmer, Values per
sq ft top surface Man. Water bath type 2000 900 850 450 1300
Fry Kettle—15 lb fat 12×20×18H Auto. Frying area 10×10 14250 3000 4200 2800 7000
Fry Kettle—28 lb fal 15×35×11H Frying area 11×16 24000 4500 7200 4800 12000
Grill—Broil-O-Grill 22×14×17H Insulated
Top Burner (1.4 sq ft) Man. 22,000 Btu/hr 37000 14400 3600 18000
Bottom Burner grill surface) 15,000 Btu/hr
Stoves, Short Order-- Man. Ring type burners 14000 4200 4200 8400
Open Top. Values 12000 to 22000
per sq ft top surface Btu/ea
Stoves, Short Order-- Man. Ring type burners 11000 3300 3300 6600
Closed Top. Values 10000 to 12000
per sq ft top surface Btu/ea
Toaster, Continuous 15×15×28H Auto. 2 Slices wide--
360 slices/hr 12000 10000 7700 3300 11000
STEAM HEATED
Coffee Urn--3 gal 15 Dia×34H Auto. Black finish 2900 1900 4800
--3 gal 12×23 oval×21H Auto. Nickel plated 2400 1600 4000
--5 gal 18 Dia×37H Auto. Nickel plated 3400 2300 5700
Coffee Urn--3 gal 15 Dia×34H Man. Black finish 3100 3100 6200
--3 gal 12×23 oval×21H Man. Nickel plated 2600 2600 5200
--5 gal 18 Dia×37H Man. Nickel plated 3700 3700 7400
Food Warmer, per sq ft
top surface Auto. 400 500 900
Food Warmer, per sq ft
top surface Man. 450 1150 1500
*If properly designed positive exhaust hood is used, multiply recommended value by. 50.

101
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

TABLE 52-HEAT GAIN FROM MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES

NOT HOODED*
RECOM HEAT GAIN FOR AVG USE
TYPE MFR
APPLIANCE OF MAX Sensible Latent Total
CONTROL MISCELLANEOUS DATA RATING Heat Heat Heat
Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr
GAS BURNING
Hair Dryer, Blower Type Fan 165 watts,
15 amps, 115 volts AC Man. (low 915 watts, high 1580 watts) 5,370 2,300 400 2,700
Hair Dryer, helmet type, Fan 80 watts,
6.5 amps, 115 volts AC Man. (low 300 watts, high 710 watts) 2,400 1,870 330 2,200
Permanent Wave Machine 60 heaters at 25 watts each,
Man. 36 in normal use 5,100 850 150 1,000
Pressurized Instrument
Washer and Sterilizer 11”
1
×11”×22” 12,000 23,460 35,460
Neon Sign, per 32
/ ” outside dia 30 30
Linear ft tube /8” outside dia 60 60
Solution and/or 18”×30”×72” 1,200 3,000 4,200
Blanket Warmer 18”×24”×72” 1,050 2,400 3,450
Sterilizer Auto. 16”×24” 9,600 8,700 18,300
Dressing Auto. 20”×36” 23,300 24,000 47,300
Sterilizer, Rectangular Bulk Auto. 24”×24”×36” 34,800 21,000 55,800
Auto. 24”×24”×48” 41,700 27,000 68,700
Auto. 24”×36”×48” 56,200 36,000 92,200
Auto. 24”×36”×60” 68,500 45,000 113,500
Auto. 36”×42”×84” 161,700 97,500 259,200
Auto. 42”×48”×96” 184,000 140,000 324,000
Auto. 48”×54”×96” 210,000 180,000 390,000
Sterilizer, Water Auto. 10 gallon 4,100 16,500 20,600
Auto. 15 gallon 6,100 24,600 30,700
Sterilizer, Instrument Auto. 6”×8”×17” 2,700 2,400 5,100
Auto. 9”×10”×20” 5,100 3,900 9,000
Auto. 10”×12”×22” 8,100 5,900 14,000
Auto. 10”×12”×36” 10,200 9,400 19,600
Auto. 12”×16”×24” 9,200 8,600 17,800
Sterilizer, Utensil Auto. 16”×16”×24” 10,600 20,400 31,000
Auto. 20”×20”×24” 12,300 25,600 37,900
Sterilizer, Hot Air Auto. Model 120 Amer Sterilizer Co 2,000 4,200 6,200
Auto. Model 100 Amer Sterilizer Co 1,200 2,100 3,300
Water Still 5 gal/hour 1,700 2,700 4,400
X-ray Machines, for Physicians and Dentists office None None None
making pictures
X-ray Machines, Heat load may be appreciable--
for therapy write mfg for data
GAS BURNING
Burner, Laboratory 7/16 dia barrel with
small bunsen Man. manufactured gas 1,800 960 240 1,200
small bunsen Man. 7/16 dia with nat gas 3,000 1,680 420 2,100
fishtail burner Man. 7/16 dia with not gas 3,500 1,960 490 2,450
fishtail burner Man. 7/16 dia bar with not gas 5,500 3,080 770 3,850
large bunsen Man. 1 ½ dia mouth, adj orifice 6,000 3,350 850 4,200
Cigar Lighter Man. Continuous flame type 2,500 900 100 1,000
Hair Dryer System Consists of heater & fan which
5 helmets Auto. blows hot air thru duct system to 33,000 15,000 4,000 19,000
10 helmets Auto. helmets 21,000 6,000 27,000
*If properly designed positive exhaust hood is used, multiply recommended value by. 50.

102
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

Example 2-Restaurant heat of compression required to increase the energy level

Given: is generated at the fan or pump and is a heat gain at this
A restaurant with the following electric appliances point.
with a properly designed positive exhaust hood on If the fluid is conveyed outside of the air conditioned
each: space, only the inefficiency of the motor driving fan or
1. Two 5-gallon coffee urns, both used in the morning, only one pump should be included in room sensible heat gain.
used either in the afternoon or evening. If the temperature of the fluid is maintained by a
2. One 20 sq ft food warner without plate warmer. separate source, these heat gains to the fluid heat of
3. Two 24 × 20 × 10 inch frying griddles. compression are a load on this separate source only.
4. One 4-slice pop-up toaster, used only in the morning. The heat gain or loss from the system should be
5. Two 25 lb deep fat, fry kettles. calculated separately (“System Heat Gain,” p. 110).
Find: Motors driving process machinery (lathe, punch
Heat gain from these appliances during the afternoon and press, etc.): The total power input to the machine is
evening meal. dissipated as heat at the machine. If the product is
Solution: removed from the conditioned space at a higher
Use Table 50. Sensible Latent temperature than it came in, some of the heat input into
1. Coffee Urn-only one in use: the machine is removed and should not be considered a
Sensible heat gain = 3400 × .50 = 1700 heat gain to the conditioned space. The heat added to a
Latent heat gain = 2300 × .50 = 1150 product is determined by multiplying the number of
2. Food Warmer: pounds of material handled per hour by the specific heat
Sensible heat gain =20 × 200 × .50= 2000 and temperature rise.
Latent heat gain =20 × 350 × .50= 3500
3. Frying Griddles: Basis of Table 53
Sensible heat gain =2×5300×.50 = 5300 - Heat Gain from Electric Motors
Latent heat gain =2×2900×.50 = 2900 Table 53 is based on average efficiencies of squirrel
4. Toaster—not in use cage induction open type integral horsepower and
5. Fry Kettles: fractional horsepower motors. Power supply for fractional
Sensible heat gain =2 × 3800 × .50 = 3800 horsepower motors is 110 or 220 volts, 60 cycle, single
Latent heat gain =2 × 5700 × .50 = 5700 phase; for integral horsepower motors, 208, 220, or 440
Total sensible heat gain = 12,800 volts, 60 cycle, 2 or 3 phase general purpose and
Total latent heat gain = 13,250 constant speed, 1160 or 1750 rpm. This table may also
be applied with reasonable accuracy to 50 cycle, single
ELECTRIC MOTORS phase a-c, 50 and 60 cycle enclosed and fractional
Electric motors contribute sensible heat to a space horsepower polyphase motors.
by converting the electrical power input to heat. Some of
this power input is dissipated as heat in the motor frame Use of Table 53
and can be evaluated as - Heat Gain from Electric Motors
input × (1 - motor eff). The data in Table 53 includes the heat gain from
The rest of the power input (brake horsepower or electric motors and their driven machines when both the
motor output) is dissipated by the driven machine and in motor and the driven machine are in the conditioned
the drive mechanism. The driven machine utilizes this space, or when only the driven machine is in the
motor output to do work which may or may not result in a conditioned space, or when only the motor is in the
heat gain to the space. conditioned space.
Motors driving fans and pumps: The power input
increases the pressure and velocity of the fluid and the Caution: The power input to electric motors does not
temperature of the fluid. necessarily equal the rated horsepower
The increased energy level in the fluid is divided by the motor efficiency. Frequently
degenerated in pressure drop throughout the system and these motors may be operating under a
appears as a heat gain to the fluid at the point where continuous overload, or may be operating at
pressure drop occurs. This heat gain does not appear as less than rated capacity. It is always advisable
a temperature rise because, as the pressure reduces, the to measure the power input wherever possible.
fluid expands. The fluid expansion is a cooling process This is especially important in estimates for
which exactly offsets the heat generated by friction. The industrial installations where the motor-machine

103
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

load is normally a major portion of the cooling When the machine is outside the conditioned space,
load. multiply the watts by one minus the motor efficiency and
by the factor 3.4.
When reading are obtained directly in watts and Although the results are less accurate, it may be
when both motors and driven machines are in the air expedient to obtain power input measurements using a
conditioned space, the heat gain is equal to the number clamp-on ammeter and voltmeter. These instruments
of watts times the factor 3.4 Btu/(watt)(hr). permit instantaneous readings only. They afford means
When the machine is in the conditioned space and for determining the load factor but the usage factor must
the motor outside, multiply the watts by the motor be obtained by a careful investigation of the operating
efficiency and by the factor 3.4 to determine heat gain to conditions.
the space.
TABLE 53-HEAT GAIN FROM ELECTRIC MOTORS
CONTINUOUS OPERATION*
LOCATION OF EQUIPMENT WITH RESPECT TO
CONDITIONED SPACE OR AIR STREAM‡
NAMEPLATE† FULL LOAD Motor In- Motor Out- Motor In-
OR MOTOR Driven Machine in Driven Machine in Driven Machine out
BRAKE EFFICIENCY HP×2545 HP×2545 HP×2545 (1-% Eff)
HORSEPOWER PERCENT % Eff % Eff
1
Btu per Hour
/
1 20
40 320 130 190
/
1 12
49 430 210 220
18
/ 55 580 320 260
/1 6 60 710 430 280
1
/4 64 1,000 640 360
13
/ 66 1,290 850 440
/3 2 70 1,820 1,280 540
/4 72 2,680 1,930 750
11 79 3,220 2,540 680
1 /2 80 4,770 3,820 950
2 80 6,380 5,100 1,280
3 81 9,450 7,650 1,800
51 82 15,600 12,800 2,800
7 /2 85 22,500 19,100 3,400
10 85 30,000 25,500 4,500
15 86 44,500 38,200 6,300
20 87 58,500 51,000 7,500
25 88 72,400 63,600 8,800
30 89 85,800 76,400 9,400
40 89 115,000 102,000 13,000
50 89 143,000 127,000 16,000
60 89 172,000 153,000 19,000
75 90 212,000 191,000 21,000
100 90 284,000 255,000 29,000
125 90 354,000 318,000 36,000
150 91 420,000 382,000 38,000
200 91 560,000 510,000 50,000
250 91 700,000 636,000 64,000
*For intermittent operation, an appropriate usage factor should be used, preferably measured.
† If motors are overloaded and amount of overloading is unknown, multiply the above heat gain factors by the following
maximum service factors:
Maximum Service Factors
1
Horsepower /20 - 1/8 1
/6 - 1/3 1
/2 - 3/4 1 1 1/2 - 2 3 - 250
AC Open Type 1.4 1.35 1.25 1.25 1.20 1.15
DC Open Type -- -- -- 1.15 1.15 1.15
No overload is allowable with enclosed motors
‡For a fan or pump in air conditioned space, exhausting air and pumping fluid to outside of space, use values in last column.

104
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

The following is a conversion table which can be the circuit from an outside source, the heat gain to the
used to determine load factors from measurements: water
3 × (58,500 - 7500) = 153,000 Btu/hr
TO FIND HP KILOWATTS would become a load on this outside source.
→ OUTPUT INPUT
Direct I×E×eff I×E
Current 746 1,000 PIPING, TANKS AND EVAPORATION OF WATER
1 I×E×pf×eff I×E×pf FROM A FREE SURFACE
Phase 746 1,000 Hot pipes and tanks add sensible heat to a space by
3 or 4 Wire I×E×pf×eff×1.73 I×E×pf×1.73
3 Phase 746 1,000 convection and radiation. Conversely, cold pipes remove
4 Wire I×E×pf×eff×2 I×E×2×pf sensible heat. All open tanks containing hot water
2 Phase 746 1,000 contribute not only sensible heat but also latent heat due
Where I = amperes eff = efficiency to evaporation.
E = volts pf = power factor In industrial plants, furnaces or dryers are often
NOTE: For 2 phase, 3 wire circuit, common conductor current encountered. These contribute sensible heat to the space
is 1.41 times that in either of the other two conductors. by convection and radiation from the outside surfaces,
Example 3-Electric Motor Heat Gain in a Factory and frequently dryers also contribute sensible and latent
(Motor Bhp Established by a Survey) heat from the drying process.
Given:
1. Forty-five 10 hp motors operated at 80% rated capacity, Basis of Tables 54 thru 58
driving various types of machines located within air - Heat Gain from Piping, Tanks and Evaporation of
conditioned space (lathes, screw machines, etc.). Water
Five 10 hp motors operated at 80% rated capacity, driving Table 54 is based on nominal flow in the pipe and a
screw machines, each handling 5000 lbs of bronze per hr. convection heat flow from a horizontal pipe of--
Both the final product and the shaving from the screw
machines are removed from the space on conveyor belts. 1 ).2X ( 1 ).181
Rise in bronze temperature is 30 F; sp ht is .01 Btu/(lb) (F). 1.016 X ( Dia T1
2. Ten 5 hp motors (5 bhp) driving fans, exhausting air to the
outdoors. × (temp diff between hot water or steam and
3. Three 20 hp motors (20 bhp) driving process water pumps, room).
water discarded outdoors. The radiation from horizontal pipes is expressed by-
Find:
Total heat gain from motors. 17.23 x 10–10 x emissivity x (T1 4 – T2 4 )
Solution:
Use Table 53. Sensible Heat Gain where T1 = room surface temp, deg R
Btu/hr
1. Machines-Heat gain to space T2 = pipe surface temp, deg R
= 45 × 30,000 × .80= 1,080,000 Tables 55 and 56 are based on the same equation
Heat gain from screw machines and an insulation resistance of approximately 2.5 per inch
= 5 × 30,000 × .80 = 120,000 Btu/hr of thickness for 85% magnesia and 2.9 per inch of
Heat removed from space from thickness with moulded type.
screw machine work Caution: Table 55 and 56 do not include an allowance
= 5000 × 5 × 30 × .01 = 7,500 Btu/hr for fittings. A safety factor of 10% should be
Net heat gain from screw machines added for pipe runs having numerous fittings.
to space Table 57 is based on an emissivity of 0.9 for painted
= 120,000 – 7500 = 112,500 metal and painted or bare wood and concrete. The
2. Fan exhausting air to the outdoors: emissivity of chrome, bright nickel plate, stainless steel,
Heat gain to space = 10 × 2800 = 28,000 or galvanized iron is 0.4. The resistance (r) of wood is
3. Process water pumped to outside 0.833 per inch and of concrete 0.08 per inch. The metal
air conditioned space surface temperature has been assumed equal to the
Heat gain to space =3 × 7500 22,500 water temperature.
Total heat gain from motors on NOTE: The heat gain from furnaces and ovens can be
machines, fans, and pumps = 1,243,000 estimated from Table 57, using the outside
NOTE: If the process water were to be recirculated and cooled in temperature of furnace and oven.

105
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

Table 58 is based on the following formula for still air: STEAM

Heat of evaporation = 95 (vapor pressure differential When steam is escaping into the conditioned space,
between water and air), where vapor pressure is the room sensible heat gain is only that heat represented
expressed in inches of mercury, and the room conditions by the difference in heat content of steam at the steam
are 75 F db and 50% rh. temperature and at the room drybulb temperature (lb/hr ×
temp dift × .45). The latent heat gain is equal to the
Use of Tables 54 thru 58 pounds per hour escaping times 1050 Btu/lb.
- Heat Gain from Piping, Tanks and Evaporation
of Water MOISTURE ABSORPTION
When moisture (regain) is absorbed by hygroscopic
Example 4-Heat Gain from Hot Water Pipe and materials, sensible heat is added to the space. The heat
Storage Tank so gained is equal to the latent heat of vaporization which
Given: is approximately 1050 Btu/lb times the pounds of water
Room conditions – 75 F db, 50% rh absorbed. This sensible heat is an addition to room
50 ft of 10-inch uninsulated hot water (125 F) pipe. sensible heat, and a deduction from room latent heat if
The hot water is stored in a 10 ft wide x 20 ft long x 10 ft high, the hygroscopic materials is removed from the
painted metal tank with the top open to the atmosphere. The conditioned space.
tank is supported on open steel framework.
Find: LATENT HEAT GAIN - CREDIT TO ROOM
Sensible and latent heat gain SENSIBLE HEAT
Solution: Some forms of latent heat gain reduce room sensible
Use Tables 54, 57 and 58 Btu/hr heat. Moisture evaporating at the room wet-bulb
Piping-Sensible heat gain = 50 × 50 × 4.76 = 11,900 temperature (not heated or cooled from external source)
Tank - Sensible heat gain, sides utilizes room sensible heat for heat of evaporation. This
= (20 × 10 × 2) + (10 × 10 × 2) form of latent heat gain should be deducted from room
× 50 × 1.8 = 54,000 sensible heat and added to room latent heat. This does
- Sensible heat gain, bottom not change the total room heat gain, but may have
= (20×10) ×50×1.5= 15,000 considerable effect on the sensible heat factor.
Total sensible heat gain = 80,900 When the evaporation of moisture derives its heat
Total latent heat gain, top =(20 × 10) × 330 = 66,000 from another source such as steam or electric heating
coils, only the latent heat gain to the room is figured; room
sensible heat is not reduced. The power input to the
steam or electric coils balances the heat of evaporation
except for the initial warmup of the water.
TABLE 54-HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR BARE STEEL PIPES
Btu/(hr) (linear ft) (deg F diff between pipe and surrounding air)
NOMINAL HOT WATER STEAM
PIPE 5 psig 50 psig 100 psig
SIZE 120 F 150 F 180 F 210 F 227 F 300 F 338 F
(in.) TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE*
1
50 F 80 F 110 F 140 F 157 F 230 F 268 F
/
32
0.46 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.71 0.76
/4 0.56 0.61 0.67 0.72 0.75 0.87 0.93
11
0.68 0.74 0.82 0.88 0.92 1.07 1.15
1/14
0.85 0.92 1.01 1.09 1.14 1.32 1.43
1/ 2 0.96 1.04 1.15 1.23 1.29 1.49 1.63
21 1.18 1.28 1.41 1.51 1.58 1.84 1.99
2 /2 1.40 1.53 1.68 1.80 1.88 2.19 2.36
3 1.68 1.83 2.01 2.15 2.26 2.63 2.84
31/2 1.90 2.06 2.22 2.43 2.55 2.97 3.22
4 2.12 2.30 2.53 2.72 2.85 3.32 3.59
5 2.58 2.80 3.08 3.30 3.47 4.05 4.39
6 3.04 3.29 3.63 3.89 4.07 4.77 5.16
8 3.88 4.22 4.64 4.96 5.21 6.10 6.61
10 4.76 5.18 5.68 6.09 6.41 7.49 8.12
12 5.59 6.07 6.67 7.15 7.50 8.80 9.53
*At 70 F db room temperature

106
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

TABLE 55-HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR INSULATED PIPES*

Btu/(hr) (linear ft) (deg F diff between pipe and room)
IRON PIPE 85 PERCENT MAGNESIA INSULATION†
SIZE
(In.)
1
1 In. Thick 1½ In. Thick 2 In. Thick
/3 2 0.16 0.14 0.12
/4 0.18 0.15 0.13
11 0.20 0.17 0.15
11/4 0.24 0.20 0.17
1 /2 0.26 0.21 0.18
21 0.30 0.24 0.21
2 /2 0.35 0.27 0.24
3 0.40 0.32 0.27
31/2 0.45 0.35 0.30
4 0.49 0.38 0.32
5 0.59 0.45 0.38
6 0.68 0.52 0.43
8 0.85 0.65 0.53
10 1.04 0.78 0.64
12 1.22 0.90 0.73
* No allowance for fittings. This table applies only to straight runs of pipe.
When numerous fittings exists, a suitable safely factor must be included. This
added heat gain at the fittings may be as much as 10%. Generally this table
can be used without adding this safety factor.
†Other insulation. If other types of insulation are used, multiply the above
values by the factors shown in the following table:
MATERIAL PIPE COVERING FACTORS
Corrugated Asbestos (Air Cell)
4 Ply per inch 1.36
6 Ply per inch 1.23
8 Ply per inch 1.19
Laminated Asbestos (Sponge Felt) 0.98
Mineral Wool 1.00
Diatomaceous Silica (Super-X) 1.36
Brown Asbestos Fiber (Wool Felt) 0.88

TABLE 56-HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR INSULATED COLD PIPES*

MOULDED TYPE†
Btu/(hr) (linear ft) (deg F diff between pipe and room)
ICE WATER BRINE HEAVY BRINE
IRON PIPE SIZE Actual Thickness Actual Thickness Actual Thickness
(in.)
1
of Insulation (In.) Coefficient of Insulation (In.) Coefficient of Insulation (In.) Coefficient
32
/ 1.5 0.11 2.0 0.10 2.8 0.09
/4 1.6 0.12 2.0 0.11 2.9 0.09
11 1.6 0.14 2.0 0.12 3.0 0.10
11/4 1.6 0.16 2.4 0.13 3.1 0.11
1 /2 1.5 0.17 2.5 0.13 3.2 0.12
2 1.5 0.20 2.5 0.15 3.3 0.13
21/2 1.5 0.23 2.6 0.17 3.3 0.15
3 1.5 0.27 2.7 0.19 3.4 0.16
31/2 1.5 0.29 2.9 0.19 3.5 0.18
4 1.7 0.30 2.9 0.21 3.7 0.18
5 1.7 0.35 3.0 0.24 3.9 0.20
6 1.7 0.40 3.0 0.26 4.0 0.23
8 1.9 0.46 3.0 0.32 4.0 0.26
10 1.9 0.56 3.0 0.38 4.0 0.31
12 1.9 0.65 3.0 0.44 4.0 0.36
*No allowance for fittings. This table applies only to straight runs of pipe. When numerous fittings exist, a suitable safety factor must be
included. This added heat gain at the fitting may be as much as 10%. Generally this table can be used without adding this safety factor.
†Insulation material. Values in this table are based on a material having a conductivity k=0.30. However, a 15% safety factor was added
to this k value to compensate for seams and imperfect workmanship. The table applies to either cork covering (k=0.29), or mineral wool
board (k = 0.32). The thickness given above is for molded mineral wool board which is usually some 5 to 10% greater than molded cork board.

107
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

TABLE 57-HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR UNINSULATED TANKS

SENSIBLE HEAT GAIN*
Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F diff between liquid and room)
METAL WOOD CONCRETE
2½ in. Thick 6 in. Thick
CONSTRUCTION Painted Bright (Nickel) Painted or Bare Painted or Bare
Temp Diff Temp Diff Temp Diff Temp Diff
50 F 100 F 150 F 200 F 50 F 100 F 150 F 200 F 50 F 100 F 150 F 200 F 50 F 100 F 150 F 200 F
Vertical (Sides) 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.6 1.3 1.7 1.6 1.7 .37 .37 .37 .37 .91 .93 .96 .97
Top 2.1 2.4 2.7 2.9 1.6 1.4 1.9 2.1 .38 .38 .38 .38 .99 1.0 1.0 1.1
Bottom 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 0.97 1.1 1.3 1.4 .35 .36 .36 .36 .83 .86 .88 .90
*To estimate latent heat load if water is being evaporated, see Table 58

TABLE 58-EVAPORATION FROM A FREE WATER SURFACE-LATENT HEAT GAIN

STILL AIR, ROOM AT 75 F db, 50% RH
WATER TEMP 75 F 100 F 125 F 150 F 175 F 200 F
Btu/(hr) (sq ft) 42 140 330 680 1260 2190

SYSTEM HEAT GAIN Correction factors for different room temperatures, duct
The system heat gain is considered as the heat velocities and temperature differences are included
added to or lost by the system components, such as the below Chart 3. Values are plotted for use with
ducts, piping, air conditioning fan, and pump, etc. This uninsulated, furred and insulated ducts.
heat gain must be estimated and included in the load
estimate but can be accurately evaluated only after the Use of Chart 3
system has been designed. -- Percent Room Sensible Heat to be Added for Heat
Gain to Supply Duct
SUPPLY AIR DUCT HEAT GAIN To use this chart, evaluate the length of duct running
The supply duct normally has 50 F db to 60 F db air thru the unconditioned space, the temperature of
flowing through it. The duct may pass through an unconditioned space, the duct velocity, the supply air
unconditioned space having a temperature of, say, 90 F temperature, and room sensible heat subtotal.
db and up. This results in a heat gain to the duct before it
reaches the space to be conditioned. This, in effect, Example 5- Heat Gain to Supply Duct
reduces the cooling capacity of the conditioned air. To Given:
compensate for it, the cooling capacity of the air quantity 20 ft of uninsulated duct in unconditioned space at 100 F db
must be increased. It is recommended that long runs of Duct velocity – 2000 fpm
ducts in unconditioned spaces be insulated to minimize Supply air temperature – 60 F db
heat gain. Room sensible heat gain – 100,000 Btu/hr
Find:
Basis or Chart 3 Percent addition to room sensible heat
- Percent Room Sensible Heat to be Added for Heat Solution:
Gain to Supply Duct The supply air to unconditioned space temperature difference
Chart 3 is based on a difference of 30 F db between = 100 – 60 = 40 F db
supply air and unconditioned space, a supply duct From Chart 3, percent addition = 4.5%
velocity of 1800 fpm in a quare duct, still air on the Correction for 40 F db temperature difference and 2000 fpm
outside of the duct and a supply air rise of 17 F db. duct velocity = 1.26
Actual percent addition = 4.5 × 1.26 = 5.7%

108
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

CHART 3- HEAT GAIN TO SUPPLY DUCT

Percent of Room Sensible Heat

SUPPLY AIR DUCT LEAKAGE LOSS greatest variable, and duct leakages from 5% to 30%
Air leakage from the supply duct may be a serious have been found. The following is a guide to the
loss of cooling effect, except when it leaks into the evaluation of duct leakages under various conditions:
conditioned space. This loss of cooling effect must be 1. Bare ducts within conditioned space-usually
added to the room sensible and latent heat load. not necessary to figure leakage.
Experience indicates that the average air leakage 2. Furred or insulated ducts within conditioned
from the entire length of low velocity supply ducts, space-a matter of judgment, depending on
whether large or small systems, averages around 10% of whether the leakage air actually gets into the
the supply air quantity. Smaller leakage per foot of length room.
for larger perimeter ducts appears to be counterbalanced
by the longer length of run. Individual workmanship is the

109
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

TABLE 59- HEAT GAIN FROM AIR CONDITIONING FAN HORSEPOWER, DRAW-THRU SYSTEM‡‡
FAN CENTRAL STATION SYSTEMS‡ APPLIED OR UNITARY SYSTEM**
TOTAL
PRESSURE† Temp Diff Temp Diff
(In. Room to Supply Air Room to Supply Air
of Water) 10 F 15 F 20 F 25 F 30 F 10 F 15 F 20 F 25 F 30 F
PERCENT OF ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT*
0.50 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 2.2 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.7
0.75 1.9 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.6 3.5 2.4 1.8 1.4 1.2
1.00 2.7 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.9 4.8 3.2 2.4 1.9 1.6
Fan Motor 1.25 3.9 2.6 1.9 1.6 1.3 6.5 4.3 3.2 2.6 2.2
Not in 1.50 4.6 3.1 2.3 1.9 1.6 7.8 5.2 3.9 3.1 2.6
Conditioned 1.75 5.4 3.6 2.7 2.2 1.8 9.1 6.1 4.6 3.6 3.0
Space 2.00 6.2 4.1 3.1 2.5 2.1 10.4 6.9 5.2 4.2 3.5
or 3.00 10.4 6.9 5.2 4.2 3.5 16.7 11.2 8.4 6.7 5.6
Air Stream 4.00 15.3 10.2 7.7 6.1 5.1
5.00 19.2 12.8 9.6 7.7 6.4
6.00 24.4 16.3 12.2 9.9 8.2
8.00 38.0 25.4 19.0 15.2 12.7
0.50 1.6 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.5 2.7 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.9
0.75 2.6 1.8 1.3 1.1 0.9 4.2 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.4
1.00 3.6 2.4 1.8 1.5 1.2 5.8 3.8 2.9 2.3 1.9
Fan Motor†† 1.25 5.0 3.4 2.5 2.0 1.7 7.6 5.1 3.8 3.1 2.6
in 1.50 6.0 4.0 3.0 2.4 2.0 9.2 6.1 4.6 3.7 3.1
Conditioned 1.75 7.0 4.7 3.5 2.8 2.4 10.7 7.2 5.4 4.3 3.6
Space 2.00 8.0 5.4 4.0 3.2 2.7 12.2 8.2 6.1 4.9 4.1
or 3.00 13.2 8.8 6.6 5.3 4.4 19.5 13.1 9.8 7.8 6.5
Air Stream 4.00 19.0 12.7 9.5 7.6 6.4
5.00 23.8 15.9 11.9 9.5 8.0
6.00 30.0 20.0 15.0 12.0 10.0
8.00 45.5 30.3 22.8 18.2 15.2
*Excludes from heat gain, typical values for bearing losses, etc. which are dissipated in apparatus room.
†Fan Total Pressure equals fan static pressure plus velocity pressure at fan discharge. Below 1200 fpm the fan total pressure
is approximately equal to the fan static. Above 1200 fpm the total pressure should be figured.
‡70% fan efficiency assumed.
**50% fan efficiency assumed.
††80% motor and drive efficiency assumed.
‡‡For draw-thru systems, this heat is an addition to the supply air heat gain and is added to the room sensible heat. For
blow-thru systems this fan heat is added to the grand total heat; use the RSH times the percent listed and add to the GTH.

3. All ducts outside the conditioned space- heat. With blow-through systems (fan blowing air through
assume 10% leakage. This leakage is a total the coil, etc.) the fan heat added is a load on the
loss and the full amount must be included. dehumidifier and, therefore, should be added to the
When only part of the supply duct is outside grand total heat (see “Percent Addition to Grand Total
the conditioned space, include that fraction of Heat”).
10% as the leakage. (Fraction is ratio of length
outside of conditioned space to total length of Basis of Table 59
supply duct.) Heat Gain from Air Conditioning Fan Horsepower
High velocity systems usually limit leakage to 1%. The air conditioning fan adds heat to the system in
the following manner:
HEAT GAIN FROM AIR CONDITIONING 1. Immediate temperature rise in the air due to
FAN HORSEPOWER the inefficiency of the fan.
The inefficiency of the air conditioning equipment fan 2. Energy gain in the air as a pressure and/or
and the heat of compression adds heat to the system as velocity rise.
described under “Electric Motors.” In the case of draw-
through systems, this heat is an addition to the supply air
heat gain and should be added to the room sensible

110
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

3. With the motor and drive in the air stream or and (4) safety factor, as explained in the preceding
conditioned space, the heat generated by the paragraph.
inefficiency of the motor and drive is also an
immediate heat gain. Example 7-Percent Addition to Room Sensible Heat
The fan efficiencies are about 70% for central station Given:
type fans and about 50% for packaged equipment fans. Same data as Examples 5 and 6
Find:
Use of Table 59 Percent addition to room sensible heat gain sub-total
-- Heat Gain from Air Conditioning Fan Horsepower Solution:
The approximate system pressure loss and Supply duct heat gain = 5.7%
dehumidified air rise (room minus supply air temperature) Supply duct leakage (20 ft duct of total 100 ft) = 2.0%
differential must be estimated from the system Fan horsepower = 2.3%
characteristics and type of application. These should be Safety factor = 0.0%
checked from the final system design. Total percent addition to RSH = 10.0%
The normal comfort application has a dehumidified
air rise of between 15 F db and 25 F db and the fan total The percent additions to room latent heat for supply
pressure depends on the amount of ductwork involved, duct leakage loss and safety factor should be the same
the number of fittings (elbows, etc.) in the ductwork and as the corresponding percent additions to room sensible
the type of air distribution system used. Normally, the fan heat.
total pressure can be approximated as follows:
1. No ductwork (packaged equipment) – 0.5 to RETURN AIR DUCT HEAT AND LEAKAGE GAIN
1.00 inches of water. The evaluation of heat and leakage effects on return
2. Moderate amount of ductwork, low velocity air ducts is made in the same manner as for supply air
systems - 0.75 to 1.50 inches of water. ducts, except that the process is reversed; there is
3. Considerable ductwork, low velocity system- inward gain of hot moist air instead of loss of cooling
1.25 to 2.00 inches of water. effect.
4. Moderate amount of ductwork, high pressure Chart 3 can be used to approximate heat gain to the
system - 2.00 to 4.00 inches of water. return duct system in terms of percent of RSH, using the
5. Considerable ductwork, high pressure system following procedure:
– 3.00 to 6.00 inches of water. 1. Using RSH and the length of return air duct,
use Chart 3 to establish the percent heat gain.
Example 6- Heat Gain from Air Conditioning Fan 2. Use the multiplying factor from table below
Horsepower Chart 3 to adjust the percent heat gain for
Given: actual temperature difference between the air
Same data as Example 5 surrounding the return air duct and the air
80 ft of supply duct in conditioned space inside the duct, and also for the actual velocity.
Find: 3. Multiply the resulting percentage of heat gain
Percent addition to room sensible heat. by the ratio of RSH to GTH.
Solution: 4. Apply the resulting heat gain percentage to
Assume 1.50 inches of water, fan total pressure, and GTH.
20 F db dehumidifer rise. Refer to Table 59.
Heat gain from fan horsepower = 2.3% To determine the return air duct leakage, apply the
following reasoning:
SAFETY FACTOR AND PERCENT ADDITIONS TO 1. Bare duct within conditioned space – no in-
ROOM SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT leakage.
A safety factor to be added to the room sensible heat 2. Furred duct within conditioned space or furred
sub-total should be considered as strictly a factor of space used for return air – a matter of
probable error in the survey or estimate, and should judgment, depending on whether the furred
usually be between 0% and 5%. space may connect to unconditioned space.
The total room sensible heat is the sub-total plus
percentage additions to allow for (1) supply duct heat
gain, (2) supply duct leakage losses, (3) fan horsepower

111
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 7. Internal And System Heat Gain

TABLE 60-HEAT GAIN FROM DEHUMIDIFIER PUMP HORSEPOWER

SMALL PUMPS* 0-100 GPM LARGE PUMPS† 100 GPM AND LARGER
CHILLED WATER TEMP RISE CHILLED WATER TEMP RISE
PUMP HEAD 5F 7F 10 F 12 F 15 F 5F 7F 10 F 12 F 15 F
(ft) PERCENT OF GRAND TOTAL HEAT
35 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5
70 3.5 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0
100 5.0 4.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
*Efficiency 50% †Efficiency 70%

3. Ducts outside conditioned space – assume up PERCENT ADDITION TO GRAND TOTAL HEAT
to 3% inleakage, depending on the length of The percent additions to the grand total heat to
duct. If there is only a short connection compensate for various external losses consist of heat
between conditioned space and apparatus, and leakage gain to return air ducts, heat gain from the
inleakage may be disregarded. If there is a dehumidifier pump horsepower, and the heat gain to the
long run of duct, then apply judgment as to the dehumidifier and piping system.
amount of inleakage. These heat gains can be estimated as follows:
HEAT GAIN FROM DEHUMIDIFIER PUMP 1. Heat and leakage gain to return air ducts, see
HORSEPOWER above.
With dehumidifier systems, the horsepower required 2. Heat gain from dehumidifier pump horsepower,
to pump the water adds heat to the system as outlined Table 60.
under “Electric Motors”. This heat will be an addition to 3. Dehumidifier and piping losses:
the grand total heat. a. Very little external piping - 1% of GTH.
b. Average external piping - 2% of GTH.
Basis of Table 60 c. Extensive external piping - 4% of GTH.
-- Heat Gain from Dehumidifier Pump Horsepower 4. Blow-through fan system-add percent room
Table 60 is based on pump efficiencies of 50% for sensible heat from Table 59 to GTH.
small pumps and 70% for large pumps. Small pumps are 5. Dehumidifier in conditioned apparatus room-
considered to have a capacity of less than 100 gallons; reduce the above percentages by one half.
large pumps, more than 100 gallons.
Use of Table 60
-- Heat Gain from Dehumidifier Pump Horsepower
The chilled water temperature rise in the dehumidifier
and the pump head must be approximated to use Table
60.
1. Large systems with considerable piping and
fitting may require up to 100 ft pump head;
normally, 70 ft head is the average.
2. The normal water temperature rise in the
dehumidifier is between 7 F and 12 F.
Applications using large amounts of water
have a lower rise; those using small amounts of
water have a higher rise.

112
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

CHAPTER 8. APPLIED PSYCHROMETRICS

The preceding chapters contain the practical data to 2. Air conditioning apparatus-factors affecting
properly evaluate the heating and cooling loads. They common processes and the effect of these factors
also recommend outdoor air quantities for ventilation on selection of air conditioning equipment.
purposes in areas where state, city or local codes do not 3. Psychrometrics of partial load control – the effect of
exist. partial load on equipment selection and on the
This chapter describes practical psychrometrics as common processes.
applied to apparatus selection. It is divided into three To help recognize terms, factors and processes
parts: described in this chapter, a brief definition of
1. Description of terms, processes and factors-as psychrometrics is offered at this point, along with an
encountered in normal air conditioning illustration and definition of terms appearing on a
applications. standard psychrometric chart (Fig. 32).

FIG. 32 – SKELETON PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

113
 Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

FIG. 33-TYPICAL AIR CONDITIONING PROCESS TRACED ON A STANDARD PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

114
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

DEFINITION supplied to the space by the air conditioning system is

Psychrometrics is the science involving thermo- returned to the conditioning apparatus. There, it is mixed
dynamic properties of moist air and the effect of with outdoor air required for ventilation. The mixture then
atmospheric moisture on materials and human comfort. passes thru the apparatus where heat and moisture are
As it applies to this chapter, the definition must be added or removed, as required, to maintain the desired
broadened to include the method of controlling the conditions.
thermal properties of moist air. The selection of proper equipment to accomplish this
conditioning and to control the thermodynamic properties
AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES of the air depends upon a variety of elements. However,
Fig. 33 shows a typical air conditioning process only those which affect the psychrometric properties of air
traced on a psychrometric chart. Outdoor air (2)* is mixed will be discussed in this chapter. These elements are:
with return air from the room (1) and enters the apparatus room sensible heat factor (RSHF)†, grand sensible heat
(3). Air flows through the conditioning apparatus (3-4) factor (GSHF), effective surface temperature (tes), bypass
and is supplied to the space (4). The air supplied to the factor (BF), and effective sensible heat factor (ESHF).
space moves along line (4-1) as it picks up the room
loads, and the cycle is repeated. Normally most of the air
DESCRIPTION OF TERMS, PROCESSES AND FACTORS
SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR Fig. 34. This line represents the psychrometric process of
The thermal properties of air can be separated into the supply air within the conditioned space and is called
latent and sensible heat. The term sensible heat factor is the room sensible heat factor line.
the ratio of sensible to total heat, where total heat is the The slope of the RSHF line illustrates the ratio of
sum of sensible and latent heat. This ratio may be sensible to latent loads within the space and is illustrated
expressed as: in Fig. 34 by ∆hs (sensible heat) and ∆h1 (latent heat).
SHF = SHSH = SH Thus, if adequate air is supplied to offset these room
+ LH TH loads, the room requirements will be satisfied, provided
both the dry-and wet-bulb temperatures of the supply air
fall on this line.
where: SHF = sensible heat factor
SH = sensible heat
LH = latent heat
TH = total heat
ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR (RSHF)
The room sensible heat factor is the ratio of room
sensible heat to the summation of room sensible and
room latent heat. This ratio is expressed in the following
formula:
RSHF = RSH = RSH
RSH + RLH RTH
The supply air to a conditioned space must have the
capacity to offset simultaneously both the room sensible
and room latent heat loads. The room and the supply air
conditions to the space may be plotted on the standard
psychrometric chart and these points connected with a
straight line (1-2), FIG. 34-RSHF LINE PLOTTED BETWEEN ROOM AND
*One italic number in parentheses represents a point, and two italic SUPPLY AIR CONDITIONS
†Refer to page 149 for a description of all abbreviations and
numbers in parentheses represent a line, plotted on the
accompanying psychrometric chart examples. symbols used in this chapter.

115
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

The room sensible heat factor line can also be drawn apparatus (mixture condition of outdoor and return room
on the psychrometric chart without knowing the condition air) and the condition of the air leaving the apparatus may
of supply air. The following procedure illustrates how to be plotted on the psychrometric chart and connected by
plot this line, using the calculated RSHF, the room design a straight line (1-2), Fig. 36. This line represents the
conditions, the sensible heat factor scale in the upper psychrometric process of the air as it passes through the
right hand corner of the psychrometric chart, and the conditioning apparatus, and is referred to as the grand
alignment circle at 80 F dry-bulb and 50% relative sensible heat factor line.
humidity: The slope of the GSHF line represents the ratio of
1. Draw a base line thru the alignment circle and the sensible and latent heat that the apparatus must handle.
calculated RSHF shown on the sensible heat factor This is illustrated in Fig. 36 by ∆hs (sensible heat) and ∆h1
scale in the upper right corner of psychrometric (latent heat).
chart (1-2), Fig. 35.
2. Draw the actual room sensible heat factor line thru
the room design conditions parallel to the base line
in Step 1 (3-4), Fig. 35. As shown, this line may be
drawn to the saturation line on the psychrometric
chart.

FIG. 36-GSHF LINE PLOTTED BETWEEN MIXTURE

CONDITIONS TO APPARATUS AND LEAVING
CONDITION FROM APPARATUS
The grand sensible heat factor line can be plotted on
the psychrometric chart without knowing the condition of
supply air, in much the same manner as the RSHF line.
FIG. 35-RSHF LINE PLOTTED ON SKELETON Fig. 37, Step 1 (1-2) and Step 2 (3-4) show the
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART procedure, using the calculated GSHF, the mixture
condition of air to the apparatus, the sensible heat factor
scale, and the alignment circle on the psychrometric
GRAND SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR (GSHF) chart. The resulting GSHF line is plotted thru the mixture
The grand sensible heat factor is the ratio of the total conditions of the air to the apparatus.
sensible heat to the grand total heat load that the
conditioning apparatus must handle, including the REQUIRED AIR QUANTITY
outdoor air heat loads. This ratio is determined from the The air quantity required to offset simultaneously the
following equation: room sensible and latent loads and the air quantity
required thru the apparatus to handle the total sensible
GSHF = TLHTSH =
+ TSH GTH
TSH and latent loads may be calculated, using the conditions
on their respective RSHF and GSHF lines. For a particular
Air passing thru the conditioning apparatus increases application, when both the RSHF and GSHF ratio lines are
or decreases in temperature and/or moisture content. The plotted on the psychrometric chart, the intersection of the
amount of rise or fall is determined by the total sensible two lines (1) Fig. 38, represents the condition of the
and latent heat loads that the conditioning apparatus supply air to the space. It is also the condition of the air
must handle. The condition of the air entering the leaving the apparatus.

116
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

Point (1) is the condition of air leaving the apparatus

and point (2) is the condition of supply air to the space.
Line (1-2) represents the temperature rise of the air
stream resulting from fan horsepower and heat gain to the
duct.

FIG. 37 – GSHF LINE PLOTTED ON SKELETON

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

FIG. 39-RSHF AND GSHF LINES PLOTTED

WITH SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD LINE

The air quantity required to satisfy the room load may

be calculated from the following equation:

cfmsa = RSH
1.08(trm – tsa)
The air quantity required thru the conditioning
apparatus to satisfy the total air conditioning load
(including the supplementary loads) is calculated from
the following equation:
FIG. 38 – RSHF AND GSHF LINES PLOTTED ON TSH
SKELETON PSYCHROMETRIC CHART cfmda =
1.08(tm – tldb)

This neglects fan and duct heat gain, duct leakage The required air quantity supplied to the space is
losses, etc. In actual practice, these heat gains and equal to the air quantity required thru the apparatus,
losses are taken into account in estimating the cooling neglecting leakage losses. The above equation contains
load. Chapter 7 gives the necessary data for evaluating the term tm which is the mixture condition of air entering
these supplementary loads. Therefore, the temperature of the apparatus. With the exception of an all outdoor air
the air leaving the apparatus is not necessarily equal to application, the term tm can only be determined by trial
the temperature of the air supplied to the space as and error.
indicated in Fig. 38. One possible procedure to determine the mixture
Fig. 39 illustrates what actually happens when these temperature and the air quantities is outlined below. This
supplementary loads are considered in plotting the RSHF procedure illustrates one method of apparatus selection
and GSHF lines.

117
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

and is presented to show how cumbersome and time condition of the air normally falls on the RSHF line close to
consuming it may be. the saturation line. How close to the saturation line
1. Assume a rise (trm-tsa) in the supply air to the space, depends on the physical operating characteristics and
and calculate the supply air quantity (cfmsa) to the the efficiency of the conditioning equipment.
space. In determining the required air quantity, when
2. Use this air quantity to calculate the mixture neglecting the supplementary loads, the supply air
condition of the air (tm) to the space, (Equation 1, temperature is assumed to equal the condition of the air
page 150). leaving the apparatus (tsa-t1db). This is illustrated in Fig.
3. Substitute this supply air quantity and mixture 38. The calculation for the required air quantity still
condition of the air in the formula for air quantity remains a trial-and-error procedure, since the mixture
thru the apparatus (cfmda) and determine the temperature of the air (tm) entering the apparatus is
leaving condition of the air from the conditioning dependent on the required air quantity. The same
apparatus (tldb). procedure previously described for determining the air
4. The rise between the leaving condition from the quantity is used. Assume a supply air rise and calculate
apparatus and supply air condition to the space the supply air quantity and the mixture temperature to the
(tsa-t1db) must be able to handle the supplementary conditioning apparatus. Substitute the supply air quantity
loads (duct heat gain and fan heat). These and mixture temperature in the equation for determining
temperatures (t1db, tsa) may be plotted on their the air quantity thru the apparatus, and calculate the
respective GSHF and RSHF lines (Fig. 39) to leaving condition of the air from the apparatus. This
determine if these conditions can handle the temperature must equal the supply air temperature; if it
supplementary loads. If they cannot, a new rise in does not, a new supply air rise is assumed and the
supply air is assumed and the trial-and-error procedure repeated.
procedure repeated. Determining the required air quantity by either
method previously described is a tedious process, since
In a normal, well designed, tight system this it involves a trial-and-error procedure, plotting the RSHF
difference in supply air temperature and the condition of and GSHF ratios on a psychrometric chart, and in actual
the air leaving the apparatus (tsa-t1db) is usually not more practice accounting for the supplementary loads in
than a few degrees. To simplify the discussion on the determining the supply air, mixture and leaving air
interrelationship of RSHF and GSHF, the supplementary temperatures.
loads have been neglected in the various discussions, This procedure has been simplified, however, by
formulas and problems in the remainder of this chapter. relating all the conditioning loads to the physical
It can not be over-emphasized, however, that these performance of the conditioning equipment, and then
supplementary loads must be recognized when including this equipment performance in the actual
estimating the cooling and heating loads. These loads calculation of the load.
are taken into account on the air conditioning load This relationship is generally recognized as a
estimate in Chapter 1, and are evaluated in Chapter 7. psychrometric correlation of loads to equipment
The RSHF ratio will be constant (at full load) under a performance. The correlation is accomplished by
specified set of conditions; however, the GSHF ratio may calculating the “effective surface temperature,” “bypass
increase or decrease as the outdoor air quantity and factor” and “effective sensible heat factor.” These alone
mixture conditions are varied for design purposes. As the will permit the simplified calculation of supply air
GSHF ratio changes, the supply air condition to the space quantity.
varies along the RSHF line (Fig. 38).
The difference in temperature between the room and EFFECTIVE SURFACE TEMPERATURE (tes)
the air supply to the room determines the air quantity The surface temperature of the conditioning
required to satisfy the room sensible and room latent equipment varies throughout the surface of the apparatus
loads. As this temperature difference increases as the air comes in contact with it. However, the effective
(supplying colder air, since the room conditions are surface temperature can be considered to be the uniform
fixed), the required air quantity to the space decreases. surface temperature which would produce the same
This temperature difference can increase up to a limit leaving air conditions as the non-uniform surface
where the RSHF line crosses the saturation line on the temperature that actually occurs when the apparatus is in
psychrometric chart, Fig. 38; assuming, of course, that operation. This is more clearly understood by illustrating
the available conditioning equipment is able to take the the heat transfer effect between the air and the cooling
air to 100% saturation. Since this is impossible, the (or heating) medium. Fig. 40 illustrates this process and

118
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

for these applications the effective surface temperature

will not necessarily fall on the saturation line.
BYPASS FACTOR (BF)
Bypass factor is a function of the physical and
operating characteristics of the conditioning apparatus
and, as such, represents that portion of the air which is
considered to pass through the conditioning apparatus
completely unaltered.
The physical and operating characteristics affecting
the bypass factor are as follows:
1. A decreasing amount of available apparatus heat
FIG. 40- RELATIONSHIP OF EFFECTIVE SURFACE TEMP transfer surface results in an increase in bypass
TO SUPPLY AIR AND CHILLED WATER factor, i.e. less rows of coil, less coil surface area,
wider spacing of coil tubes.
is applicable to a chilled water cooling medium with the 2. A decrease in the velocity of air through the
supply air counterflow in relation to the chilled water. conditioning apparatus results in a decrease in
The relationship shown in Fig. 40 may also be bypass factor, i.e. more time for the air to contact
illustrated for heating, direct expansion cooling and for air the heat transfer surface.
flowing parallel to the cooling or heating medium. The Decreasing or increasing the amount of heat transfer
direction, slope and position of the lines change, but the surface has a greater effect on bypass factor than varying
theory is identical. the velocity of air through the apparatus.
Since conditioning the air thru the apparatus There is a psychrometric relationship of bypass
reduces to the basic principle of heat transfer between factor to GSHF and RSHF. Under specified room, outdoor
the heating or cooling media of the conditioning design conditions and quantity of outdoor air, RSHF and
apparatus and the air thru that apparatus, there must be GSHF are fixed. The position of RSHF is also fixed, but
a common reference point. This point is the effective the relative position of GSHF may vary as the supply air
surface temperature of the apparatus. The two heat quantity and supply air condition change.
transfers are relatively independent of each other, but are To properly maintain room design conditions, the air
quantitatively equal when referred to the effective surface must be supplied to the space at some point along the
temperature. RSHF line. Therefore, as the bypass factor varies, the
Therefore, to obtain the most economical apparatus relative position of GSHF to RSHF changes, as shown by
selection, the effective surface temperature is used in the dotted lines in Fig. 41. As the position of GSHF
calculating the required air quantity and in selecting the changes, the entering and leaving air conditions at the
apparatus. apparatus, the required air quantity, bypass factor and
For applications involving cooling and dehumidi- the apparatus dewpoint also change.
fication, the effective surface temperature is at the point The effect of varying the bypass factor on the
where the GSHF line crosses the saturation line on the conditioning equipment is as follows:
psychrometric chart (Fig. 36). As such, this effective 1. Smaller bypass factor—
surface temperature is considered to be the dewpoint of a. Higher adp—DX equipment selected for higher
the apparatus, and hence the term apparatus dewpoint refrigerant temperature and chilled water
(adp) has come into common usage for cooling and equipment would be selected for less or higher
dehumidifying processes. temperature chilled water. Possibly smaller
Since cooling and dehumidification is one of the most refrigeration machine.
common applications for central station apparatus, the b. Less air-smaller fan and fan motor.
“Air Conditioning Load Estimate” form, Fig. 44, is c. More heat transfer surface—more rows of coil
designed around the term apparatus dewpoint (adp). or more coil surface available.
The term is used exclusively in this chapter when d. Smaller piping if less chilled water is used.
referring to cooling and dehumidifying applications. The 2. Larger bypass factor--
psychrometrics of air can be applied equally well to other a. Lower adp—Lower refrigerant temperature to
types of heat transfer applications such as sensible select DX equipment, and more water or lower
heating, evaporative cooling, sensible cooling, etc., but temperature for chilled water equipment.
Possibly larger refrigeration machine.

119
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

b. More air-larger fan and fan motor. and

c. Less heat transfer surface—less rows of coil or t –t hea – hla wea - wla
less coil surface available. 1-BF = t edb – t ldb = hea – hadp = wea - wadp
d. Larger piping if more chilled water is used. edb adp

NOTE: The quantity (1-BF) is frequently called contact factor

and is considered to be that portion of the air leaving the
apparatus at the adp.

EFFECTIVE SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR (ESHF)

To relate bypass factor and apparatus dewpoint to
the load calculation, the effective sensible heat factor
term was developed. ESHF is interwoven with BF and
adp, and thus greatly simplifies the calculation of air
quantity and apparatus selection.
The effective sensible heat factor is the ratio of
effective room sensible heat to the effective room
sensible and latent heats. Effective room sensible heat is
composed of room sensible heat (see RSHF) plus that
portion of the outdoor air sensible load which is
considered as being bypassed, unaltered, thru the
conditioning apparatus. The effective room latent heat is
composed of the room latent heat (see RSHF) plus that
FIG. 41-RSHF AND GSHF LINES PLOTTED ON portion of the outdoor air latent heat load which is
SKELETON PSYCHROMETRIC CHART considered as being bypassed, unaltered, thru the
conditioning apparatus. This ratio is expressed in the
It is, therefore, an economic balance of first cost and following formula:
operating cost in selecting the proper bypass factor for a
particular application. Table 62, page 127, lists
suggested bypass factors for various applications and is ERSH ERSH
ESHF = ERSH + ERLH = ERTH
a guide for the engineer to proper bypass factor selection
for use in load calculations.
Tables have also been prepared to illustrate the The bypassed outdoor air loads that are included in
various configurations of heat transfer surfaces and the the calculation of ESHF are, in effect, loads imposed on
resulting bypass factor for different air velocities. Table the conditioned space in exactly the same manner as the
61, page 127, lists bypass factors for various coil infiltration load. The infiltration load comes thru the doors
surfaces. Spray washer equipment is normally rated in and windows; the bypassed outdoor air load is supplied
terms of saturation efficiency which is the complement of to the space thru the air distribution system.
bypass factor (1-BF). Table 63, page 136, is a guide to Plotting RSHF and GSHF on the psychrometric chart
representative saturation efficiencies for various spray defines the adp and BF as explained previously. Drawing
arrangements. a straight line between the adp and room design
As previously indicated, the entering and leaving air conditions (1-2), Fig. 42 represents the ESHF ratio. The
conditions at the conditioning apparatus and the interrelationship of RSHF and GSHF to BF, adp and ESHF
apparatus dewpoint are related psychrometrically to the is graphically illustrated in Fig. 42.
bypass factor. Although it is recognized that bypass The effective sensible heat factor line may also be
factor is not a true straight line function, it can be drawn on the psychrometric chart without initially knowing
accurately evaluated mathematically from the following the adp. The procedure is identical to the one described
equations: for RSHF on page 118. The calculated ESHF, however, is
t –t h –h w -w plotted thru the room design conditions to the saturation
BF = t ldb – t adp = h la – hadp = wla - wadp line (1-2), Fig. 43, thus indicating the adp.
edb adp ea adp ea adp

120
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

Tables have been prepared to simplify the method of

determining adp from ESHF. Adp can be obtained by
entering Table 65 at room design conditions and at the
calculated ESHF. It is not necessary to plot ESHF on a
psychrometric chart.
AIR QUANTITY USING ESHF, ADP AND BF
A simplified approach for determining the required
air quantity is to use the psychrometric correlation of
effective sensible heat factor, apparatus dewpoint and
bypass factor. Previously in this chapter, the
interrelationship of ESHF, BF and adp was shown with
GSHF and RSHF. These two factors need not be FIG. 43- ESHF LINE PLOTTED ON SKELETON
calculated to determine the required air quantity, since PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
the use of ESHF, BF and adp results in the same air
quantity. AIR CONDITIONING LOAD ESTIMATE FORM
The formula for calculating air quantity, using BF and The “Air Conditioning Load Estimate” form is
tadp, is: designed for cooling and dehumidifying applications, and
cfmda = 1.08 (t ERSH may be used for psychrometric calculations. Normally,
rm – tadp) (1 – BF)
only ESHF, BF and adp are required to determine air
quantity and to select the apparatus. But for those
This air quantity simultaneously offsets the room sensible instances when it is desirable to know RSHF and GSHF,
and room latent loads, and also handles the total sensible this form is designed so that these factors may also be
and latent loads for which the conditioning apparatus is calculated. Fig. 44, in conjunction with the following
designed, including the outdoor air loads and the items, explains how each factor is calculated. (The
supplementary loads. circled numbers correspond to numbers in Fig. 44).
RSH 1
1. RSHF = RSH + RLH = 1 + 2
TSH 3 + 4
2. GSHF = GTH = 5
ERSH ERSH
3. ESHF = ERSH + ERLH = ERTH
3 3
8 = =
3 + 6 7
4. Adp located where ESHF crosses the saturation
line, or from Table 65. ESHF 8 and room
conditions 9 give adp 10
5. BF 11 used in the outdoor air calculations is
obtained from the equipment performance table or
charts. Typical bypass factors for different surfaces
FIG. 42- RSHF, GSHF AND ESHF LINES PLOTTED and for various applications are given on page 127.
ON SKELETON PSYCHROMETRIC CHART These are to guide the engineer and may be used
in the outdoor air calculation when the actual
equipment performance tables are not readily
available.

121
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

FIG. 44 AIR CONDITIONING LOAD ESTIMATE

122
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

6. cfmda = ERSH leaving air conditions at the apparatus. Once the

1.08 (trm – tadp) (1 – BF) apparatus has been selected from ESHF, adp, BF
3 and GTH, the entering and leaving air conditions
13 =
are easily determined. The calculations for the
1.08 ( 9 - 10 ) (1 - 11 ) entering and leaving dry-bulb temperatures at the
apparatus are illustrated in Fig. 44.
Once the dehumidified air quantity is calculated, The entering dry-bulb calculation contains the term
the conditioning apparatus may be selected. The “cfm†”*. This air quantity “cfm†” depends on
usual procedure is to use the grand total heat 5 , whether a mixture of outdoor and return air or return
dehumidified air quantity 13 , and the apparatus air only is bypassed around the conditioning
dewpoint 10 , to select apparatus. apparatus.
Since guides are available, the bypass factor of The total supply air quantity cfmsa 14 is used for
the apparatus selected is usually in close “cfm†” when bypassing a mixture of outdoor and
agreement with the originally assumed bypass return air. Fig. 45 is a schematicsketch of a system
factor. If, because of some peculiarity in loading in bypassing a mixture of outdoor and return air.
a particular application, there is a wide divergence
in bypass factor, that portion of the load estimate
form involving bypass factor should be adjusted
accordingly.
7. Outlet temperature difference – Fig. 44 shows a
calculation for determining the temperature
difference between room design dry-bulb and the
supply air dry-bulb to the room. Frequently a
maximum temperature difference is established for
the application involved. If the outlet temperature
difference calculation is larger than desired, the
total air quantity in the system is increased by
bypassing air around the conditioning apparatus.
This temperature difference calculation is:
FIG. 45- BYPASSING MIXTURE OF OUTDOOR AND
Outlet temp diff = 1.08RSH
x cfmda
RETURN AIR
1 When bypassing a mixture of return air only or when
= there is no need for a bypass around the
1.08 x 13 apparatus, use the cfmda 13 for the value of
“cfm†” Fig. 46 is a schematic sketch of a system
8. Total air quantity when outlet temperature bypassing room return air only.
difference is greater than desired- The calculation
for the total supply air quantity for a desired
temperature difference (between room and outlet)
is:
RSH = 1
cfmsa = 1.08 x ∆t 1.08 x ∆t
The amount of air that must be bypassed around
the conditioning apparatus to maintain this desired
temperature difference (∆t) is the difference
between cfmsa and cfmda. FIG. 46 – BYPASSING RETURN AIR ONLY OR
9. Entering and leaving conditions at the apparatus— NO FIXED BYPASS
Often it is desired to specify the selected *”cfm†” is a symbol appearing in the equation next to 17 in
conditioning apparatus in terms of entering and Fig. 44

123
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

The entering and leaving wet-bulb temperatures at

the apparatus are determined on the standard
psychrometric chart, once the entering and leaving
dry-bulb temperatures are calculated. The
procedure for determining the wet-bulb
temperatures at the apparatus is illustrated in Fig.
47 and described in the following items:
a. Draw a straight line connecting room design
conditions and outdoor design conditions.
b. The point at which entering dry-bulb crosses
the line plotted in Step a defines the entering
conditions to the apparatus. The entering wet-
bulb is read on the psychrometric chart.
c. Draw a straight line from the adp „ to the
entering mixture conditions at the apparatus FIG. 47- ENTERING AND LEAVING CONDITIONS
(Step b.) (This line defines the GSHF line of the AT APPARATUS
apparatus.)
d. The point at which the leaving dry-bulb crosses
the line drawn in Step c defines the leaving
conditions of the apparatus. Read the leaving
wet-bulb from the apparatus at this point. (This
point defines the intersection of the RSHF and
GSHF as described previously.)

AIR CONDITIONING APPARATUS

The following section describes the characteristic items. Normally, performance requirements aestablished
psychrometric performance of air conditioning and then equipment is selected to meet the requirement
equipment.
Coils, sprays and sorbent dehumidifiers are the three COIL CHARACTERISTICS
basic types of heat transfer equipment required for air In the operation of coils, air is drawn or forcedover a
conditioning applications. These components may be series of tubes thru which chilled water, brine, volatile
used singly or in combination to control the psychrometric refrigerant, hot water or steam is flowing. As the air
properties of the air passing thru them. passes over the surface of the coil, it is cooled, cooled
The selection of this equipment is normally and dehumidified, or heated, depending upon the
determined by the requirements of the specific temperature of the media flowing thru the tubes. the
application. The components must be selected and media in turn is heated or cooled in the process.
integrated to result in a practical system; that is, one The amount of coil surface not only affects the heat
having the most economical owning and operating cost. transfer but also the bypass factor of the coil. The
An economical system requires the optimum bypass factor, as previously explained, is the measure of
combination of air conditioning components. It also air side performance. Consequently, it is a function of the
requires an air distribution system that provides good air type and amount of coil surface and the time available for
distribution within the conditioned space, using a contact as the air passes thru the coil. Table 61 gives
practical rise between supply air and room air approximate bypass factors for various finned coil
temperatures. surfaces and air velocities.
Since the only known items are the load in the space
and the conditions to be maintained within the space, the
selection of the various components is based on thes

124
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

TABLE 61- TYPICAL BYPASS FACTORS

(For Finned Coils)
DEPTH
OF WITHOUT SPRAYS WITH SPRAYS
COILS 8 fins/in. 14 fins/in. 8 fins/in. 14 fins/in.
Velocity (fpm)
(rows) 300-700 300-700 300-600 300-600
2 .42-.55 .22-.38
3 .27-.40 .10-.23
4 .15-.28 .05-.14 .12-.22 .04-.10
5 .10-.22 .03-.14 .08-.16 .02-.06
6 .06-.15 .01-.05 .05-.11 .01-.03
8 .02-.08 .00-.02 .02-.06 .00-.02

These bypass factors apply to coils with 5/8 in. O.D.

tubes and spaced on approximately 11/4 in. centers. The FIG. 48- COIL PROCESSES
values are approximate. Bypass factors for coils with
plate fins, or for combinations other than those shown, psychrometric process when the air is being cooled and
should be obtained from the coil manufacturer. dehumidified.
Table 61 contains bypass factors for a wide range of Fig. 48 illustrates the various processes that can be
coils. This range is offered to provide sufficient latitude in accomplished by using coils.
selecting coils for the most economical system. Table 62
lists some of the more common applications with Sensible Cooling
representative coil bypass factors. This table is intended The first process, illustrated by line (1-2), represents
only as a guide for the design engineer. a sensible cooling application in which the heat is
removed from the air at a constant moisture content.
TABLE 62- TYPICAL BYPASS FACTORS
(For Various Applications) Cooling and Dehumidification
Line (1-3) represents a cooling and dehumidification
COIL process in which there is a simultaneous removal of heat
BYPASS TYPE OF APPLICATION EXAMPLE and moisture from the air.
FACTOR
A small total load or a load that is For practical considerations, line (1-3) has been
0.30- to 0.50 somewhat larger with a low sensible Residence plotted as a straight line. It is, in effect, a line that starts
heat factor (high latent load). at point (1) and curves toward the saturation line below
Typical comfort application with a Residence,
0.20 to 0.30 relatively small total load or a low Small point (3). This is indicated by line (1-5).
sensible heat factor with a Retail Shop,
somewhat larger load. Factory Sensible Heating
0.10 to 0.20 Typical comfort application. Dept. Store,
Bank, Factory Sensible heating is illustrated by line (1-4); heat is
Application with high internal Dept. Store, added to the air at constant moisture content.
0.05 to 0.10 sensible loads or requiring a large Restaurant,
amount of outdoor air for ventilation. Factory
0 to 0.10 All outdoor air applications. Hospital COIL PROCESS EXAMPLES
Operating To better understand these processes and their
Room, Factory variations, a description of each with illustrated examples
is presented in the following: (Refer to page 149 for
COIL PROCESSES definition of symbols and abbreviations.)
Coils are capable of heating or cooling air at a
constant moisture content, or simultaneously cooling and Cooling and Dehumidification
dehumidifying the air. They are used to control dry-bulb Cooling and dehumidification is the simultaneous
temperature and maximum relative humidity at peak load removal of the heat and moisture from the air, line (1-3),
conditions. Since coils alone cannot raise the moisture Fig. 48. Cooling and dehumidification occurs when the
content of the air, a water spray on the coil surface must ESHF and GSHF are less than 1.0. The ESHF for these
be added if humidification is required. If this spray water applications can vary from 0.95, where the load is
is recirculated, it will not materially affect the

125
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

predominantly sensible, to 0.45 where the load is Solution:

predominantly latent. 1. OASH = 1.08×2000×(95-75) = 43,200 Btu/hr (14)
The air conditioning load estimate form illustrated in OALH = .68×2000× (99-65) = 46,200 Btu/hr (15)
OATH = 43,200+46,200 = 89,400 Btu/hr (17)
Fig. 44 presents the procedure that is used to determine
the ESHF, dehumidified air quantity, and entering and 2. TSH = 200,000+43,200 = 243,200 Btu/hr (7)
leaving air conditions at the apparatus. Example 1 TLH = 50,000+46,200 = 96,200 Btu/hr (8)
GTH = 243,200+96,200 = 339,400 Btu/hr (9)
illustrates the psychrometrics involved in establishing
these values. 3. Assume a bypass factor of 0.15 from Table 62.
Example 1- Cooling and Dehumidification 200,000 + (.15) (43,200)
Given: ESHF =
200,000 + (.15) (43,200) + 50,000 + (.15) (46,200)
Application –5¢ & 10¢ Store
Location –Bloomfield, N. J. = .785
Summer design –95 F db, 75 F wb
Inside design –75 F db, 50% rh Determine the apparatus dewpoint from the room design
4. conditions and the ESHF, by either plotting on the
RSH –200,000 Btu/hr psychrometric chart or using Table 65. Fig. 49 illustrates
RLH –50,000 But/hr the ESHF plotted on the psychrometric chart.
Ventilation –2,000 cfmoa
Find: tadp = 50 F
1. Outdoor air load (OATH) 200,000 + (.15) (43,200)
2. Grand total heat (GTH) 5. cfmda = 1.08 (75 – 50) (1 - .15) (36)
3. Effective sensible heat factor (ESHF)
4. Apparatus dewpoint temperature (tadp)
5. Dehumidified air quantity (cfmda) NOTE: Numbers in parentheses at right edge of column refer to
6. Entering and leaving conditions at the apparatus equations beginning on page 150.
(tedb, tewb, tldb, tlwb)

FIG. 49- COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION

126
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

6. Assume for this example that the apparatus selected for Example 2- Cooling and Dehumidification – High
9,000 cfm, 50 F adp, and GTH = 339,400, has a bypass Latent Load
factor that is equal, or nearly equal, to the assumed BF =
0.15. Also, assume that it is not necessary to physically Given:
bypass air around the apparatus. Application – Laboratory
Location – Bangor, Maine
(2000 x 95) + (7000 x 75) Summer design – 90 F db, 73 F wb
tedb = = 79.45 db (31) Inside design – 75 F db, 50% rh
9000
RSH – 120,000 Btu/hr
Read tewb where the tedb crosses the straight line plotted RLH – 65,000 Btu/hr
between the outdoor and room design conditions on the
psychrometric chart, Fig. 49. Ventilation – 2,500 cfmoa
tewb = 65.5 F wb Temp. diff. between room and supply air, 20 F maximum
tldb = 50+.15(79.45-50) = 54.4 F db (32) Find:
Determine that tlwb by drawing a straight line between the
adp and the entering conditions at the apparatus. (This is 1. Outdoor air load (OATH)
the GSHF line.) Where tldb intersects this line, read tlwb. 2. Effective sensible heat factor (ESHF)
tlwb = 52.7 F wb 3. Apparatus dewpoint (tadp)
4. Reheat required
Cooling and Dehumidification – High Latent Load 5. Supply air quantity (cfmsa)
Application 6. Entering conditions to coil (tedb, tewb, Wea)
On some applications a special situation exists if the 7. Leaving conditions from coil (tldb, tlwb)
ESHF and GSHF lines do not intersect the saturation line 8. Supply air condition to the space (tsa, Wsa)
when plotted on the psychrometric chart of if they do the 9. Grand total heat (GTH)
adp is absurdly low. This may occur where the latent load Solution:
is high with respect to the total loads (dance halls, etc.). 1. OASH = 1.08×2500×(90-75) = 40,500 Btu/hr (14)
In such applications, an appropriate apparatus dewpoint OALH = .68×2500× (95-65) = 51,000 Btu/hr (15)
is selected and the air is reheated to the RSHF line. OATH = 40,500+51,000 = 91,500 Btu/hr (17)
Occasionally, altering the room design conditions 2. Assume a bypass factor of 0.05 because of high latent load.
eliminates the need for reheat, or reduces the quantity of 120,000 + .05 (40,500)
reheat required. Similarly, the utilization of a large air side ESHF =
120,000 + .05 (40,500) + 65,000 + (.05) (51,000)
surface (low bypass factor) coil may eliminate the need
for reheat or reduce the required reheat. = .645 (26)
When plotted on the psychrometric chart, this ESHF (.645)
Once the ventilation air requirement is determined, intersects the saturation vurve at 35 F. With such a low adp
and if the supply air quantity is not fixed, the best an appropriate apparatus dewpoint should be selected and
approach to determining the apparatus dewpoint is to the air reheated to the RSHF line.
3. Refer to Table 65. For inside design conditions of 75 F db,
assume a maximum allowable temperature difference 50% rh, an ESHF of .74 results in an adp of 48 F which is a
between the supply air and the room. Then, calculate the reasonable minimum figure.
supply air conditions to the space. The supply air 4. Determine amount of reheat (Btu/hr) required to produce an
ESHF of .74.
conditions to the space must fall on the RSHF line to ESHF (.74) =
properly offset the sensible and latent loads in the space. 120,000 + .05 (40,500) + reheat
There are four criteria which should be examined, to 120,000 + .05 (40,500) + reheat + 65,000 + (.05) 51,000
aid in establishing the supply air requirements to the
space. These are: .74 = 122,025 + reheat (25)
1. Air movement in the space. 189,575 + reheat
2. Maximum temperature difference between the reheat = 70,230 Btu/hr
5. Determine dehumidifier air quantity (cfmda)
supply air and the room. ERSH
3. The selected adp should provide an economical cfmda = (36)
1.08 x (1 – BF) (trm – tadp)
refrigeration machine selection.
4. In some cases, the ventilation air quantity required 122,025 + 70,230
= = 6940 cfm
may result in an all outdoor air application. 1.08 (1 - .05) (75 – 48)
Example 2 is a laboratory application with a high cfmda is also cfmsa when no air is to be physically bypassed
latent load. In this example the ESHF intersects the around the cooling coil.
saturation line, but the resulting adp is too low.

127
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

an area that requires large quantities of ventilation air. For

such applications, the ventilation or code requirements
may be equal to, or more than, the air quantity required to
handle the room loads.
Items 1 thru 5 explain the procedure for determining
the dehumidified air requirements using the “Air
Conditioning Load Estimate” form when all outdoor air is
required.
1. Calculate the various loads and determine the
apparatus dewpoint and dehumidified air quantity.
2. If the dehumidified air quantity is equal to the
outdoor air requirements, the solution is self-
evident.
3. If the dehumidified air quantity is less than the
outdoor air requirements, a coil with a larger
bypass factor should be investigated when the
difference in air quantities is small. If a large
difference exists, however, reheat is required. This
FIG. 50- COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION situation sometimes occurs when the application
WITH HIGH LATENT LOAD requires large exhaust air quantities.
4. If the dehumidified air quantity is greater than the
tedb =
(2500 x 90) + (4440 x 75) outdoor air requirements, substitute cfmda for cfmoa
6. 6940 in the outdoor air load calculations.
= 80.4 (31) 5. Use the recalculated outdoor air loads to determine
Read tewb where the tedb crosses the straight line plotted a new apparatus dewpoints and dehumidified air
between the outdoor air and room design conditions on the quantity. This new dehumidified air quantity should
psychrometric chart, Fig. 50. check reasonably close to the cfmda in Item 1.
tewb = 66.6 F
The moisture content at the entering conditions to the coil is A special situation may arise when the condition
real from the psychrometric chart. explained in Item 4 occurs. This happens when the ESHF,
Wea = 75.9 gr/lb as plotted on the psychrometric chart, does not intersect
Determine leaving conditions of air from cooling coil.
tldb = tadp+BF (tedb-tadp) (32) the saturation line. This situation is handled in a manner
= 48+.05 (80.4-48) similar to that previously described under “Cooling and
= 49.6 Dehumidification –High Latent Load Application.”
hsa = hadp+BF (hea-hadp) (34) Example 3 illustrates an application where codes
= 19.21+.05 (31.3-19.21)
= 19.82 specify that all outdoor air be supplied to the space.
tlwb = 49.1 F Example 3 – Cooling and Dehumidification-
8. Determine supply air temperature to space All Outdoor Air
Given:
tsa = trm - RSH (35) Application – Laboratory
1.08 (cfmsa)
Location – Wheeling, West Virginia
(120,000) Summer design – 95 F db, 75 F wb
= 75 - 1.08 (6940)
Inside design – 75 F db, 55% rh
= 59 F RSH – 50,000 Btu/hr
Wsa = 51.1 gr/lb RLH – 11,000 But/hr
Temp. diff between room and supply air
= trm-tsa = 75-59 = 16 F Ventilation – 1600 cfmoa
Which is less than 20 F All outdoor air to be supplied to space.
9. GTH = 4.45×6940(31.3-19.82) = 354,500 Btu/hr (24) Find:
1. Outdoor air load (OATH)
Cooling and Dehumidification –Using All Outdoor Air 2. Effective sensible heat factor (ESHF)
In some applications it may be necessary to supply 3. Apparatus dewpoint (tadp)
all outdoor air; for example, a hospital operating room, or 4. Dehumidified air quantity (cfmda)
NOTE : Number in parentheses at right edge of column refer 5. Recalculated outdoor air load (OATH)
to equations beginning on page 150 6. Recalculated effective sensible heat factor (ESHF)

128
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

7. Final apparatus dewpoint temperature (tadp,) When humidification is performed in the space, the
8. Recalculated dehumidified air quantity (cfmda) room sensible load is decreased by an amount equal to
Solution: the latent heat added, since the process is merely an
1. OASH = 1.08×1600×(95-75) = 34,600 Btu/hr (14) interchange of heat. The humidifier motor adds sensible
OALH = .68×1600× (98.5-71) = 30,000 Btu/hr (15) heat to the room but the amount is negligible and is
OATH = 34,500+30,000 = 64,600 Btu/hr (17) usually ignored.
2. Assume a bypass factor of 0.05 from Tables 61 and 62. Where humidification is required at design to reduce
50,000 + (.05) (34,600) the air quantity, then a credit to the room sensible heat
ESHF = should be taken in the amount of the latent heat from the
50,000 + (.05) (34,600) + 11,000 + (.05) (30,000)
added moisture. No credit to the room sensible load is
= .81 (26) taken when humidification is used to make up a
3. Table 65 shows that, at the given room design conditions
and effective sensible heat factor, tadp = 54.5 F. deficiency in the room latent load during partial load
operation.
50,000 + (.05) (34,600) When the humidifiers and sprays are used to reduce
4. cfmda = 1.08 (1 - .05) (75 – 54.5) = 2450 cfm (36)
the required air quantity, the latent load introduced into
the space is added to the room latent load.
Since 2450 cfm is larger than the ventilation requirements, When the humidifier or sprays are operated only to
and by code all OA is required, the O.A loads, the adp, and
the dehumidified air quantity must be recalculated using make up the room deficiency, the latent load introduced
2450 cfm as the OA requirements. into the room by the humidifier or auxiliary sprays in the
5. Recalculating outdoor air load space is not added to the room latent load.
OASH = 1.08×2450× (95-75) = 53,000 Btu/hr (14)
OALH = .68×2450× (98.5-71) = 46,000 Btu/hr (15) The introduction of this moisture into the space to
OATH = 53,000+46,000 = 99,000 Btu/hr (17) reduce the required air quantity decreases the RSHF,
ESHF and the apparatus dewpoint. This method of
50,000 + (.05) (53,000) reducing the required air quantity is normally
6. ESHF = (50,000) + (.05) (53,000) + 11,000 + (.05) (46,000) advantageous when designing for high room relative
= .80 (26) humidities.
7. tadp = 54 F The method of determining the amount of moisture
50,000 + (.05) (53,000) necessary to reduce the required air quantity results in a
8. cfmda = = 2500 cfm (36) trial-and-error procedure. The method is outlined in the
1.08 (1 - .05) (75 – 54) following steps:
This checks reasonably close to the value in Step 4, and 1. Assume an amount of moisture to be added and
recalculation is not necessary. determine the latent heat available from this
moisture. Table 64 gives the maximum moisture
Cooling With Humidification that may be added to a space without causing
Cooling with humidification may be required at partial condensation on supply air ducts and equipment.
load operation to make up a deficiency in the room latent 2. Deduct this assumed latent heat from the original
load. It may also be used at design conditions for effective room sensible heat and use the difference
industrial applications having relatively high sensible in the following equation for ERSH to determine tadp.
loads and high room relative humidity requirements. ERSH
Without humidification, excessively high supply air tadp = trm -
1.08 X (1 – BF) cfmda
quantities may be required. This not only creates air
distribution problems but also is often economically Cfmda is the reduced air quantity permissible in the
unsound. Excessive supply air quantity requirements can air distribution system.
be avoided by introducing moisture into the space to 3. The ESHF is obtained from a psychrometric chart or
convert sensible heat to latent heat. This is sometimes Table 65, using the apparatus dewpoint (from Step
referred to as a “split system.” The moisture is introduced 2) and room design conditions.
into the space by using steam or electric humidifiers or 4. The new effective room latent load is determined
auxiliary sprays. from the following equation:
1 - ESHF
ERLH = ERSH X
ESHF
NOTE : Numbers in parentheses at right edge of column refer to
equations beginning on page 150. The ERSH is from Step 2 and ESHF is from Step 3.
5. Deduct the original ERLH (before adding sprays or

129
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

humidifier in the space) from the new effective room

latent heat in Step 4. The result is equal to the latent
heat from the added moisture, and must check with 160,000 + (.05) (108,000)
ESHF =
the value assumed in Step 1. If it does not check, 160,000 + 10,000 + (.05) (108,000) + (.05) (109,000)
assume another value and repeat the procedure. = .92 (26)
Example 4 illustrates the procedure for investigating 4. Plot the ESHF on a psychrometric chart and read
an application where humidification is accomplished the adp (dotted line in Fig. 51).
within the space to reduce the air quantity. tadp = 59.5 F
160,000 + (.05) (108,000)
Example 4- Cooling With Humidification in the Space 5. cfmda = = 15,4000 cfm (36)
Given: 1.08 (1 - .05) (70 – 59.5)
Application – A high humidity chamber (400 x 95) + (11,400 x 70)
Location – St. Louis, Missouri 6. tedb = = 76.7 F db (31)
15,400
Summer design –95 F db, 70% F wb
Inside design – 70 F db, 70% rh Read tewb where the tedb crosses the straight line plotted
RSH – 160,000 Btu/hr between the outdoor and room design conditions on the
RLH – 10,000 Btu/hr psychrometric chart (Fig. 51).
tewb = 67.9 F wb
RSHF - .94 Tldb = 59.5+.05 (76.7-59.5) = 60.4 F db (32)
Ventilation – 4000 cfmoa Determine the tlwb by drawing a straight line between the
Find: adp and the entering conditions to the apparatus (the
GSHF line). Where tldb intersects this line, read the tlwb
A. When space humidification is not used: (Fig. 51).
1. Outdoor air load (OATH) tlwb = 60 F wb
2. Grand total heat (GTH) B. When humidification is used in the space:
3. Effective sensible heat factor (ESHF) 1. Assume, for the purpose of illustration in this problem, that
4. Apparatus dewpoint (tadp) the maximum air quantity permitted in the air distribution
5. Dehumidified air quantity (cfmda) system is 10,000 cfm. Assume 5 grains of moisture per
6. Dehumidified air quantity (cfmda) pound of dry air is to be added to convert sensible to latent
heat. The latent heat is calculated by multiplying the air
(tedb, tewb, tldb, tlwb) quantity times the moisture added times the factor .68.
B. When humidification is used in the space: 2. NEW ERSH = Original ERSH – latent heat of added
1. Determine maximum air quantity and assume an amount moisture
= [160,000+(.05×108,000]-34,000
of moisture added to the space and latent heat from this = 131,400 Btu/hr
moisture.
2. New effective room sensible heat (ERSH) 3. tadp = 70 - 131,400 = 57.2 F (36)
3. New apparatus dewpoint (tadp) 1.08 (1 - .05) (10,000)
4. New effective sensible heat factor (ESHF)
5. New effective room latent heat (ERLH) 4. ESHF is read from the psychrometric chart as .73
(dotted line in Fig. 52).
6. Check calculated latent heat from the moisture added
with amount assumed in Item 1. 1 - ESHF
7. Theoretical conditions of the air entering the evaporative 5. NEW ERLH = New ERSH ×
ESHF
humidifier before humidification.
8. Entering and leaving conditions at the apparatus = 131,400 × 1 - .73
(tedb, tewb, tldb, tlwb) .73
Solution: = 48,600 Btu/hr
A. When space humidification isnot used: 6. Check for latent heat of added moisture.
1. OASH = 1.08×4000× (95-70) = 108,000 Btu/hr (14) Latent heat of added moisture
OALH = .68×4000× (117-77) = 109,000 Btu/hr (15) = New ERLH – Original ERLH
OATH = 108,000+109,000 = 217,000 Btu/hr (17) = 48,600 [ [10,000+(.05×109,000]
2. GTH = 160,000+10,000+108,000+109,000 (9) = 33,200 Btu/hr
= 387,000 Btu/hr This checks reasonably close with the assumed value in
3. Assume a bypass factor of 0.05 from Tables 61 Step 1 (34,000 Btu/hr).
and 62.

NOTE : Numbers in parentheses at right edge of column refer to

equations beginning on page 150.

130
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

7. Psychrometrically, it can be assumed that the atomized

water from the spray heads in the space absorbs part of the tewb = 69.8 F wb
room sensible heat and turns into water vapor at the final
room wet-bulb temperature. The theoretical dry-bulb of the tldb = 57.2 + (.05) (80 – 57.2) = 58.4 F db (32)
air entering the spray is at the intersection of the room
design wet-bulb line and the moisture of the air entering the Determine tlwb by drawing a straight line between the adp
sprays. This moisture content is determined by subtracting and the entering conditions to the apparatus (GSHF line).
the moisture added by the room sprays from the room Where tldb intersects this line, read the
design moisture content. tlwb (Fig. 52).
Moisture content of air entering humidifier tlwb = 58 F wb
= 77-5 = 72 gr/lb.
The theoretical dry-bulb is determined from the The straight line connecting the leaving conditions at
psychrometric chart as 73.3 db, illustrated on Fig. 52.
the apparatus with the theoretical condition of the air
8. tedb =
(4000 x 95) + (6000 x 70)
= 80 F db (31)
entering the evaporative humidifier represents the
10,000 theoretical process line of the air. This theoretical
condition of the air entering the humidifier represents
Read teub where the tedb crosses the straight line plotted what the room conditions are if the humidifier is not
between the outdoor and room design conditions on the operating. The slope of this theoretical process line is the
psychrometric chart (Fig. 52).
same as RSHF (.94).
The heavy lines on Fig. 52 illustrate the theoretical air
cycle as air passes through the conditioning apparatus to
the evaporative humidifier, then to the room, and finally
back to the apparatus where the return air is mixed with
the ventilation air. Actually, if a straight line were drawn
from the leaving conditions of the apparatus (58.4 F db,
58 F wb) to the room design conditions, this line would be
the RSHF line and would be the process line for the
supply air as it picks up the sensible and latent loads in
the space (including the latent heat added by the
sprays).
The following two methods of laying out the system
are recommended when the humidifier is to be used for
both partial load control and reducing the air quantity.
FIG. 51- COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION 1. Use two humidifiers; one to operate continuously,
ADDING NO MOISTURE TO THE SPACE adding the moisture to reduce the air quantity, and
the other to operate intermittently to control the
humidity. The humidifier used for partial load is
sized for the effective room latent load, not
including that produced by the other humidifier. If
the winter requirements for moisture addition are
larger than summer requirements, then the
humidifier is selected for these conditions. This
method of using two humidifiers gives the best
control.
2. Use one humidifier of sufficient capacity to handle
the effective room latent heat plus the calculated
amount of latent heat from the added moisture
required to reduce the air quantity. In Part B, Step
5, the humidifier would be sized for a latent load of
48,600 Btu/hr.
FIG. 52- COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION
ADDING MOISTURE INTO THE SPACE

131
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

Sensible Cooling Solution:

A sensible cooling process is one that removes heat 1. OASH = 1.08×(105-75)×(13,000 = 420,000 Btu/hr (14)
from the air at a constant moisture content, line (1-2, Fig. OALH = .68×(54-64)×13,000 = -88,500 Btu/hr (15)
48. Sensible cooling occurs when either of the following The latent load is negative and a greater absolute value than
the room latent load. Therefore, the inside design conditions
conditions exist: must be adjusted unless there is a means to humidify the
air.
1. The GSHF as calculated or plotted on the Room latent heat = 50,000 Btu/hr
psychrometric chart is 1.0. 50,000
Room moisture content = 54+ .68 x 13,000 = 59.65 grains
2. The ESHF calculated on the air conditioning load
estimate form is equal to 1.0. Adjusted inside design –75 F db, 59.65 grains
In a sensible cooling application, the GSHF equals OALH = .68× (54-59.65) ×13,000 = -50,000 Btu/hr (15)
1.0. The ESHF and the RSHF may equal 1.0. When only OATH = 420,000+(-50,000)= 370,000 Btu/hr (17)
the RSHF equals. 1.0, however, it does not necessarily 2. TSH = 200,000+420,000 = 620,000 Btu/hr (7)
indicate a sensible cooling process because latent load, TLH = 50,000+(-50,000) = 0 (8)
GTH = 620,000+0 = 620,000 Btu/hr (9)
introduced by outdoor air can give a GSHF less than 1.0. 620,000
The apparatus dewpoint is referred to as the effective 3. GSHF = 620,000 = 1 (27)
surface temperature (tes) in sensible cooling applications.
The effective surface temperature must be equal to, or This is a sensible cooling application since GSHF=1
higher than, the dewpoint temperature of the entering air. 4. Assume a bypass factor of 0.05 from tables 61 and 62.
ESHF=
In most instances, the tes does not lie on the saturated line 200,000 + (.05) 420,000
= .823
and, therefore, will not be the dewpoint of the apparatus. 200,000 + (.05) 420,000 + 50,000 + (.05) (-50,000)
However, the calculations for ESHF, tadp and cfmda may (26)
still be performed on the term tes for tadp. The use of the 5. Plot the ESHF to the saturation line on the
term cfm da in a sensible cooling application should not be psychrometric chart. The apparatus dewpoint is read
as tadp = 48.8 F, fig. 53.
construed to indicate that dehumidification is occurring. It (36)
is used in the “Air Conditioning Load Estimate” form and 200,000 + (.05) 420,000 = 221,000 8,230 CFM
in Example 5 to determine the air quantity required thru 6. cfmda = 1.08 x (75 – 48.8) (1 - .05) 26.9 =
the apparatus to offset the conditioning loads. (36)
The leaving air conditions from the coil are dictated Since the dehumidified air quantity is less than the
by the room design conditions, the load and the required outdoor ventilation requirements, substitute the cfmoa
air quantity. The effective surface temperature may be for cfmda. This results in a new effective surface
found by using equation 36. temperature which does not lie on the saturated line.
Example 5 illustrates the method of determining the
apparatus dewpoint or the effective surface temperature 200,000 + (.05) 420,000
tes = 75 - 1.08 x (1 - .05) x 13,000 = 58.4 F (36)
for a sensible cooling application.
This temperature, tes, falls on the GSHF line.
Example 5- Sensible Cooling 7. This is an all outdoor air application since the cfmda is
Given: less than the ventilation requirements therefore:
Location – Bakersfield, California tedb = toa = 105F
tewb = 70F
Summer design – 105 F db, 70 F wb Calculate the tsa which equals the tldb by subsituting tes
Inside design – 75 F db, 50% maximum rh for tadb in equation (28).
RSH – 200,000 Btu/hr tldb = tsa = 105-(1-.05) (105-58.4) = 60.7 F (28)
RLH – 50,000 Btu/hr Determine the tlwb by drawing a straight line between the tes
Ventilation – 13,000 cfmoa and the entering conditions at the apparatus. (This is the
GSHF line.) Where tldb intersects this line, read tlwb tlwb=54.6
Find: F
1. Outdoor air load (OATH)
2. Grand total heat (GTH) In Example 5, the assumed .05 bypass factor is
3. Grand sensible heat factor (GSHF) used to determine tes and dehumidified air quantity.
4. Effective sensible heat factor (ESHF) Since the dehumidified air quantity is less than the
5. Apparatus dewpoint (tadp) or the effective surface temp. (tes)
6. Dehumidified air quantity (cfmda) NOTE: Numbers in parentheses at right edge of column refer to
7. Entering and leaving conditions at the apparatus (tedb, equations beginning on page 150.
tewb, tldb, tlwb)

132
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

ventilation air requirement, the .05 bypass factor is used considered to represent that portion of the air passing
again to determine a new tes, substituting the ventilation thru the spray chamber which contacts the spray water
air requirement for the dehumidified air quantity. The new surface. This contacted air is considered to be leaving
tes is 58.4 F. the spray chamber at the effective surface temperature of
the spray water. This effective surface temperature is the
temperature at complete saturation of the air.
Though not a straight line function, the effect of
saturation efficiency on the leaving air conditions from a
spray chamber may be determined with a sufficient
degree of accuracy from the following equation:
t –t W –W h -h
Sat Eft = tedb – tldb = W ea – W la = h ea - h la
edb es ea es ea es

The saturation efficiency is the complement of

bypass factor, and with spray equipment the bypass
factor is used in the calculation of the cooling load.
Bypass factor, therefore, represents that portion of the air
FIG. 53- SENSIBLE COOLING passing thru the spray equipment which is considered to
be leaving the spray chamber completely unaltered from
If a coil with a higher bypass factor is substituted in its entering condition.
Example 5, a lower tes results. Under these conditions, it This efficiency of the sprays in the spray chamber is
becomes a question of economic balance when dependent on the spray surface available and on the time
determining which coil selection and which refrigerant available for the air to contact the spray water surface.
temperature is the best for the application. For instance, The available surface is determined by the water particle
the maximum possible coil bypass factor that can be size in the spray mist (pressure at the spray nozzle and
used is .19. This still results in a tes above 50.3 F and at the nozzle size), the quantity of water sprayed, number of
the same time maintains a dehumidified air cfm of 13,000 banks of nozzles, and the number of nozzles in each
which equals the ventilation requirements. bank. The time available for contact depends on the
velocity of the air thru the chamber, the length of the
SPRAY CHARACTERSTICS effective spray chamber, and the direction of the sprays
In the operation of spray type equipment, air is drawn relative to the air flow. As the available surface decreases
or forced thru a chamber where water is sprayed thru or as the time available surface decreases or as the time
nozzles into the air stream. The spray nozzles may be available for contact decreases, the saturation efficiency
arranged within the chamber to spray the water counter of the spray chamber decreases. Table 63 illustrates the
to air flow, parallel to air flow, or in a pattern that is a relative efficiency of different spray chamber
combination of these two. Generally, the counter-flow arrangements.
sprays are the most efficient; parallel flow sprays are the The relationship of the spray water temperatures to
most efficient; parallel flow sprays are the least efficient; the air temperatures is essential in understanding the
and when both are employed, the efficiency falls psychrometrics of the various spray processes. It can be
somewhere in between these extremes. assumed that the leaving water temperature from a spray
chamber, after it has contacted the air, is equal to the
SATURATION EFFICIENCY leaving air wet-bulb temperature. The leaving water
In a spray chamber, air is brought into contact with a temperature will not usually vary more than a degree from
dense spray of water. The air approaches the state of the leaving air wet-bulb temperature. Then the entering
complete saturation. The degree of saturation is termed water quantity and the heat required to be added or
saturation efficiency (sometimes called contact or removed from the air.
performance factor). Saturation efficiency is, therefore, a Table 63 illustrates the relative efficiency of different
easure of the spray chamber efficiency. It can be spray chamber arrangements.

133
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

TABLE 63- TYPICAL SATURATION EFFICIENCY*

For Spray Chambers
DIREC- ¼“ NOZZLE 1/8” NOZZLE
NO. TION (25 psig (30 psig
OF OF Nozzle Pressure Nozzle Pressure
BANKS WATER 3 gpm/sq ft†) 2.5 gpm/sq ft†)
SPRAY Velocity‡ (fpm)
300 700 300 700
1 Parallel 70% 50% 80% 60%
Counter 75% 65% 82% 70%
Parallel 90% 85% 92% 87%
2 Opposing 98% 92% 98% 93%
Counter 99% 93% 99% 94%

*Saturation efficiency = 1-BF

†Gpm/sq ft of chamber face area
‡Velocities above 700 fpm and below 300 fpm normally do not
permit eliminators to adequately remove moisture from the air.
Reference to manufacturer’ data is suggested for limiting velocity
and performance.

SPRAY PROCESSES
FIG. 54- SPRAY PROCESSES
Sprays are capable of cooling and dehumidifying, Sensible Cooling
sensible cooling, cooling and humidifying, and heating If the spray water is cooled further, sensible cooling
and humidifying. Sensible cooling may be accomplished occurs. This process is represented by line (1-4).
only when the entering air dewpoint is the same as the Sensible cooling occurs only when the entering air
effective surface temperature of the spray water. dewpoint is equal to the effective surface temperature of
The various spray processes are represented on the the spray water; this condition is rare. In a sensible
psychrometric chart in Fig. 54. All process lines must go cooling process, the air leaving the spray chamber is
toward the saturation line, in order to be at or near lower in dry-and wet-bulb temperatures but equal in
saturation. moisture content to the entering air.
Adiabatic Saturation or Evaporative Cooling Cooling and Dehumidification
Line (1-2) represents the evaporative cooling If the spray water is cooled still further, cooling and
process. This process occurs when air passes thru a dehumidification takes place. This is illustrated by line (1-
spray chamber where heat has not been added to or 5). The leaving air is lower in dry-and wet-bulb
removed from the spray water. (This does not include temperatures and in moisture content than the air
heat gain from the water pump and thru the apparatus entering the spray chamber.
casing.) When plotted on the psychrometric chart, this
line approximately follows up the line of the wet-bulb Cooling and Humidification – With Heated Spray Water
temperature of the air entering the spray chamber. The When the spray water is heated to a limited degree
spray water temperature remains essentially constant at before it is sprayed into the air stream, the slope of the
this wet-bulb temperature. process line rises to a point above the evaporative
cooling line. This is illustrated by line (1-6). Note that the
Cooling and Humidification –With Chilled Spray Water leaving air is lower in dry-bulb temperature, but higher in
If the spray water receives limited cooling before it is wet-bulb temperature and moisture content, than the air
sprayed into the air stream, the slope of the process line entering the spray chamber.
will move down from the evaporative cooling line. This
process is represented by line (1-3). Limited cooling Heating and Humidification
causes the leaving air to be lower in dry-and wet-bulb If the spray water is sufficiently heated, a heating and
temperatures, but higher in moisture content, than the air humidification process results. This is represented by
entering the spray chamber. line (1-7). In this process the dry-bulb temperature, wet-

134
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

bulb temperature, and moisture content of the leaving air dry-bulb during the winter or intermediate season, a
is greater than that of the entering air. combination of preheat and reheat coils, or a reheat coil
and spray water heating, is required. The latter method
SPRAY PROCESS EXAMPLES changes the process from evaporative cooling to one of
The following descriptions and examples provide a the humidification processes illustrated by lines (1-6) or
better understanding of the various psychrometric (1-7) in Fig. 54.
processes involved in spray washer equipment. Evaporative cooling may be used in industrial
applications where the humidity alone is critical, and also
Cooling and Dehumidification in dry climates where evaporative cooling gives some
When a spray chamber is to used for cooling and measure of relief by removing sensible heat.
dehumidification, the procedure for estimating the load Example 6 illustrates an industrial application
and selecting the equipment is identical to the procedure designed to maintain the space relative humidity only
described on page 128 for coils. The “Air Conditioning
Load Estimate” form is used to evaluate the load; bypass Example 6-Evaporative Cooling
factor is determined by subtracting the selected Given:
saturation efficiency from one. Spray chamber An industrial application
dehumidifiers may not be rated in terms of apparatus Location – Columbia, South Carolina
dewpoint but in terms of entering and leaving wet-bulb Summer design – 95 F db, 75 F wb
temperatures at the apparatus. The apparatus dewpoint Inside design – 55% rh
must still be determined, however, to evaluate properly RSH – 2,100,000 Btu/hr
the entering and leaving wet-bulb temperatures and the RSHF – 1.0
dehumidified air quantity. Use all outdoor air at design load conditions
Although originally prepared to exemplify the Find:
operation of a coil, Example 1, page 128, is also typical 1. Room dry-bulb temperature at design (trm)
of the cooling and dehumidifying process using sprays. 2. Supply air quantity (cfmsa)

Cooling and Dehumidification –Using All Outdoor Air

When a spray chamber is to be used for cooling and
dehumidifying with all outdoor air, the procedure for
determining adp, entering and leaving conditions at the
chamber, ESHF and cfmda is identical to the procedure
for determining these items for coils using all outdoor air.
Therefore, the description on page 130 and Example 3
may be used to analyze this type of application.
Evaporative Cooling
An evaporative cooling application is the
simultaneous removal of sensible heat and the addition of
moisture to the air, line (1-2), Fig. 54. The spray water
temperature remains essentially constant at the wet-bulb
temperature of the air. This is a process in which heat is
not added to or removed from the spray water. (Heat gain
from the water pump and heat gain thru the apparatus
casing are not included.)
Evaporative cooling is commonly used for those
applications where the relative humidity is to be
controlled but where no control is required for the room
dry-bulb temperature, except to hold it above a
predetermined minimum. When the dry-bulb temperature FIG. 55- EVAPORATIVE COOLING, WITH VARYING
is to be maintained during the winter or intermediate SATURATION EFFICIENCY
season, heat must be available to the system. This is
usually accomplished by adding a reheat coil. When
relative humidity is to be maintained in addition to room

135
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

Solution: an unsatisfactory air distribution system. This situation

1. Determine the room dry-bulb temperature by compromising usually arises in applications that are to be maintained at
between the spray saturation efficiency, the acceptable higher relative humidities (70% or more). To use straight
room dry-bulb temperature, and the supply air quantity. To evaporative cooling with the large air quantity, or to use a
evaluate these items, use the following equation to split system with the auxiliary sprays in the space,
determine the leaving conditions from the spray for various becomes a problem of economics which should be
saturation efficiencies: analyzed for each particular application.
tldb = tedb – (Sat Eff) (tedb – tewb)* When a split system is used, supplemental spray
The room dry-bulb temperature in the following table results heads are usually added to the straight evaporative
from various spray saturation efficiencies and is determined cooling system. These spray heads atomize water and
by plotting the RSHF thru the various leaving conditions, to add supplementary moisture directly to the room. This
the design relative humidity, Fig. 55. Note that the supply added moisture is evaporated at the final room wet-bulb
air temperature rise decreases more rapidly than the room temperature, and the room sensible heat is reduced by
dry-bulb temperature. Correspondingly, as the supply air the amount of heat required to evaporate the sprayed
temperature rise decreases, the supply air temperature rise water.
decreases, the supply air quantity increases in the same Table 64 gives the recommended maximum moisture
proportion. to be added, based on a 65 F db room temperature or
over, without causing condensation on the ductwork.
SAT DRY-BULE SUPPLY ROOM
EFF TEMP AIR DRY-BULB TABLE 64- MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED
(%) LEAVING TEMP TEMP MOISTURE ADDED TO SUPPLY AIR
SPRAYS RISE AT 55% RH Without Causing Condensation on Ducts†
(tldb) (∆t) (trm) ROOM MOISTURE ROOM MOISTURE
100 75 19 94 DESIGN Gr/Cu Ft DESIGN Gr/Cu Ft
95 76 17.6 93.6 RH Dry Air RH Dry Air
90 77 16.2 93.2 85 1.25 65 1.50
85 78 14.7 92.7 80 1.30 60 1.60
80 79 13.3 92.3 75 1.35 55 1.70
70 1.40 50 1.80
2. Calculate the supply air quantity for the various temperature †These are arbitrary limits which have been established by a
rises from the following equation: combination of theory and field experience. These limits apply
where the room dry-bulb temperature is 65 F db or over.
cfmsa = RSH
1.08 (trm – tldb) As a rule of thumb, the air is reduced in temperature
SUPPLY AIR SUPPLY AIR approximately 8.3 F for every grain of moisture per cubic
TEMP RISE QUANTITY foot added. This value is often used as a check on the
(trm-tldb) (cfmsa) final room temperature as read from the psychrometric
19 102,400 chart.
17.6 110,600 Example 7 illustrates an evaporative cooling
16.2 120,000
14.7 132,300 application with supplemental spray heads used in the
13.3 146,200 space.
The spray chamber and supply air quantity should Example 7 –Evaporative Cooling-With Auxiliary Sprays
then be selected to result in the best owning and Given:
operating costs. The selection is based primarily on An industrial application
economic considerations. Location – Columbia, South Carolina
Summer design – 95 F db, 75 F wb
Evaporative Cooling Used With A Split System Inside design – 70% rh
There are occasions when using straight evaporative RSH – 2,100,000 Btu/hr
cooling results in excessive air quantity requirements and RSHF – 1.0
Moisture added by auxiliary spray heads – 19 gr/lb (13.9
*This equation is applicable only to evaporative cooling applications cu ft/lb×1.4 gr/cu ft)
where the entering air wet-bulb temperature, the leaving air wet-bulb Use all outdoor air thru a spray chamber with 90% saturation
temperature, and the entering and leaving water temperature to the efficiency.
sprays are all equal.

136
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

Find: is used to determine the supply air quantity.

1. Leaving conditions from spray chamber (tldb, tlwb) tldb (from spray chamber) = 77 F.
2. Room dry-bulb temperature (trm) The theoretical dry-bulb temp is 100.75 F, Fig. 56.
3. Supply air quantity (cfmsa) with auxiliary sprays Temp rise = 23.75 F db
4. Supply air quantity (cfmsa) without auxiliary sprays RSH 2,100,000
cfmsa = = = 82,000 cfm
1.08 x temp rise 1.08 x 23.75
4. If no auxiliary sprays were to be used, the room design dry-
bulb would be where the RSHF line intersects the room
design relative humidity. From Fig. 56, the room dry-bulb is
read
trm = 84.7 F db
The supply air quantity required to maintain the room design
relative humidity is determined from the following equation:
cfmsa = RSH = 2,100,000
1.08 (trm – tldb) 1.08 (84.7 – 77)
= 253,000 cfm
This air quantity is over three time the air quantity required
when auxiliary sprays are used in the space. However, it
should be noted that, by reducing the air quantity, the room
dry-bulb temperature increased from 84.7 F to 89.2 F.

Heating and Humidification –With Sprays

A heating and humidifying application is one in which
heat and moisture are simultaneously added to the air,
line (1-7), Fig. 54. This may be required during the
intermediate and winter seasons or during partial loads
FIG. 56- EVAPORATIVE COOLING, WITH AUXILIARY where both the dry-bulb temperature and relative
SPRAYS WITHIN THE SPACE humidity are to be maintained.
Heating and humidification may be accomplished by
Solution: either of the following methods:
1. tldb= tedb-(Sat Eff) (tedb-tewb) 1. Add heat to the spray water before it is sprayed into
= 95-.90 (95-75) = 77 F db the air stream.
tlwb = is the same as the tewb in an evaporative cooling 2. Preheat the air with a steam or hot water coil and
process, Fig. 56. then evaporatively cool it in the spray chamber.
2. Room dry-bulb temperature is evaluated by determining the Spray water is heated, by a steam to water
moisture content of the space. interchanger or by direct injection of steam into the water
Wrm = Wsa+19=128+19=147 gr/lb system. Since the supply air quantity and the spray water
The 19 gr/lb is the moisture added to the space by the quantity have been determined from the summer design
auxiliary spray heads. conditions, the only other requirement is to determine the
The trm is the point on the psychrometric chart where the Wrm amount of heat to be added to the spray water or to the
intersects the 70% design relative humidity line, Fig. 56. preheater.
trm = 89.2 F db For applications requiring humidification, the room
3. Psychrometrically, it can be assumed that the atomized latent load is usually not calculated and the room sensible
water from the spray heads absorbs part of the room heat factor is assumed to be 1.0.
sensible heat and turns into water vapor at the final room Example 8 illustrates the psychrometric calculations
wet-bulb temperature. The intersection of this wet-bulb for a heating and humidifying application when the spray
temperature with the moisture content of the air leaving the water is heated. It should be noted that this type of
evaporative cooler is the theoretical dry-bulb equivalent application occurs only when the quantity of outdoor air
temperature if the auxiliary sprays were not operating. The required is large in relation to the total air quantity.
difference between this theoretical dry-bulb equivalent
temperature and the temperature of the spray chamber, tldb,

137
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

Example 8- Heating and Humidification- spray chamber, plot the mixture line of outdoor and return
With Heated Spray Water room air on the psychrometric chart, and read the wet-bulb
Given: temperature where tedb crosses the mixture line, Fig. 54.
An industrial application tewb= 32.4 F wb
Location – Richmond, Virginia The air leaving the spray chamber must have the same
Winter design – 15 F db moisture content as the air in the room.
Inside design – 72 F db, 35% rh Wrm= Wla = 41 gr/lb
Ventilation – 50,000 cfmoa (see explanation above) Since the spray chamber has a saturation efficiency of 95%,
Supply air – 85,000 cfmsa the moisture content of completely saturated air is
Design room heat loss – 2,500,000 Btu/hr calculated as follows:
Spray saturation efficiency – 95% Wla - Wea
RSHF (winter conditions) – 95% Wsat = + Wea
Sat Eff
Make-up water – 65 F
Find: = 41 - 17 + 17 = 42.3 gr/lb
1. Supply air conditions to the space (tsa) .95
2. Entering and leaving spray water temperature (tew, tlw) The heating and humidification process line is plotted on the
3. Heat added to spray water to select water heater. psychrometric chart between the moisture content of
Solution: saturated air (42.3 gr/lb) and the entering conditions to the
design room heat loss + t spray chamber (38.5 F db and 32.4 F wb), Fig. 57.
1. tsa = 1.08 x cfmsa rm The leaving conditions are read from the psychrometric
chart where the room moisture content line (41 gr/lb)
2,500,000 intersects the heating and humidification process line, Fig.
= + 72 = 99.2 Fdb
1.08 x 85,000 57.
To determine the wet-bulb temperature, plot the RSHF line tlwb = 43.6 F db
on the psychrometric chart and read the wet-bulb at the tlwb = 43.4 F wb
point where tsa crosses this line (Fig. 57). Supply air wet- The temperature of the leaving spray water is approximately
bulb to the space = 65.8 F wb. equal to the wet-bulb temperature of the air leaving the
2. To determine the entering and leaving spray water spray chamber.
temperature, calculate the entering and leaving air tlw = 43.4 F
conditions at the spray chamber:
NOTE: Numbers in parentheses at right edge of column refer to
(15 x 50,000) + (72 x 35,000) equations beginning on page 150.
tedb = = 38.5 F db (31)
85,000
To determine wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the

FIG. 57- HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION, WITH HEATING SPRAY WATER

138
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

The temperature of the entering spray water is dependent In this example a reheat coil is required to heat the air
on the water quantity and the heat to be added or removed leaving the spray chamber, at 43.6 F db and at a
from the air. In this type of application, the water quantity is constant moisture content of 41 gr/lb, to the required
usually dictated by the cooling load design requirements. supply air temperature of 99.2 F db.
Assume, for illustration purposes, that this spray washer is The requirements of the application illustrated in
selected for 110 gpm for cooling. Example 8 can also be met by preheating the outdoor air
The heat added to the air as it passes through the washer and mixing it with the return air from the space. This
= cfmsa ×4.45× (hla-hea) mixture must then be evaporatively cooled to the room
= 85,000×4.45× (16.85-12) dewpoint (or room moisture content). And finally, the air
= 1,830,000 Btu/hr leaving the spray chamber must be reheated to the
The entering water temperature is determined from the required supply air temperature.
following equation:
heat added to air SORBENT DEHUMIDIFIERS
tew = tlw +
500 x gpm
Sorbent dehumidifiers contain liquid absorbent or
1,830,000
solid adsorbent which are either sprayed directly into, or
= 43.4 + located in, the path of the air stream. The liquid absorbent
500 x 110 changes either physically or chemically, or both, during
= 76.8 F the sorption process. The solid adsorbent does not
3. The heat added to the spray water (for selecting spray water change during the sorption process.
heater) is equal to the heat added to the air plus the heat As moist air comes in contact with either the liquid
added to the make-up water. The amount of make-up water absorbent or solid adsorbent, moisture is removed from
is equal to the amount of moisture evaporated into the air the air by the difference in vapor pressure between the air
and is determined from the following equation: stream and the sorbent. As this moisture condenses,
cfmsa (Wla – Wea)
Make-up water =
7000 x 12.7 x 8.34
where:
wea, Wla = moisture content of the air entering and
leaving the spray washer in grains per pound
of dry air
7000 = grains of moisture per pound of dry air
12.7 = volume of the mixture in cubic feet per pound
of dry air, determined from psychrometric
chart
8.34 = water in pounds per gallon
85,000 (41 – 17)
Make-up water = 7000 x 12.7 x 8.34 = 2.8 gpm

The heat added to the make-up spray water is determind

from the following equation: FIG. 58- SORBENT DEHUMIDIFICATION PROCESSES
Heat added to make-up water
= gpm×500 (tew-make-up water temp) latent heat of condensation is liberated, causing a rise in
= 2.8×500 (76.8-65) the temperature of the air stream and the sorbent
= 16,200 Btu/hr material. This process occurs at a wet-bulb temperature
To select a water heater, the total amount of heat added to that is approximately constant. However, instead of
the spray water is determined by totaling the heat added to adding moisture to the air as in an evaporative cooling
the air and the heat added to the make-up spray water. process, the reverse occurs. Heat is added to the air and
Heat added to spray water moisture is removed from the air stream; thus it is a
= 1,830,000+16,200 dehumidification and heating process as illustrated in Fig.
= 1,846,200 Btu/hr 58. = Line (1-2) is the theoretical process and the dotted
It the make-up water was at a higher temperature than the line (1-3) can vary, depending on the type of sorbent
required entering water temperature to the sprays, then a used.
credit to the heat added to the spray water may be taken.

139
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

PSYCHROMETRICS OF PARTIAL LOAD CONTROL

The apparatus required to maintain proper space Figure 59 illustrates the psychrometrics of reheat
conditions is normally selected for peak load operation. control. The solid lines represent the process at design
Actually, peak load occurs but a few times each year and load, and the broken lines indicate the resulting process
operation is predominantly at partial load conditions. at partial load. The RSHF value, plotted from room design
Partial load may be caused by a reduction in sensible or conditions to point (2), must be calculated for the
latent loads in the space, or in the outdoor air load. It may minimum practical room sensible load. The room
also be caused by a reduction in these loads in any thermostat then controls the temperature of the air leaving
combination. the reheat coil along line (1-2). This type of control is
applicable for any RSHF ratio that intersects line (1-2).
PARTIAL LOAD ANALYSIS If the internal latent loads decrease, the resulting
Since the system operates at partial load most of the room conditions are at point (3), and the new RSHF
time and must maintain conditions commensurate with process line is along line (2-3). However, if humidity is to
job requirements, partial load analysis is at least as be maintained within the space, the reduced latent load is
important as the selection of equipment. Partial load compensated by humidifying, thus returning to the design
analysis should include a study of resultant room room conditions.
conditions at minimum total load. Usually this will be
sufficient. Certain applications, however, should be
evaluated at minimum latent load with design sensible
load, or minimum sensible load and full latent load.
Realistic minimum and maximum loads should be
assumed for the particular application so that,
psychrometrically, the resulting room conditions are
properly analyzed.
The six most common methods, used singly or in
combination, of controlling space conditions for cooling
applications at partial load are the following:
1. Reheat the supply air.
2. Bypass the heat transfer equipment.
3. Control the volume of the supply air.
4. Use on-off control of the air handing equipment.
5. Use on-off control of the refrigeration machine.
6. Control the refrigeration capacity.
The type of control selected for a specific application
depends on the nature of the loads, the conditions to be
maintained within the space, and available plant facilities. FIG. 59- PSYCHROMETRICS OF REHEAT CONTROL
REHEAT CONTROL BYPASS CONTROL
Reheat control maintains the dry-bulb temperature Bypass control maintains the dry-bulb temperature
within the space by replacing any decrease in the within the space by modulating the amount of air to be
sensible loads by an artificial load. As the internal latent cooled, thus varying the supply air temperature to the
load and/or the outdoor latent load decreases, the space space. Fig. 60 illustrates one method of bypass control
relative humidity decreases. If humidity is to be when bypassing return air only.
maintained, rehumidifying is required in addition to Bypass control may also be accomplished by
reheat. This was described previously under “Spray bypassing a mixture of outdoor and return air around the
Process, Heating and Humidifying.” heat transfer equipment. This method of control is inferior
to bypassing return air only since it introduces raw
unconditioned air into the space, thus allowing an
increase in room relative humidity.

140
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

FIG. 60- PSYCHROMETRICS OF BYPASS CONTROL WITH RETURN AIR ONLY

A reduction in room sensible load causes the bypass less air thru the cooling equipment and a smaller load on
control to reduce the amount of air thru the dehumidifier. the equipment. Line (2-3-4) represents the new RSHF
This reduced air quantity results in equipment operation line caused by the reduced room sensible load. Point (3)
at a lower apparatus dewpoint. Also, the air leaves the falls on the new RSHF line when bypassing return air only.
dehumidifier at a lower temperature so that there is a
tendency to adjust for a decrease in sensible load that is Bypassing a mixture of outdoor and return air causes
proportionately greater than the decrease in latent load. the mixture point (3) to fal on the GSHF line, Fig. 60. The
Bypass control maintains the room dry-bulb air is then supplied to the space along the new RSHF line
temperature but does not prevent the relative humidity (not shown in Fig. 60) at a higher moisture content than
from rising above design. With bypass control, therefore, the air supplied when bypassing return air only. Thus it
increased relative humidity occurs under conditions of can be readily observed that humidity control is further
decreasing room sensible load and relatively constant hindered with the introduction of unconditioned outdoor
room latent load and outdoor air load. air into the space.
The heavy lines in Fig. 60 represent the cycle for
design conditions. The light lines illustrate the initial cycle VOLUME CONTROL
of the air when bypass control first begins to function. Volume control of the supply air quantity provides
The new room conditions, mixture conditions and essentially the same type of control that results from
apparatus dewpoint continue to change until the bypassing return air around the heat transfer equipment,
equilibrium point is reached. Fig. 60. However, this type of control may produce
Point (2) on Figs. 60 and 61 is the condition of air problems in air distribution within the space and,
leaving the dehumidifier. This is a result of a smaller therefore, the required air quantity at partial load should
bypass factor and lower apparatus dewpoint caused by be evaluated for proper air distribution.

141
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

latent load, and excessive humidity results. This method

of control is not recommended for high latent load
applications since control of humidity may be lost at
decreased room sensible loads.
REFRIGERATION CAPACITY CONTROL
Refrigeration capacity control may be used on either
chilled water or direct expansion refrigeration equipment.
Partial load control is accomplished on chilled water
equipment by bypassing the chilled water around the air
side equipment (fan-coil units). Direct expansion
refrigeration equipment is controlled either by unloading
the compressor cylinders or by back pressure regulation
in the refrigerant suction line.
FIG. 61- SCHEMATIC SKETCH OF BYPASS CONTROL Refrigeration capacity control is normally used in
WITH BYPASS OF RETURN AIR ONLY combination with bypass or reheat control. When used in
combination, results are excellent. When used alone,
ON-OFF CONTROL OF AIR HANDLING EQUIPMENT results are not as effective. For example, temperature
On-off control of air handling equipment (fan-coil can be maintained reasonably well, but relative humidity
units) results in a fluctuating room temperature and space will rise above design at partial load conditions, because
relative humidity. During the “off” operation the ventilation the latent load may not reduce in proportion to the
air supply is shut off, but chilled water continues to flow sensible load.
thru the coils. This method of control is not
recommended for high latent load applications, as control PARTIAL LOAD CONTROL
of humidity may be lost at reduced room sensible loads. Generally, reheat control is more expensive but
provides the best control of conditions in the space.
ON-OFF CONTROL OF REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT Bypass control, volume control and refrigeration capacity
On-off control of refrigeration equipment (large control provide reasonably good humidity control in
packaged equipment) results in a fluctuating room average or high sensible heat factor applications, and
temperature and space relative humidity. During the “off” poor humidity control in low sensible heat factor
operation air is available for ventilation purposes but the applications. On-off control usually results in the least
coil does not provide cooling. Thus, any outdoor air in desirable method of maintaining space conditions.
the system is introduced into the space unconditioned. However, this type of control is frequently used for high
Also the condensed moisture that remains on the cooling sensible heat factor applications with reasonably
coil, when the refrigeration equipment is turned off, is re- satisfactory results.
evaporated in the warm air stream. This is known as re-
evaporation. Both of these conditions increase the space

142
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

TABLE 65- APPARATUS DEWPOINTS

143
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

TABLE 65- APPARATUS DEWPOINTS (Continued)

79 – 72 F DB

144
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

TABLE 65- APPARATUS DEWPOINTS (Continued) 72 – 55 F DB

*The values shown in the gray areas indicate the lowest effective
sensible heat factor possible without the use of reheat. This limiting
condition is the lowest effective sensible heat factor line that
intersects the saturation curve. Note that the room dewpoint is
equal to the required apparatus dewpoint for an effective sensible
heat factor of 1.0.
NOTES FOR TABLE 65:
1. For Room Conditions Not Given; The apparatus dewpoint may
be determined from the scale on the chart, or may be calculated
as shown in the following equation:
1
ESHF = (Wrm – Wadp)
1 + .628
(trm – tadp)
This equation in more familiar form is:
0.244 (trm – tadp)
ESHF = 1076
0.244 (trm – tadp) + 7000 (Wrm – Wadp)
(Cont.)

145
Part 1. Load Estimating | Chapter 8. Applied Psychrometrics

where wrm = room moisture content, gr/lb of dry air 3. For Apparatus Dewpoint Below Freezing. The latent
Wadp = moisture content at apparatus dewpoint, gr/lb heat of fusion of the moisture removed is not included in
of dry air the calculation of apparatus dewpoint below freezing or
trm = room dry-bulb temperature in the calculation of room load, in order to simplify
tadp = apparatus dewpoint temperature estimating procedures. Use the same equation as in
0.244 = specific heat of moist air at 55 F dewpoint, Btu Note 1. The selection of equipment on a basis of 16 to
per deg F per lb of dry air 18 hour operating time provides a safety factor large
1076 = average heat removal required to condense enough to cover the omission of this latent heat of
one pound of water vapor from the room air fusion, which is a small part of the total load.
7000 = grains per pound.
2. For High Elevations. For effective sensible heat factors
at high elevations, see Table 66.

TABLE 66- EQUIVALENT EFFECTIVE SENSIBLE HEAT FACTORS FOR VARIOUS ELEVATIONS*
For use with sea level psychrometric chart or tables
Effective
Sensible Heat Elevation (Feet) and Barometric Pressure (Inches of Hg) at Installation
Factor from Air 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Conditioning (28.86) (27.82) (26.82) (25.84) (24.89) (23.98) (23.09) (22.12) (21.39) (20.57)
Load Estimate Equivalent Effective Sensible Heat Factor Referred to a Sea Level Psychrometric Chart or Tables
.95 .95 .95 .95 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96 .96
.90 .90 .91 .91 .91 .92 .92 .92 .92 .93 .93
.85 .85 .86 .86 .87 .87 .88 .88 .88 .89 .89
.80 .81 .81 .82 .82 .83 .83 .84 .84 .85 .85
.75 .76 .76 .77 .78 .78 .79 .80 .80 .81 .81
.70 .71 .72 .72 .73 .74 .75 .75 .76 .77 .77
.65 .66 .67 .68 .68 .69 .70 .71 .71 .72 .73
.60 .61 .62 .63 .64 .64 .65 .66 .67 .68 .69
.55 .56 .57 .58 .59 .60 .61 .61 .62 .63 .64
.50 .51 .52 .53 .54 .55 .56 .57 .57 .58 .59
*Values obtained by use of equation equation was derived on this basis. The room wet-bulb
1 temperature must not be used because the wet-bulb
ESHFe = temperature corresponding to any particular condition, for
(p1) (1 – ESHF) example, 75 F db, 40% rh, at a high elevation is lower (except
+1
(po) (ESHF) for saturation) than that corresponding to the same condition
(75 F db, 40% rh) at sea level. For the same value of room
where po = barometric pressure at sea level relative humidity and dry-bulb temperature, and the same
p1 = barometric pressure at high elevation apparatus dew-point, there is a greater difference in moisture
ESHF = ESHF obtained from air conditioning load content between the two conditions at high elevation than at
estimate sea level. Therefore, a higher apparatus dewpoint is required
ESHFe = equivalent ESHF referred to a sea level at high elevation for a given effective sensible heat factor.
psychrometric chart or Table 66 2. Air conditioning load estimate (See Fig. 44). The factors 1.08
and .68 on the air conditioning load estimate should be
NOTES FOR TABLE 66: (p )
1. The required apparatus dewpoint for the high elevation is multiplied by the direct ratio of the barometric pressures (p1) .
o
determined from the sea level chart or Table 65 by use of the
equivalent effective sensible heat factor. The relative humidity Using this method, it is assumed that the air quantity (cfm) is
and dry-bulb temperature must be used to define the room measured at actual conditions rather than at standard air
condition when using this table because the above conditions. The outdoor and room moisture contents, grains
per pound, must also be corrected for high elevations.
3. Reheat-Where the equivalent effective sensible heat factor is
lower than the shaded values in Table 65, reheat is required.

146
 A table 18 gain from, see heat
Apparatus dewpoint gain, internal
Abbreviations high altitude selection Condensation
Absorbent dehumidifier, see table 66 maximum room rh without
sorbent psychrometric principle con-densation
dehumidifiers table chart 2
Adiabatic saturation, see spray Appliances, heat gain from all maximum moisture added
processes types, see heat gain, to supply
Adsorbent dehumidifier, see. internal air without causing
sorbent Azimuth angles, solar condensation on supply
dehumidifiers table 18 ducts
Air table 64
By passed around Cooling and dehumidification
conditioning equipment B with coils, see coil
heat gain from outdoor processes
Air conditioning Bibliography with sprays, see spray
adiabatic saturation Building survey processes
cooling and heat load sources Cooling and humidification
dehumidification location of equipment with coils, see coil
cooling and humidification location of services processes
evaporate cooling space characteristics with sprays, see spray
heating and Bypass control, for partial load processes
dehumidification, see Bypass factor Cooling loads, diversity of
sorbent dehumidifiers coils table 14
heating and humidification table 61 Cooling processes
sensible cooling with coils, see coil
sensible heating sorbent processes
dehumidifiers C with sprays, see spray
Air conditioning apparatus processes
coil characteristics Crack method
sorbent dehumidifiers Centrifugal fan capacities summer infiltration thru
sprays characteristics table 46 doors
Air conditioning load estimate, Coil characteristics, bypass and
form factor windows
internal load table 61 table 44
outdoor load Coil processes winter infiltration thru doors
Air constants, derivation cooling and and
Air density difference effect on dehumidification windows
infiltration with all outdoor air table 44
Air quantity with high latent load
from air conditioning load cooling with humidification
estimate form sensible cooling
psychrometric calculations sensible heating
Altitude angles, solar Computers, electronic, heat

147
 D see heat gain, internal appliances, steam heated,
Electronic computers, heat gain restaurant
from, see heat gain, internal table 51
Dehumidifier pump, heat gain to Equipment selection electronic computer
system, see heat gain, Equivalent temperature equipment
system difference latent, credit to room
Dehumidifier, sorbent, see roofs, sunlit and shaded sensible
sorbent dehumidifiers table 20 heat
Design conditions walls, sunlit and shaded lights
industrial processes table 19 table 49
table 5 Evaporative cooling, see spray moisture absorption motors,
inside factory comfort, processes electric
winter and summer table 53
table 4 people
inside summer comfort F table 48,
table 4 pipes, bare steel
inside winter comfort Factory, inside comfort design table 54
table 4 conditions pipes, insulated
maximum outdoor design, table 4 table 55
summer Pan capacity pipes, insulated cold
table 1 centrifugal, table 46 table 56
normal outdoor design, propeller, table 47 steam
summer Fan motors, heat gain to See storage factors for lights
table 1 heat gain, system table 12
normal outdoor design, Formulas, see psychrometric tanks, uninsulated
winter, table 1 formulas table 57
outdoor design corrections water surface
for time of day table 58
table 2 G Heat gain, solar
outdoor design corrections direct and diffuse
for time of year factors for glass block
table 3 Gas appliances, heat gain from table 17
Diversity, of cooling loads All types, see heat gain, internal over-all factors or types of
table 14 Grand sensible heat factor glass,
Door infiltration, see infiltration Ground temperature, for table 16
Duct calculating heat loss thru peak solar, thru ordinary
heat gain to return duct, see basement floors and walls glass
heat gain, system tables 16 table 6
heat gain to supply duct, storage factors or glass,
see heat gain, system bare or
leakage loss, supply and H external shade
return duct, see heat gain, table 8,24-hour operation
system Heat flow, thru building table 10, 16-hour operation
structures table 11,12-bour operation
Heat gain, internal storage factors for glass,
E appliances, electric and gas intern shade
burning, miscellaneous table 7, 24-hour operation
appliances, hooded table 9,16-hour operation
Effective sensible heat factor appliances, electric, table 11 12-hour operation,
Effective surface temperature restaurant, thru ordinary glass
Electric appliances, heat gain table 50 table 15
From all types, see heat appliances, gas burning, Heat gain, system
gain,internal restaurant air conditioning fan
Electric motors, heat gain from, table 51 horsepower

148
 Heat stratification, storage of gain, internal
table 59 heat
dehumidifier pump Heat transmission coefficient,
horsepower see transmission coefficient L
table 60 U
percent addition to grand High altitude Lights, heat gain from, see heat
total heat apparatus dewpoints gain, internal
percent addition to room table 66
sensible and latent heat load calculation
return air duct heat gain Hooded appliances, see heat M
chart 3 gain, internal
return air duct leakage gain Moisture absorption, heat gain
safety factor to room from, see heat gain, internal
sensible and latent heat I Motors, heat gain from, see heat
supply air duct heat gain gain, internal, and heat
chart 3 gain, system
supply air duct leakage loss Industrial process design
Heating and dehumidification, conditions, inside design
see sorbent dehumidifiers table 5 0
Heating and humidification Infiltration
with sprays, see spray air density difference On-off control of air handling
processes offsetting with outdoor air, equipment, for partial load
Heating load estimate summer Control
form table 42
Heat loss stack effect, thru windows On-off control of refrigeration
thru basement floors and and doors summer equipment, for partial load
walls in the ground table 41 control
tables 35 thru 37 summer, crack method Outdoor design conditions
Heating table 44 corrections for time of day
with coils, see coil winter table 2
processes table 43 corrections for time of year
with sorbent dehumidifiers, winter, crack method table 3
see sorbent dehumidifiers table 44 maximum design, summer
with sprays, see spray wind velocity effect normal design, summer
processes Inside design conditions normal design, winter
Heat storage factory comfort summer and winter
factors for solar heat gain table 4 table 1
thru glass, bare or external industrial process
shade table 5
table 8, 24-hour operation summer and winter comfort P
table 10, 16-hour operation table 4
table 11 ,12-hour operation Insulated cold pipe Partial load control
factors for solar heat gain heat gain from, see heat bypass control
thru glass, internal shade gain, internal on-off control of air handling
table 7, 24-hour operation transmission coefficient for, equipment
table 9, 16-hour operation see transmission coefficient on-off control of refrigeration
table 11, 12-hour operation U equipment
factors -for space Insulated pipe refrigeration capacity
temperature heat gain from, see heat control
swing gain, internal reheat control
table 13 transmission coefficient for, volume control
precooling as means of see transmission coefficient People, heat gain from, see heat
increasing storage U gain, internal
stratification of heat Internal heat gain, see heat Pipe

149
 heat gain from, see heat Restaurant appliances, heat cooling and humidification,
gain internal gain from, see heat gain, with chilled spray water
transmission coefficient for, internal cooling and humidification,
see transmission coefficient Return air duct with heated spray water
U heat gain to, see heat gain evaporative cooling
Precooling, as means of system evaporative cooling used
increasing storage, 1-3 leakage loss from, see heat with a split system
Propeller fan, capacity gain, system heating and humidification
table 47 Room sensible heat factor sensible cooling
Psychrometric chart Stack effect, on infiltration
Psychrometric formulas Steam appliances, heat gain
air mixing S from all types, see heat
bypass factor gain, internal
cooling load Saturation efficiency Steel pipe
derivation of air constants for sprays heat gain from, see heat
sensible heat factor table 63 gain, internal
temperature at cooling Scheduled ventilation transmission coefficient for,
apparatus Sensible cooling see transmission coefficient
temperature for supply air to with coils, see coil U
space processes Storage load factors
Psychrometric terms with sprays, see spray internal heat gain for lights
abbreviations processes table 12, 12- and 24-hour
apparatus dewpoint, see Sensible heat factor operation
effective surface Sensible heating, with coils, see solar heat gain thru glass,
temperature coil processes bare
table 65, standard Shading glass or external shade
conditions from reveals, overhangs, table 8, 24-hour operation
table 66, high altitude fins and adjacent buildings table 10, 16-hour operation
bypass factor chart 1 table 11, 12-hour operation
table 61, coil equipment table 18 solar heat gain thru glass,
effective sensible heat Solar altitude angles internal shade
factor effective surface table 18 table 7, 24-hour operation
temperature Solar azimuth angles table 9, 16-hour operation
grand sensible heat factor table 18 table 11, 12-hour operation
partial load control Solar heat gain, see heat gain, space temperature swing
required air quantity solar table 13
room sensible heat factor Sorbent dehumidifiers liquid Storage of heat
saturation efficiency absorbent building structures
table 63, sprays solid adsorbent constant space temperature
sensible heat factor Space precooling, as means of diversity of cooling loads
symbols increasing heat storage table 14
Pump, heat gain from, see heat Space temperature swing equipment operating
gain, system storage factors periods
table 13 heat stratification
Spray characteristics precooling space
R saturation efficiency Stratification of heat
table 63 Summer infiltration, see
Refrigeration capacity control, Spray processes infiltration
for partial load control adiabatic saturation Summer inside design
Reheat control, for partial load cooling and conditions,
Relative humidity, room, dehumidification see design conditions
maximum, without cooling Summer outdoor design
condensation, and dehumidification conditions, see design
chart 2 with all outdoor air conditions

150
Sun load, heat gain due to, see table 26 scheduled
heat gain, solar pipes, bare steel standards
Supply air duct table 54 table 45
heat gain to, see heat gain, pipes, ice coated, in water Volume control, for partial load
system leakage loss from, see table 38
heat gain, system pipes, immersed in water or
System heat gain, see heat brine
gain, system table 39 W
Symbols, see psychrometric pipes, insulated
terms, table 55 Water surface, heat gain from
pipes, insulated cold See heat gain internal
table 56 Water vapor transmission
T roofs, flat, covered with air space
built-up roofing table 40
Tanks table 27 building materials and
heat gain from, see heat table 32 structures
gain, internal roofs, pitched table 40
transmission coefficient for, table 28 ceilings
see transmission coefficient skylights table 40
U table 33 floors
Temperature swing, see heat tanks, uninsulated table 40
storage table 57 insulating materials
Thermal resistance R walls, frame table 40
air space and film table 25 packaging materials
table 34 walls, glass block table 40
building materials table 33 paint films
table 34 walls, industrial, light table 40
insulating materials construction paper
table 34 table 23 table 40
Transmission coefficient U walls, masonry paper, sheathing
air spaces table 2 table 40
table 31 walls, masonry, in ground partitions
ceilings, masonry table 35 table 40
construction, walls, masonry veneer roofs
table 29 table 22 table 40
table 30 windows roofing felt
doors table 33 table 40
table 33 walls
floors, frame construction table 40
table 29, U Window infiltration, see
heat flow up infiltration
table 30 Uninsulated tanks Wind velocity, effect on
heat flow down heat gain from, see heat infiltration, see infiltration
floors, masonry construction gain, internal Winter infiltration, see infiltration
table 29 transmission coefficient for, Winter inside design conditions,
table 30 see ransmission coefficient see design infiltration
floors, masonry, in ground U Winter outdoor design
table 35 conditions
insulation see design conditions
table 31
table 32
partitions, frame V
table 25
partitions, masonry Ventilation

151
Fig. 1 - Air Conditioning Load Estimate
Fig. 2 – Heating Load Estimate
Fig. 3 – Actual Cooling Load, Solar Heat Gain, West Exposure, Average Construction
Fig. 4 – Actual Cooling Load from Fluorescent Lights, Average Construction
Fig. 5 – Actual Cooling Load, Solar Heat Gain Lights, Average Construction
Fig. 6 – Pulldown Load, Solar Heat Gain, West Exposure, 16 Hour Operation
Fig. 7 – Actual Cooling Load, Solar Heat Gain, West Exposure, 16-hour Operation
Fig. 8 – Pulldown Load, Solar Heat Gain, West Exposure, 12 Hour Operation
Fig. 9 – Actual Cooling Load, Solar Heat Gain, West Exposure, 12-hour Operation
Fig. 10 – Actual Cooling Load from Fluorescent Light,12 and-16 hour Operation
Fig. 11 – Actual Cooling Load With Varying Room Temperature
Fig. 12 – Reaction on Solar Heat (R), Ordinary Glass, 30° Angle of Incidence
Fig. 13 – Reaction on Solar Heat (R), Ordinary Glass, 80° Angle of Incidence
Fig. 14 – Window Areas
Fig. 15 - Reaction on Solar Heat (R), 52% Heat Absorbing Glass, 30° Angle of Incidence
Fig. 16 - Reaction on Solar Heat (R),1 ⁄4 – Inch Plate Glass, White Venetian Blind, 30° Angle of Incidence
Fig. 17 - Reaction on Solar Heat (R),1 ⁄4 – Inch Plate Glass, White Venetian Blind, 1 ⁄4 – Inch Plate
Glass, 30° Angle of Incidence
Fig. 18 – Solar Angles
Fig. 19 – Shading by Wall Projections
Fig. 20 – Shading of Building by Adjacent Building
Fig. 21 – Shading of Reveal and Overhang

152
Fig. 22 – Solar Heat Absorbed in First Slice
Fig. 23 – Behavior of Absorbed Solar Heat during Second Time Interval
Fig. 24 - Behavior of Absorbed Solar Heat during Third Time Interval
Fig. 25 - Behavior of Absorbed Solar Heat during Second Time Interval plus Additional Solar Heat Absorbed
during This Interval
Fig. 26 - Behavior of Absorbed Solar Heat during Third Time Interval plus Additional Solar Heat Absorbed during
This Interval
Fig. 27– Outdoor wall
Fig. 28 – Condensation Within Frame Wall
Fig. 29 - Condensation on Window Surface
Fig. 30 – Conversion of Electric Power to Heat and Light With Incandescent Lights, Approximate
Fig. 31 – Conversion of Electric Power to Heat and Light With Fluorescent Lights, Approximate
Fig. 32 – Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 33 – Typical Air Conditioning Process Traced on a Standard Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 34 – RSHF Line Plotted Between Room and Supply Air Conditions
Fig. 35 – RSHF Line Plotted on Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 36 – GSHF Line Plotted Between Mixture Conditions to Apparatus and Leaving Condition From Apparatu
Fig. 37 – GSHF Line Plotted on Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 38 – RSHF and GSHF Lines Plotted on Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 39 – RSHF and GSHF Lines Plotted with Supplementary Load Line
Fig. 40 – Relationship of Effective Surface Temp to Supply Air and Chilled Water
Fig. 41 – RSHF and GSHF Lines Plotted on Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 42 – RSHF, GSHF and ESHF Lines Plotted on Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 43 – ESHF Lines Plotted on Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 44 – Air Conditioning Load Estimate
Fig. 45 – Bypassing Mixture of Outdoor and Return Air
Fig. 46 – Bypassing Return Air Only or No Fixed Bypass
Fig. 47 – Entering and Leaving Conditions at Apparatus
Fig. 48 – Coil Processes
Fig. 49 – Coil and Dehumidification
Fig. 50 – Cooling and Dehumidification with High Latent Load
Fig. 51 – Cooling and Dehumidification Adding No Moisture to the Space
Fig. 52 – Cooling and Dehumidification Adding Moisture Into the Space
Fig. 53 – Sensible Cooling

153
Fig. 54 – Spray Processes
Fig. 55 – Evaporative Cooling, With Varying Saturation Efficiency
Fig. 56 – Evaporative Cooling, With Auxiliary Sprays Within the Space
Fig. 57 – Heating and Humidification, With Heating Spray Water
Fig. 58 – Sorbent Dehumidification Processes
Fig. 59 – Psychrometrics of Reheat Control
Fig. 60 – Psychrometrics of Bypass Control With Return Air Only
Fig. 61 – Schematic Sketch of Bypass Control With Return Air Only

154
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 1 – OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS – SUMMER AND WINTER (CONT.)
TABLE 2 – CORRECTION IN OUTDOOR DESIGN TEMPERATURES FOR TIME OF DAY
TABLE 3 – CORRECTION IN OUTDOOR DESIGN TEMPERATURES FOR TIME OF DAY
TABLE 4 – RECOMMENDED INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS∗-SUMMER AND WINTER
TABLE 5 – TYPICAL INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS-INDUSTRIAL
TABLE 5 – TYPICAL INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS-INDUSTRIAL (Contd)
TABLE 6 – PEAK SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS∗
TABLE 7 – STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS
TABLE 8 – STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS
TABLE 9 – STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS
TABLE 10 – STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS
TABLE 11 – STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS
TABLE 12 – STORAGE LOAD FACTORS, HEAT GAIN –LIGHT∗
TABLE 13 – STORAGE FACTORS, SPACE TEMPURATURE SWING
TABLE 14 – TYPICAL DIVERSITY FACTORS FOR LARGE BUILDINGS
TABLE 15 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS

155
TABLE 15 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS (Contd)
TABLE 15 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS (Contd)
TABLE 15 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS (Contd)
TABLE 15 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS (Contd)
TABLE 15 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU ORDINARY GLASS (Contd)
TABLE 16 – OVER-ALL FACTORS FOR SOLAR HEAT GAIN THRU GLASS
TABLE 17 – SOLAR HEAT GAIN FACTORS FOR GLASS BLOCK
TABLE 18 – SOLAR ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES
TABLE 19 – EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (DEG F)
TABLE 20 – EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (DEG F)
TABLE 20 A – CORRECTIONS TO EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES (DEG F)
TABLE 21 – TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-MASONRY WALLS ∗
TABLE 22 – TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-MASONRY VENEER WALLS ∗
TABLE 23 – TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-LIGHT CONSTRUCTION, INDUSTRIAL WALLS ∗
TABLE 24 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-LIGHTWEIGHT, PREFABRICATED CURTAIN TYPE WALLS ∗
TABLE 25 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-FRAME, WALLS AND PARTITIONS∗
TABLE 26 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-MASONRY PARTITIONS∗
TABLE 27 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-FLAT, ROOFS COVERED WITH BUILT-UP ROOFING ∗
TABLE 28 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-PITCHED ROOFS ∗
TABLE 29 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-CEILING AND FLOOR, (Heat Flow Up)
TABLE 30 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-CEILING AND FLOOR, (Heat Flow Up)
TABLE 31 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-WITH INSULATION & AIR SPACES
TABLE 32 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-FLAT ROOFS WITH ROOF-DECK INSULATION
TABLE 33 - TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-WINDOWS, SKYLIGHTS, DOOR&GLASS BLOCKWALLS -DECK
INSULATION
TABLE 34 – THERMAL RESISTANCES R-BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS
TABLE 34 – THERMAL RESISTANCES R-BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS (Contd)
TABLE 34 – THERMAL RESISTANCES R-BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS (Contd)
TABLE 35 – TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT U-MASONRY FLOORS AND WALL IN GROUP
TABLE 36 – PERMITER
TABLE 37 – GROUND TEMPERATURES
TABLE 38 – TRANMISSION COEFFICIENT U-ICE COATED PIPES IN WATER

156
TABLE 39 – TRANMISSION COEFFICIENT U-PIPES IMMERSED IN WATER OR BRINE
TABLE 40 – WATER VAPOR TRANSMISSION THRU VARIOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 40 – WATER VAPOR TRANSMISSION THRU VARIOUS MATERIALS (Contd)
TABLE 41 – INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-SUMMER∗
TABLE 41 – INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-SUMMER∗ (Contd)
TABLE 42 – OFFSETTING SWINGING DOOR INFILTRATION WITH OUTDOOR AIR-SUMMER
TABLE 43 – INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-WINTER ∗
TABLE 44 – INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-CRACK METHOD-SUMMER-WINTER ∗
TABLE 44 – INFILTRATION THRU WINDOWS AND DOORS-CRACK METHOD-SUMMER-WINTER ∗ (Contd)
TABLE 45 – VENTILATION STANDARDS
TABLE 46 – CENTRIFUGAL FAN CAPACITIES
TABLE 47 –PROPELLER FAN CAPACITIES-FREE DELIVERY
TABLE 48 – HEAT GAIN FROM PEOPLE
TABLE 49 – HEAT GAIN FROM LIGHTS
TABLE 50 – HEAT GAIN FROM RESTAURANT APPLIANCES
TABLE 51 – HEAT GAIN FROM RESTAURANT APPLIANCES
TABLE 52 – HEAT GAIN FROM MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES
TABLE 53 – HEAT GAIN FROM ELECTRIC MOTOR
TABLE 54 – HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR BARE STEEL PIPES
TABLE 55 – HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR INSULATED PIPES
TABLE 56 – HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR INSULATED COLD PIPES
TABLE 57 – HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS FOR UNINSULATED TANKS
TABLE 58 – EVAPORATION FROM A FREE WATER SURFACE-LATENT HEAT GAIN
TABLE 59 – HEAT GAIN FROM AIR CONDITIONING FAN HORSEPOWER, DRAW-THRU SYSTEM
TABLE 60 – HEAT GAIN FROM DEHUMIDIFIER PUMP HORSEPOWER
TABLE 61 – TYPICAL BYPASS FACTORS
TABLE 62 – TYPICAL BYPASS FACTORS
TABLE 63 – TYPICAL SATURATION EFFICIENCY
TABLE 64 – MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED MOISTURE ADDED TO SUPPLY AIR
TABLE 65 – APPARATUS DEWPOINTS
TABLE 65 – APPARATUS DEWPOINTS (Continued)
TABLE 65 – APPARATUS DEWPOINTS (Continued)
TABLE 66 – EQUIVALENT EFFECTIVE SENSIBLE HEAT FACTORS FOR VARIOUS ELEVATIONS∗

157
CHART 1 - SHADING FROM REVEALS OVERHANGS, FINS AND ADJACENT BUILDINGS (1-57)
CHART 2 – MAXIMUM ROOM RELATIVE HUMIDITY WITHOUT CONDENSATION (1-88)
CHART 3 – HEAT GAIN TO SUPPLY DUCT (1-110)

158
159
160
161
162
Cooling load components:

Source of Heat (Qin)

✓ External sources
o Heat gain through glass due to conduction
o Heat gain through glass due to radiation
o Heat gain through skylight ( conduction & reflection)
o Heat gain through wall (sensible heat)
o Heat gain through door ( sensible heat)
o Heat gain through roof ( sensible heat)
o Heat gain through roof ( Sensible heat)
o Heat gain through partition, floor and ceiling due to conduction (sensible heat)
o Heat gain through ventilation due to convection ( Sensible & Latent heat)
o Heat gain through ventilation due to convection ( sensible & latent heat)
Note: Infiltrations termed for the unwanted air coming inside conditioned space due to
opening of doors

✓ Internal sources
 o Heat gain through lighting ( sensible heat)
o Heat gain through people ( Sensible and latent heat)
o Kitchen appliances – rice cooker, coffee maker etc

Condition

Parameters Ambient Condition Desired Condition

Dry Bulb temperature
Wet Bulb temperature
Absolute Humidity
Location
Use of the facility
Number of people
Length
Width
Height
Room position (E W N S)
Glass Window
Partition materials
Door
Machine
Other heat sources
Roof
Floor
Ceiling

U Value :

Thermal transmittance is the rate of transfer of heat through matter. The thermal transmittance of a
material (such as insulation or concrete) or an assembly (such as a wall or window) is expressed as a
U-value.

Although the concept of U-value (or U-factor) is universal, U-values can be expressed in different
units. In most countries, U-value is expressed in SI units, as watts per square metre-kelvin: W/(m2⋅K)

In the United States, U-value is expressed as British thermal units (Btu) per hour-square feet-degrees
Fahrenheit: Btu/(h⋅ft2⋅°F)

R Value:

The R-value is a measure of how well a two-

dimensional barrier, such as a layer of
insulation, a window or a complete wall or
ceiling, resists the conductive flow of heat.
R-value is the temperature difference per
unit of heat flux needed to sustain one unit
of heat flux between the warmer surface
and colder surface of a barrier under
steady-state conditions.
How to calculate load
 DEHUMIDIFICATION
APPLICATIONS ENGINEERING MANUAL

a spectrum of solutions for

Industrial Dehumidification Drying Complete Environmental Control

Inventor of the Rotary Silica Gel Dehumidifier

An ISO 9001:2008 & 14001:2004 company

www.bryair.com
 Providing Complete Environmental
Control Systems to the World
Dehumidifiers for all Applications
Including but not limited to:
Ammunition Storage
• Military Applications
•
Archives
• Military Equipment Storage
•
Breweries
• Milk Powder
•
Candy Manufacturing
• Museums
•
Chemicals
• Optical (Polishing)
•
Chocolates
• Pharmaceuticals
•
Clean Rooms
• Photographic Materials
•
Computer Rooms
• Plant Lay-up
•
Corrosion Control
• Plastics
•
Defence Equipments
• Powder Storage
•
Electronics
• Pumping Stations
•
Fertilizers
• Razor Blades
•
Films
• Safety Glass
•
Food & Food Packaging
• Seed Drying
•
Glass Laminating
• Semiconductor Components
•
Hospitals
• Ship Lay-up
•
Ice Rinks
• Snack Foods
•
Indoor Arenas
• Steel-Belted Tyres
•
Laboratories
• Tea & Coffee
•
Leather
• Tyre & Rubber Manufacturing
•
Libraries
• Typewriter Ribbons (Coating)
•
Lithium Chloride Batteries
• Water & Waste Water
•
Machine Parts
• Welding Electrodes
•
Marine
• Wood Drying
•
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Introduction: Meet Bry-Air 1
The purpose of this manual 1
WHAT IS RELATIVE HUMIDITY? 2
PART ONE — USES OF DRY AIR 3
Food production 3
Pharmaceutical production 3
Industrial chemicals production 3
Humidity control of warehouse storage 4
Humidity control of rooms where equipment is operating 4
Humidity control of packaging equipment rooms 4
Organic product dehydration 4
Inorganic product 4
The effects of condensation 4
Hygroscopic raw materials storage 5
Marine and land-based sandblasting 5
Power plant and marine lay-up 5
PART TWO — HOW TO PRODUCE DRY AIR 6
Using compression to dry air 6
Using reduced temperatures to dry air 6
Using desiccants to dry air 6
PART THREE — CONSTRUCTION OF CONTROLLED SPACE 7
The nature of water vapor 7
Construction considerations 7
PART FOUR — CALCULATING THE VARIOUS MOISTURE LOADS 8
Calculate the permeating load through a structure 9
Moisture through intermittent openings 9
Moisture through fixed openings 10
Moisture originating in the controlled space 11
Ventilating air-vapor load 11
PART FIVE — SIZING THE DEHUMIDIFIER 12
Example I: Production of hard candy 12
Example II : Standby warehouse 17
Example III : Product drying 20
Example IV : Controlled humidity and temperature areas 24
Example V : Production of dry air for a specific purpose 28
Example VI : Water treatment plants 28
Example VII : Zero leak system for a low humidity space 29
PART SIX — BRY-AIR DEHUMIDIFIERS FOR PRODUCT DRYIN 30
Sizing the desiccant dehumidifier 31
Dehumidifier capacity control 34
APPENDICES
Appendix I, Processes and properties of air 35
Appendix II, Dehumidifier survey sheet 39
Appendix III, Determining moisture or latent loads 40
Appendix IV, Typical performance curves 44
Appendix V, Typical application standards 45
Appendix VI, Charts and miscellaneous formulas 48

www.bryair.com
INTRODUCTION: MEET BRY-AIR
Bry-Air (Asia) is an ISO 9001:2008 and ISO research and R&D in moisture control, air
14001:2004 certified company specializing in treatment and optimisation of energy usage. A
technologies and products with desiccants at the pioneer in the field of dehumidification, Bry-Air
core in relation to air. Bry-Air is known world wide has maintained the initiative, searching for new
for its expertise as a “solutions” company for ways to bring the benefits of research to satisfy
moisture and humidity control. customer needs. Bry-Air is the inventor of the
Today, Bry-Air (Asia) has a global presence Rotary Silica Gel Dehumidifier.
with a wide range of “airgineering” equipment, The latest innovation from Bry-Air is the Green
strong brands and a world wide global network . Dehumidifier 'EcoDry' incorporating the
Bry-Air (Asia) has wholly owned subsidiaries in innovative BRYSMART EMS (Energy
Malaysia, China and Germany, a licensee in Management System) (patent pending) which
Brazil and is the only Indian HVAC& R Company will allow energy savings up to 45%. This is the
to acquire an overseas dehumidification firm, 9th patent to the credit of the Bry-Air Group.
A+H, Hamburg, Germany. The China operations Our Range
have 4 offices in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou
and Wuhan. Bry-Air also has representative Operating within a broad framework of
offices in Bangkok-Thailand, Johannesburg- “Environment and Energy”, Bry-Air today is a
South Africa, Perth-Australia, Muntinlupa- multi-product, multi-location company with plant
Philippines, Jakarta-Indonesia and Istanbul- locations in India, Malaysia, China, Brazil,
Turkey and office and warehouse in Sharjah- Germany and USA. The company's plants are
UAE amongst the most modern ones, supported by
computerized 3D designing, CNC fabricated and
HOW IT ALL BEGAN powder coating facilities and automated
….in USA conveying system.
In 1963, Arthur G. Harms, a Bryant sales The range of products manufactured by Bry-Air
representative decided to buy the Bryant division are:
of Carrier-Air Conditioning Corporation. Shortly • Desiccant Dehumidifiers
after the acquisition, Bry-Air began • Air and Gas Purification Systems,
manufacturing in Sunbury, Ohio. • Tray Dryers
...in India • Drying, Conveying & Blending equipments
• Flexible Barrier Storage Systems and
In India, it all started almost 30 years ago with the
• Complete Environmental Control Systems.
setting up of Arctic India Sales in 1979 as a
marketing company for environmental control Our Customers
products. Arctic India Sales started out by Our customers are from a plethora of industries
representing Bry-Air Inc. USA for its dehumidifier and our dehumidifiers are effectively being
in India. In 1981, it promoted the first joint venture employed in production, processing, storage and
in a small scale sector, Bry-Air India (Now Bry-Air packaging in: pharmaceuticals, chemicals,
Asia) with Bry-Air Inc. USA to become the first defense, safety glass, food and drinks, seeds,
dehumidifier manufacturing company, east of the fertilizer, paper and printing, plastics, wood ,
Suez. leather , cement etc. The products
Research and Development manufactured by Bry-Air are not only sold in the
Indian Market through its network, own direct
Bry-Air has always been in the forefront of
sales and service offices, but also exported to
technology and innovation through extensive
over 40 countries all over the world.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL

The Bry-Air Dehumidifier Manual is designed to necessary for selecting the appropriate
provide specific information on humidity, dehumidifier for a specific application.
dehumidification processes, and steps A series of discussions on the basic nature of wet

1
and dry air, plus details on the use of scenario. (For assistance in choosing the
dehumidifiers in numerous industrial dehumidifier to meet your particular needs, please
environments are incorporated in Manual. contact the dehumidifier experts at Bry-Air.)
Several real-life situations are also detailed. We at Bry-Air hope that this Manual will be of
Calculations help illustrate how to choose the significant assistance to all who consider
most suitably sized dehumidifier in each dehumidified air as a necessity.

WHAT IS RELATIVE HUMIDITY?

Anyone who has suffered the discomforts of hot, The following hygrometers can measure the
humid summer weather understands that it is not humidity or hygrometric state of the air:
just the heat, but also the humidity that makes the A psychrometer consists of two thermometers
air feel so miserable. That “muggy” feeling comes (matched in type, scale and range), one of which
from the relative humidity or saturation level– that has a cloth wick–a “sock” applied to its bulb. To
is, the amount of water contained by a pound of use, the wick is wetted with distilled water and
air at a specific temperature and atmospheric ventilated with air moving at a recommended 900
pressure. to 1000 feet per minute (fpm) or more at right
When air has 50% relative humidity (RH), we say angles to the instrument.
it is 50% saturated (the terms are numerically so Dew-point hygrometers visually note when
close that we use them interchangeably). The air humidity-that is, water in the air-condenses on a
contains about half the water it could hold at the cooled metallic surface. The temperature at
same temperature and pressure. Obviously, as which this condensation or dew-point occurs can
air approaches 100% saturation, it can take on help determine other air properties via charts and
less and less water until at 100% RH, the air tables. Several types of dew-point hygrometers
cannot hold more water. are widely used.
Relative humidity is determined by comparing
These hygrometers may be mechanical,
the “wet-bulb” and “dry-bulb” readings of a
electrical, electrolytic or gravimetric in nature.
humidity measuring device- a hygrometer (see
However, no organic material consistently
the table below). Once known, these values
reproduces its action over an extended time,
identify a point on the psychometric chart (see
especially in extremes of humidity or
Appendix I, page 35) where air vapor mixture
temperature. So this category is of limited value.
properties can be read directly.

RH

RH

RH
RH

2
PART ONE: USES OF DRY AIR
In many manufacturing processes, humidity In processing such powdery foods as cocoa,
control is necessary to completing a particular gelatin, and dehydrated concentrates, the
process successfully. Because failure of a presence of moisture in the surrounding
process can be directly tied to humidity level atmosphere can cause tiny particles of the
control, it is vital to know: powder to stick or cluster together, thus inhibiting
their free flow in manufacturing or packaging
·What equipment is available processes.
·How to choose appropriately sized Processing machinery can also be affected by
equipment moisture in the air, which can interfere with
·How to effectively use the equipment to operation and obstruct the free and easy
control moisture in the process area movement of the foodstuff.

Since dry air may be desired for many Obviously, when moisture can have such a
commercial applications, and specific problems profound effect on food and/or machinery, the
encountered may be as complex as the solution lies in conditioning the air surrounding
atmosphere itself, three important steps are the the processing and manufacturing area.
focus of this booklet: how to select, size, and PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTION
apply the correct Bry-Air Dehumidifier. Consider
the following dozen typical situations. Rapid technological advances in the
pharmaceutical industry have focused attention
FOOD PRODUCTION on a vast number of moisture control issues. For
When exposed to high relative humidity, such example, the presence or absence of a specific
familiar foods as potato chips, dry breakfast amount of moisture in the processing area may
cereals, and soda crackers exhibit an affinity for be required to grow certain organic cultures. Or,
water. These and similar foodstuffs are the presence of moisture may be absolutely
manufactured using high temperature necessary for the manufacture of a particular
processes, so we expect that excess water has drug. Similarly, the absence of moisture may be
been driven out and the foods are dry. However, equally imperative for the production of some
if these foodstuffs are allowed to remain exposed other drug. Strict control of moisture is a key
in a humid environment, even for a short time, factor in the manufacture of most drugs and
they will absorb water from the surrounding air. medicines.
Although the quality is not affected, these foods As with foodstuffs, many materials used to
characteristically become soggy and rubbery produce pharmaceuticals have a physical affinity
and generally not very appetizing. for moisture. This can cause lumping or caking of
powdered material. Further, some powders that
are bound into a capsule or formed into a tablet
under high pressures will adhere only when in a
dry state, Humidity can cause a tablet to crumble,
and in some cases, it can cause the drug to
decompose and diminish in its therapeutic value.
To assure consistently high quality drugs, the
processing area and machinery must be
surrounded by air whose dryness is accurately
known and controlled.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL PRODUCTION
The same sort of lumping and caking of
powdered substances previously discussed is
also a major problem in industrial chemical
production. Some chemicals decompose in the
Controlled humidity is vital to successful storage of seeds presence of water vapor. In other situations,
and grain, and for food and pharmaceutical production

3
water vapor can actually cause a chemical Frequently, the equipment used to package
reaction that changes the character of the products will not function efficiently or properly if
product. the surrounding air is humid. Candy wrapping
machines and packaging machines for food
Atmospheric moisture is also a natural enemy to
powders or drug packets are typical examples.
many grinding and pulverizing operations. Water
Something as simple as a cake mix becomes a
vapor in contact with the product can make it
double problem; not only does the powdery mix
resilient and difficult to grind, causing it to cling to
clump and not flow properly in humid conditions,
the grinding machine and defy pneumatic
but the packaging equipment is also hindered by
conveyance from one process area to another.
the humidity.
HUMIDITY CONTROL OF WAREHOUSE
Depending on the product, it may be necessary
STORAGE to dry the packaging room and even go to the
Although mildew, rust, and corrosion are the extreme of providing a dry bath for storage bins or
enemies of goods in storage, they cease being hoppers, especially where powders are used. In
threats when the moisture is substantially situations where packages are heat-sealed, a
reduced in the storage area. Generally, an container's own moisture content may adversely
atmosphere of less than 40% RH keeps these affect the adhesion of the sealing material being
degradative processes dormant. used. Here neither the product nor the machinery
is directly responsible for the problem; instead,
Maintaining a dormant state is also important for the moisture content of the package is the culprit.
seed storage. For example, if corn seeds are Surrounding the area with dry air is the solution.
stored in ambient conditions, it's possible that as
few as 7% will germinate the following season. ORGANIC PRODUCT DEHYDRATION
Contrast that to seeds stored in a controlled
Organic products are particularly challenging
environment; they usually germinate in the 90%
because of their high degree of affinity for water.
range.
Unfortunately, it is often impossible to use heat to
HUMIDITY CONTROL OF ROOMS WHERE release this water because heat can have a
EQUIPMENT IS OPERATING damaging effect.
In many instances, moisture is detrimental to Dry, relatively cool air can be used to dry organic
functioning of electrical or mechanical devices. materials, but it must be circulated under varying
Thousands of electrical relays may be velocities, and this creates the problem of special
threatened by pitting due to excessive arcing handling that is required with finely divided
under high humidity conditions. Also, the particles, for example.
presence of water vapor may corrode the contact
INORGANIC PRODUCT DEHYDRATION
points of infrequently operated electrical
conductors resulting in poor closure of electrical Inorganic products are generally easier to dry
circuits. In extreme cases, there may be no than organic products because heat can be used
closure at all. as a drying agent. However, many inorganic
compounds absorb large quantities of water.
In other such places as radar stations and
This is not water of crystallization- that is, it does
industrial applications, electronic equipment is
not enter the lattice structure of the compound-
also subject to loss of efficiency and high
but it is nonetheless tightly held by the
maintenance costs when exposed to humid
compound. When water of crystallization is
conditions. And for work environments
involved, even the use of heat can be
containing computers and other data processing
impractical… or damaging.
systems, humidity control is essential for
assuring proper equipment function, Where But for most inorganic products, dry air may
practical, maintenance of dry enclosures may be enhance operational efficiency and product
necessary, Sometimes, it may be necessary to quality.
condition the equipment itself, since electrical
THE EFFECTS OF CONDENSATION
operating devices are often enclosed in their own
metal cases. Moisture sweating, particularly on moving parts,
can be very detrimental. For example sweating
HUMIDITY CONTROL OF PACKAGING
occurs as equipment is being cooled in polymer
EQUIPMENT ROOMS injection molding operations. Because molds are

4
artificially chilled, dehumidified air must be used exposes the base material-often metal-that will
to surround them, or condensation will form… receive a protective coating.
and water is one item that must be avoided here.
Inside ships, or in underground or land-based
Another example is the water pumping station storage tanks, a flow of dehumidified air on the
whose numerous valves, fittings and other parts newly prepared surfaces prevents rust or mildew
may become rusty and need periodic painting or formation while clean-up occurs and the coating
replacement. In a large facility, a major effort of step is prepared. Usually the dry air is forced
repainting, replacement, and mopping up may be inside the structure via normal ventilation lines.
necessary to deal with condensed water.
POWER PLANT AND MARINE LAY-UP
Insulating the pipes helps reduce the amount of
When a nuclear power plant is shut down for
dripping condensate. However, valves and other
refueling-a process that can take a whole year-
such fittings that remain uninsulated present a
dehumidified air can keep such non-nuclear
constant maintenance problem.
components as boilers, condensers, and
Dry air in the pumping station and pipe gallery turbines rust free.
provides a solution.
For fossil fuel power stations, the laying-up
HYGROSCOPIC RAW MATERIALS process is usually part of putting power
STORAGE production on hold. Here the reason may be for
furnace or boiler repair or the lay-up might be due
When such hygroscopic raw materials as rubber
to less expensive power becoming available from
and plastic are used, process difficulties can
a nearby source. During these periods, a flow of
occur in a humid atmosphere. Moulded products
dehumidified air in the facility is used to prevent
made of these materials can develop “air”
rust or other harmful, moisture-related problems.
pockets caused by stress; other imperfections
can result from moisture adsorbed by the raw Ships can also be layed-up. Some are
materials. In automobile production, it may be “mothballed” for indefinite storage. Many such
virtual impossibility to vulcanize tyre cord to vessels are later reactivated, cleaned-up, and set
rubber when the cord contains moisture. to sea. During the interim, dehumidified air keeps
rust, mildew, and corrosion from ruining the
Dry Air used for storage and possibly in the
engine room, cargo holds, and living or working
production area can alleviate this situation.
quarters.
MARINE AND LAND-BASED BLASTING Other ships are part of the “ready fleet”-anchored
In marine and land-based applications, at sea, fully equipped, and ready for a crew to
sandblasting removes surface damage and come on board and set sail almost immediately.
These, too, are protected by a steady flow of
dehumidified air that is continuously pumped
throughout the vessel.

Right: Electrical control equipment is extremely sensitive

to moisture which can cause short circuits.
A dehumidifier system installation eliminates this problem.

5
PART TWO:
HOW TO PRODUCE DRY AIR
Because the amount of water that can be causes ice to form, which, in turn, reduces the
contained in air is a function of the temperature efficiency of the cooling system. So anti-icing
and pressure of that air, our next step is to look at devices or duel systems and defrost cycles may
ways to remove moisture by changing the be required.
temperature or pressure.
To prevent such cooling coil icing, a brine spray is
USING COMPRESSION TO DRY AIR commonly used. The brine must be reconstituted
periodically or continuously. This requires
As air is compressed, the dew-point or
additional equipment, maintenance and
temperature at which water will condense is
operating costs. Although this strategy is
raised. Therefore, to get dry air we need to find a
workable and often satisfactory, the complexities
way to cool the compressed air. But costs can be
associated with cycling and controlling are
prohibitive because equipment, space, and
detracting factors.
auxiliary equipment are necessary for the
process. However, if compressed air is already A special case involves a brine spray that can
used in the primary operation and only very small pick up moisture from the air at normal
amounts of dry air are needed for humidity temperatures. This brine must be cooled and
control, compression may be a feasible route to regenerated or reconcentrated either
dry air. continuously or periodically. To deliver air at very
low moisture, such a system is necessarily
When air at extremely high pressure (over 200
complex. For example, the brine must be
lb/sq in) is needed, small quantities of high
mechanically refrigerated, and at all levels of
pressure air may be used to maintain small
drying, cooling must be used during the moisture
enclosures at the required moisture level. It is
absorbing cycle and after the regenerating or
also possible to use small amounts of the high
reconstituting cycles.
pressure air with a smaller air facility to control
moisture on a limited scale. USING DESICCANTS TO DRY AIR
USING REDUCED TEMPERATURES TO DRY The most simple, straightforward way to obtain
AIR dry air is to use desiccants-that is, adsorbants or
materials that have a natural affinity for water. A
Lowering air temperature decreases the air's desiccant is able to take up the additional
ability to hold moisture. Thus, the air can be made moisture given up by the air without changing its
drier by cooling it. However cooling air just to dry size or shape. So as air stream can pass through
it is usually not practical. An exception might be a desiccant and become significantly drier
when cool air is needed anyhow, that air's without elaborate cooling, compression, cooling
dryness satisfies the needed moisture water, or other complex systems or controls.
conditions, and enough conditioned air is After the drying task is complete, the desiccant is
available. Normally, this method is reserved for regenerated via heat. Then the desiccant is
applications where outdoor air is being dried to ready to dry more air.
levels only slightly lower than the incoming
ambient-that is, the system air. A Bry-Air Dehumidifier utilizes only a relatively
small amount of desiccant at any one time and
To remove large amounts of water by cooling the constantly regenerates it as part of a continuous
air, over-cooling and subsequent reheating air cycle. This simple device is manufactured in two
required. But such procedures typically have designs and many sizes, from very small to very
problems with operation and maintenance, as large to meet various dry air requirements.
well as cycle and control; the method is
unsuitable for producing large quantities of dry An added feature of the Bry-Air Dehumidifier is its
air. Another limitation to this technique is the ability to function equally well at extremely low to
freezing point of water. When air is dried via very high levels of humidity with no regeneration
refrigeration, the cooling surfaces of the coils problems and no changes in cycle control. Its
may reach sub-freezing temperatures. This versatility in performing any type of application is
unique among most methods of drying air.

6
PART THREE:
CONSTRUCTION OF CONTROLLED SPACE
To prepare any space for humidity control, caulked joints are used).
certain precautions are necessary, regardless of
3. Insulation between vapor barriers can be a
the type of air drying equipment or the method
potential problem: if construction occurs in
used to do the drying.
humid weather, water can be “sealed in”
Satisfactory moisture control-better known as between the two vapor barriers.
customer satisfaction-depends on many
Sealed-in vapor will travel into the controlled
variables. Some are listed below.
space and impose an extra drying load on the
THE NATURE OF WATER VAPOR drying equipment. This extra load lasts only
until the insulation dries out, but meanwhile,
Consider two closed rooms, adjacent to one
humidity control is difficult.
another. If the partial pressure of the water vapor
in room 1 is greater than the partial pressure of If a heat source is present (even heat from
the water vapor in room 2, then the water vapor the sun), serious damage can be caused by
will travel through the wall into room 2 regardless the expanding trapped vapor. There have
of the composition of the wall. been cases when so-called “non-permeable”
materials have split open at a joint because
Let's take the hypothetical example a step
of vapor pressure. Examples include a floor
further. If the absolute humidity of the air in room
or tiled wall that has literally lifted from its
1 is greater than that of the air in room 2, then the
mounting surface because the surface was
water vapor pressure will be higher in room 1.
wet during application.
Therefore, when drying room 2, the problem of
new water coming through the wall from room 1 4. Final inside vapor barriers should be applied
must be considered. only after the enclosed area has been dried.
Drying equipment should be used to
A vapor barrier can slow down the passage of
withdraw as much moisture as possible
vapor from wet to drier areas, but it cannot keep
before the final barrier is applied. Of course,
water out; it can only slow the rate of penetration.
without a barrier in place equipment cannot
The choice of vapor barrier is based on the dry the air to design specifications, but a
degree of dryness required in the controlled significant amount of moisture can and
space, the efficiency of the equipment being should be removed before all the vapor
used for drying, and the cost of construction. barrier material is in place.
Commercial vapor barriers-moisture resistant (Although this strategy runs counter to
construction material, paints, and other coatings- most industrial planning suggestions,
offer a variety of design alternatives. the concept of drying the structure before
Manufacturers of vapor barrier materials can applying the final vapor barrier is a
supply specific information on their products. precaution that is often overlooked and
In addition to the vapor barrier, certain aspects of can help prevent customer dissatisfaction)
construction must be given careful attention. 5. All doors-service or personnel-should be
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS weather-stripped or air-locked through
vestibules if the desired dryness warrants it.
Several techniques control the permeation of
Any crack or opening around a door will
water vapor:
admit vapor.
1. Any vapor barrier must be continuous,
When conveyor openings or similar elements
without breaks or tears.
are used, a drop curtain, shroud, or tunnel can
2. All lap joining must be tightly closed (this is restrain the movement of water vapor.
particularly critical when mechanical or

7
PART FOUR:
CALCULATING THE VARIOUS MOISTURE LOADS
The following methods have been used For standard types of construction, Bry-Air has
successfully to calculate vapor loads; replacing determined values for calculating the moisture
the extensive calculations and laboratory tests load entering a space at controlled humidity
that might otherwise be required when a designer levels. Usually these calculations are relatively
considers a new space humidity problem or easy. The following tables are aids for load
application. calculations.
Actual data from moisture loads entering a space Outside humidity levels shown in the Table 1 are
through walls, floors, and ceiling are available for deliberately higher than data for design
various moisture loads and classes of specifications. This compensates for days when
construction. A survey sheet, such as the sample the design wet-bulb temperatures are reached
in Appendix II, page 39 will help you gather data and the design dry-bulb temperatures are lower
for the needed calculations. than expected (thus creating higher total
humidity). Use the area design wet-bulb and the
TABLE I specific humidity figures shown here to
RECOMMENDED DESIGN OUTSIDE MOISTURE LEVEL accurately rate the moisture control situation.
DESIGN DESIGN Further information on design can be found in
Outside Specific Outside Specific Appendix I and in the ASHRAE Fundamentals
Wet Bulb Himidity Wet Bulb Himidity Handbook, “Weather Data and Design
°F gr/lb °F gr/lb Considerations”.
81 149 75 121
80 143 74 117
79 139 73 113
78 134 72 109
77 130 71 106
76 125 70 102

TABLE II
F1 FACTOR FOR GRAIN DIFFERENCE
Gr/lb F1
Difference Factor
35 1.0
40 1.12
50 1.35
60 1.59
70 1.82
80 2.06
90 2.29
100 2.53
110 2.76
120 3.00
Space moisture load is a combination of permeation and infiltration and both will be encountered in determining the load. Permeation is a straight
line function of the difference in interior and exterior vapor pressure (determined by gr/lb). As shown in Table III, infiltration, represented in air
changes per hour is not straight line because of the two factors involved:
1. Each pound of air entering the space will impose a moisture load determined by the difference in interior and exterior moisture content.
2. Since the vapor pressure differs as the moisture content, the vapor will move at a higher velocity than the air.
The combination of the two factors, results in the space moisture load increasing at an ever increasing rate as the difference between the interior
and exterior moisture contents increase.
In view of the above, the F-1 factor is used to adjust for the increased vapor velocity. Therefore, the combination of the F-1, and F-2 factors represent
the space moisture load anticipated from both permeation and infiltration.

TABLE IV
F3 FACTORS FOR CONTRUCTION F4 FACTORS FOR VAPOR BARRIERS
Masonry or Frame Construction 1.0 Laminated, mylar–metallic or polyethylene film 0.50
Sheet metal, steel welded 0.3 Two layers edge sealed moisture paper 0.67
Module panel, caulked and sealed 0.5 Two coats vapor proof paint 0.75

If the product of F3 x F4 is less than 0.5, use 0.5. If the room is completely vapor proofed, with continuous vapor barrier under the floor (or of all-metal,
welded material) the factor may be reduced to 0.3.

8
CALCULATE THE PERMEATING LOAD THROUGH A STRUCTURE

To determine the grains of moisture penetrating the construction into a controlled space, use the
following calculation.
V xD G x FB x FB x FB x FB = Grs/hr. (To determine grains/minute divide answer by 60).
C
= Amount of vapor able to permeate the closed space through
construction and vapor barriers.
V = volume of controlled space in question – ft.B
C = 14 = constant used to translate ft.B to pounds. This constant is used regardless of the
density of the air.
DG = difference between the grs/lb of outside air and the grs/lb desired in the controlled space.
FB = moisture difference factor (Multiplier from Table II).
FB = Permeation factor (Multiplier from Table III).
FB = Construction factor -
FB = Barrier Factor -
Table IV
Table IV {
See note with
Table IV.
The above equation can be used to solve a typical example as follows:
Problem – Find the amount of moisture that will permeate the room defined below.
Sample Calculation – Space to be controlled:
(1) Room with 12'' masonry walls.
(2) Two coats of aluminum paint as vapor barrier.
(3) Volume of room – 22,000 ft.3
(4) Outside Design: 95oF db 77oF wb (Table I Shows 130 gr/lb)
(5) Required – To hold in room – 40 gr/lb

V xD
G x FB x FB x FB x FB = Grains per hour.
C
V = 22,000
C = 14
G = 130 - 40 = 90. Problem stipulates 40 gr/lb in the room;
therefore, 130 - 40 = 90.
F1 = 2.29 From Table II (Factor for a moisture difference of 90 gr/lb).
F2 = 0.58 From Table III locate 22,000 on bottom line. Travel up and read
curve at 0.58.
F3 = 1.0 From Table IV.
F4 = .75 From Table IV - (Factor for 2 coats of paint)

22,000 x 90 x 2.29 x 0.58 x 1.0 x 0.75 = 140,884 grs/hr

14
140,884 = 2348 grs/min
60

MOISTURE THROUGH INTERMITTENT OPENINGS

When such openings as service or personnel doors are opened periodically, moisture-laden air can
enter the conditioned space. Also, vapor is constantly seeking drier space and will seep around and
through doors, even when they are closed.
Obviously the first precaution is to assure that openings are adequately vapor-sealed. Then the drying
equipment must deal with the moisture load that comes into a controlled space when the door is open.
Assuming that the door is open only for short periods, calculate the moisture load as follows:

9
 Ohr = A xD G x F1 = Grains
C
Ohr = number of times each hour the door is opened. (If unknown assume personnel door to
be opened 2 times/hr for every occupant.)
A = area of the door opening in square feet.
C = 7 = constant
G
D = difference in specific humidity in grs/lb between controlled space and the adjacent
space. See table I for outside wb to determine adjacent specific humidity.
F1 = factor from Table II for moisture difference.
Example:
Door area – 3' x 7'
Door open - 6 times each hour
Moisture difference - 90 grs/lb
Solution:
Ohr x A x D G x F1 = grains per hour of additional load.
C
6 x 21 x 90 x 2.29 = 3710 grains per hour added to controlled space.
7
Note that if the door is open for longer periods, use the calculation scheme below.

MOISTURE THROUGH FIXED OPENINGS (CONVEYORS, OPEN

WINDOWS, ETC.)
Calculate the amount of moisture that travels through a fixed opening from a wet space to a drier space
as follows:

A x 300 x D
G x F1 = grains per hour of load through fixed opening.
CxD
Where
A = Area of fixed opening in square feet,
300 = Experimental constant - velocity of vapor, ft/hr, at 35 gr difference,
C = 14 = constant factor to translate ft.3 to pounds,
D = feet = depth of opening,
DG = grains = difference in grs/lb between wet space and drier space.
F1 = Moisture Difference Factor from Table II.
Example:
Conveyor opening - 2 sq ft
Depth of opening - 1.5 sq ft
Moisture difference - 90 grains
Solution:

A x 300 x D
G x F1 = grains per hour
CxD
2 x 300 x 90 x 2.29 = 5,889 grains per hour
14 x 1.5

10
MOISTURE ORIGINATING IN THE
CONTROLLED SPACE
Moisture or vapor originating in the controlled
space comes from any of several sources,
depending on the intended use for the space.
Three basic sources of moisture are:
·Population load, including people and
animals
·Product load, brought in by the product
· Process load
Population Load
People working in an area add moisture to the air
because of breathing and the evaporation of
perspiration. When animals occupy the
controlled space, moisture release is contributed
by their excrement.
How much moisture do people or animals add to Other contributors include open stream
a controlled space? Such factors as the level of exhausts, unvented combustion cycles, and
activity and the ambient temperature, aging or curing cycles.
atmospheric pressure, and humidity are well
VENTILATING AIR-VAPOR LOAD
documented. (see Appendix III, page 40)
(VAPOR BROUGHT IN WITH OUTSIDE AIR)
For animals, weigh the amount of water
consumed during a given period and assume that Ventilating or make-up air from the outside
much water will be eliminated. contains moisture that must be removed. Some
designers add this moisture load to the total
Product Load
calculated internal load to determine the required
Any material manufactured in a controlled area capacity of the drying equipment.
can bring moisture with it and then release the
moisture into the work area. Material brought into However, Bry-Air recommends this air not be
a warehouse tends to become drier; it gives up considered part of the internal load. Rather, it
moisture over a period of time and loads the should be considered at its point of entry. If this
drying equipment accordingly. added, or make-up air from outside mixes with
the return air and all go through the dehumidifier,
All materials should be suspect. For example, then it is not added to the internal moisture load.
most metals bring very little moisture, but But if only part of this outside/return air mixture
nonmetals can carry surprisingly large amounts passes through the dehumidifier, then the part
of water. The material's supplier should have bypassing the dehumidifier must be added to the
information on its moisture carrying internal load of the room. The added air is only
characteristics. part of the total air used in controlling space
If such data are unavailable, a simple test should humidity. Since it rarely gets into the controlled
prevent an unexpected and substantial moisture space without first going through the
load problem. Place a sample of the material in a dehumidifier, consider it at its point of entry-at the
small, dry container, or place some material in a dehumidifier.
tall hopper and blow air over it to dry it. Measure
Moisture-laden air enters through the process
the moisture loss over an appropriate time
inlet and moves through the Brysorb PlusTM
interval to determine its dwell time, or how fast it
desiccant media. The desiccant adsorbs the
gives up moisture. In some cases, a small pilot
water vapor and the dehumidified air is then
plant can be used to acquire definite data.
delivered through the process outlet directly into
Process Load the controlled space or air stream. Then, as the
The manufacturing process itself may expel desiccant media rotates into the reactivation
moisture into the atmosphere of a controlled airstream, the hot air entering through the
space. Open tanks or trays of liquid will add to the reactivation inlet drives off the moisture and
moisture load. (See Appendix III.) exhausts it into the atmosphere. After

11
reactivation the hot, dry desiccant rotates back of the process air cools the desiccant so that it
into the process airstream where a small portion can begin the adsorption process all over again.

PART FIVE: SIZING THE DEHUMIDIFIER

When deciding what size dehumidifier to use, (Production of hard candy)
remember that controlled space requirements
sometimes exceed the anticipated design peak Storage or equipment areas (Standby
·
load. Unusual and unforseen humidity loads- warehouse)
such as from abnormal weather conditions or the Product drying
·
introduction of high-moisture content raw
materials-can burden the drying equipment. Controlled humidity and temperature areas
·
Here we present a number of issues that must be Specific purposes for dry air production
·
considered in approaching and solving specific
drying problems. Six typical humidity control Prevention of condensation (Water treatment
·
example are presented: plant)
Food and drug manufacturing, specifically
· Note: Dehumidifier performance used in these
raw materials and processing equipment examples can be found in Appendix IV, page 44

EXAMPLE I: PRODUCTION OF HARD CANDY

During the candy and cough drop production, the material is in a plastic state. It must flow and be
shaped by stamping machines. If the presence of excess moisture causes the material to become
sticky, it will not flow freely and it will adhere to the stamping machine.
To eliminate this material and equipment problem, dry the surrounding air.

12
Physical Facts
1. Area to be conditioned – 60' x 42' x 16'
2. Outside design condition – 95°F db*; 75°F wb*
3. Controlled space requirement** - 75°F db; 35% RH
4. Physical openings – 1 door (6'7'); opened 6 times/hr.
5. Number of people working in area – 10
6. Construction – 8'' masonry
7. Make-up air specified by owner – 350 cfm.
* db = dry bulb value; wb = wet bulb value
** See Appendix V, page 45.

Problem
To determine the size of dehumidifier necessary to maintain the desired controlled space conditions.
Assumptions
1. The door is adequately weather stripped and is of standard construction.
2. Ten workers in the area maintain a moderate pace; each requires ventilating air.
3. The interior of the control space is constructed with two coats of vapor barrier paint.
4. There are no other openings in and out of the controlled space.
5. All physical cracks are sealed.
6. A vapor barrier is provided in or under the concrete floor.
Space Moisture Loads to be Computed
1. Permeation load
2. Load through the door
3. Population load
PERMEATION LOAD
V xD
G x F1 x F2 x F3 x F4 = Grains per hour
C
V = 60 x 42 x 16 = 40,320 ft.3
C = 14 (Specific volume of dry air @ 95oF)
DG = 75 grs/lb, outside design wet bulb of 75oF gives 121 gr/lb from Table I.
Controlled space requirement of 75oF db, 35% RH yields 46 grains per pound
from a standard Psychrometric chart. Therefore, 121-46 = 75 grs/lb.
F1 = 1.94 From Table II – Factor for moisture difference of 75 gr/lb – interpolated
F2 = .5 From Table III
F3 = 1.0 From Table IV - Factor for 8'' masonry
F4 = .75 From Table IV – Factor for 2 coats of paint
40,320 x 75 x 1.94 x .5 x 1.0 x .75 = 157,140 grs/hour
14

DOOR LOAD
Ohr x A x D G x F1 = grs/hr
C
Ohr = 6
A = 6 x 7 = 42 sq ft
C = 7
G = 75 grs/lb
F1 = 1.94
6 x 42 x 75 x 1.94 = 5238 gr/hr
7
13
POPULATION LOAD
At a db of 75° F and working at a moderate rate, a person will expel 2,540 grains each hour. (See
Appendix III)
Therefore, ten people will add
10 x 2,540 = 25,400 grains each hour

TOTAL LOAD
157,140 grs/hr – Permeation
5,238 grs/hr – Through door
25,400 grs/hr – Population load
187,778 grs/hr – Total
The drying system and load requirement are shown in the schematic below.

SPACE 75°F
"S" GR/B=46 GR/LB
TOTAL MOISTURE LOAD
187, 778 GR/HR

Return Air DELIVERY AIR

(X-350) CFM "X" CFM
75°F
75°F 46 GR / LB
"G" GR/LB

AFTER
BRY-AIR
COOLING
FILTER DEHUMIDIFIER
COIL

NEW OUTSIDE AIR

350 CFM
95°F, 121 GR/LB

Note that 350- cubic feet per minute (cfm) outside air is based on a requirement of 30 cfm for each of 10
workers is introduced at the dehumidifier. The effect of this air on the ultimate dehumidifier size will be
handled below.
Proceed with the following calculation:
X = C x gr/hr ÷ (S-G)
60
Where : X = Delivery air rate from dryer to space in cfm
gr/hr = Total moisture load in grain per hour in the space

C =14 = constant
S = 46 = Grs/lb moisture requirement of controlled space. In the absence of a ventilation
requirement this would be the inlet condition at the dryer.
G = Grs/lb of air leaving dryer. Refer to Chart 1, Appendix IV, Enter curve at 46 grain “Inlet moisture
condition.” Intersect 75° Inlet air temp curve at 14 gr/lb.
14 x 187,778 ÷ (46 – 14) = 1369 cfm
60
From the above calculation the space moisture load is 187,778 gr/min. 1369 cfm air at 14 grs/lb will
maintain the space design conditions.
At this stage in the procedure, it is necessary to resort to the method of approximation to select the
correct dryer.

In addition to handling the space load the dryer must handle the moisture load contributed by the 350

14
cfm outside air requirement. So use a 2000 cfm Bry-Air Dryer (FLi - 4200).
If the dryer has a delivery rate of 2000 cfm, and if 350 cfm of outside air is to be introduced, there
remains 1650 cfm of air from the conditioned space. Tabulate this air mixture
350 cfm x 121 gr/lb = 42,350
1650 cfm x 46 gr/lb = 75,900
2000 cfm 118,250

Then 118,250 = 59.1 grs/lb

2000
Refer again to Chart 1, Appendix IV, it shows that air entering the dryer at 59.1 grs/lb would leave the
dryer at approximately 23 grs/lb. (NOTE: Interpolate between the 75° and 85° curves since the air is a
mixture of 75°F and 95°F = 79°F.)
Total moisture pickup X x (S – G) x 60 – Total Moisture Pickup
C
2000 x (46-23) x 60 = 197,143 grs/hr total removal capacity
14
The following work sheet is a demonstration of what the calculations will look like.
In the above calculations, moisture gain or air leakage in the process ductwork was not considered. If,
however, the process and return ductwork did contribute to the moisture load, the total duct volume
would be an additional space. Then the permeation calculation on page 9 would be used: V = duct
volume; C = 14; F1 from Table II, with moisture difference D G measured from inside process air duct to
surround ambient; F3 for tight, good commercial ductwork = 0.6. Add the resultant moisture gain to the
room total load. A nominal allowance for process air lost due to duct leakage = 5%.
Recommendation
Selecting an FLi - 4200 at 2000 cfm is the best choice for the hard candy manufacturing example. While
it may seem to be an oversized selection, consider that all desiccants in all manufacturers' desiccant
dryers will age, will possibly become physically and chemically contaminated with dirt, dust, or
chemicals, and will gradually lose their effectiveness. Fortunately, with the FLi - 4200 higher levels of
moisture in the leaving air (upto 24 grs/lb) dry air-could be tolerated prior to a desiccant change. So
what appears to be an oversized selection would actually allow much longer use of a desiccant charge
or rotor and provide the economies of longer use.

15
FLi - 4200
130° F

16
EXAMPLE II: STANDBY WAREHOUSE
Moisture damage in a standby or storage warehouse can be avoided by surrounding the machinery,
equipment, or material with dry air.

Physical Facts
1. Area to be conditioned - 210' x 176' x 45' = 1,663,200 cubic feet
2. Outside design condition – 95°F db; 77°F wb
3. Controlled space requirement* - 85°F db; 40% RH
4. No physical openings nor appreciable amount of door openings or closing specified
5. No people working in the area
6. Construction – 8” masonry.
* See Appendix V

Problem
To determine the size of the dehumidifier required to maintain standby conditions.

Assumptions
1. All physical cracks are sealed and the floor properly vapor-proofed.
2. If the room is completely vapor-proofed, use Table 4 on page 8.
3. Two coats of vapor barrier paint have been applied externally for metal clad construction.
* External application is recommended because:
• Outside walls are usually easier to access than inside walls for paint application.
• Coating the outside walls discourages water permeation into the wall and thus minimizes water
accumulation in the wall structure itself.

Space Moisture Loads to be Computed

1. Permeation load
2. Moisture load.
The Permeation Load is the only moisture load involved in this example.

Where:
V = 210 x 176 x 45 =1,663,200 cubic feet
C = 14 = Constant
DG = 58 grs/lb. Outside design wet bulb of 77oF gives 130 grs/lb from Table I, page 8.
Controlled space requirement of 85oF db, 40% RH yields 72. grs/lb from a standard
Psychrometric chart. Therefore, 130-72 = 58.
F1 = 1.54 from Table II - Factor for moisture difference of 63 grs/lb
F2 = 0.24 from Table III - extrapolated as straight line for a volume of 1,663,200 cubic feet.
F3 = 1.0 from Table IV - Factor for 8” masonry.
F4 = .75 from Table IV - Factor for 2 coats of paint.

Refer to schematic below which shows the load requirements and drying system.
X = C x gr/hr ÷ (S-G)
60
Where: X = cfm delivery air rate from dryer
C = 14 (constant)
S = 72 grs/lb moisture requirement of controlled space

17
 G = grs/lb in air leaving the dryer. Refer to Chart 1, Appendix IV
Enter curve at 72° “Inlet Moisture condition”. Interpolate “Inlet Air
Temperature Curve” between 75° and 95° and find “leaving
moisture” at 33 grs/lb.
X = 14 x 1,910,019 ÷ (72 – 33)
60
X = 11,427 cfm

SPACE
1,663,200 CUBIC FEET
85'F "S" GR/B = 72 gr/#

TOTAL MOISTURE LOAD

1,910,019 GR/HR
"X" CFM
RETURN AIR DELIVERY AIR
72 GR/LB "G" GR/LB

BRY-AIR
DEHUMIDIFIER COOLING COIL
FILTER

Therefore 11,427 cfm of air (33 gr/lb) from the dehumidifier is needed to maintain a grain level of 72 gr/lb.
In a building of this size and shape, air distribution ducts are practical for effectively spreading the air so
it can return to a common point and re-enter the dehumidifier.

Recommendation
Use one Bry-Air FLB-25000, Dehumidifier at 12,500 CFM in this standby warehouse with a fan sized to
handle the necessary static pressure of the duct system.

18
 FLB - 25000
138° F

19
EXAMPLE III: PRODUCT DRYING
Here we have a room used to remove water vapor from such products as cattle feed mixes, nylon or
rayon cord for tires, raw plastic material, granular chemicals, raw paper stock, cardboard stock for
coatings, or other similar products.
In this example, the room is used for drying cattle feed mixes, which are contained on drying carts that
stand in the room until the specified level of dryness is attained.
Space condition requirements and product movement rate are determined by the manufacturer.
Physical Facts
1. Drying room size – 40' x 65' x 16'
2. Outside design condition – 93°F; db; 73°F wb
3. Controlled space requirement – 95°F; 15% RH (36 gr/lb)
4. One double door; (a) 6' x 7' (b) Opens at 2 times/hr
5. There are no other openings
6. There are no workers in room except to bring mix in and out
7. Product movement rate – 1500 lb/hr (i.e. carts with trays of mix are moved into the drying room at
the rate of 1500 lb/hr)
8. Product enters room at 8% moisture and leaves at 4% moisture
9. Drying room wall construction – 8” masonry
10. 350 cfm outside air required by manufacturer
Problem
To determine the size of the dehumidifier
Assumptions
1. All physical cracks are sealed
2. The double door is weather stripped
3. Two coats of vapor barrier paint have been applied to the wall and ceiling construction of the drying
room; the floor is suitably protected against vapor permeation
Moisture Loads to be Computed
1. Product load
2. Permeation load
3. Door load
Product Load
Since the product will lose 4% moisture (by weight) and there are 1500 pounds of product
each hour:
1500 lb/'hr x (8 % - 4 %) = 60 lb/hr water removal
Since one pound of water equals 7000 grains, then:
60 x 7000 = 420,000 gr/hr product load
Note that the time needed to reduce the material to a 4% moisture level would have to be given or
experimentally determined. These data would determine the amount of material to process and the
size of the drying chamber needed.
PERMEATION LOAD

V = 40' x 65' x 16' = 41,600 cu ft.

C = 14 constant

20
 DG = 77 gr/lb, outside design wb of 73 o F gives 113 gr/lb. from Table-I.
Drying room space requirement of 95oF, 15% RH yields 36 gr/lb from the
Psychrometric Chart.
F1 = 1.99 From Table II - Factor for moisture difference of 84 grains.
F2 = 0.50 From Table III - Permeation factor
F3 = 1.0 From Table IV - Factor for 8” masonry.
F4 = 0.75 From Table IV - Factor for 2 coats paint.

TOTAL MOISTURE LOAD

420,000 gr/hr - Product Load
170,742 gr/hr - Permeation Load
1,839 gr/hr - Door Load
592,581 gr/hr - Total Moisture Load
The 350 cfm outside air requirement will be considered at a later stage in the calculation.
Proceed with calculation as follows:

Where: X = cfm - air rate from dryer

C = 14 (constant)
S = 36 = grs/lb drying room controlled space requirement. In the
absence of an outside air requirement this would also be the inlet
condition at dryer.
G = 15 gr/lb - equals condition of air leaving dryer. Refer to Chart 1,
Appendix IV.
enter curve at 36 - intersect 95oF curve at 15 gr/lb.

21
Recommendation
FLB 12500 Dehumidifier, rated at 7500 cfm, should be adequate. However, the first step should be to
determine if this Dehumidifier has enough capacity to handle the 350 cfm outside air in addition to the
moisture load in the drying room.
If the dryer has a delivery rate of 7500 cfm and 350 cfm of outside air is to be introduced, there remains
7150 cfm from the conditioned space. Tabulate this air mixture as follows:
350 cfm x 113 gr/lb = 39,550
7150 cfm x 36 gr/lb = 257,400
7500 296,950

296,950 = 39.6 gr/lb.

7500
Reference to Chart 1, Appendix IV, shows that air entering the dryer at 39.5 gr/lb would leave at 17 gr/lb
7500 x (39.6 –17) x 60 = 726,285 gr/hr
14
The computed moisture load is 592,581 gr/hr. Therefore, the FLB - 12500 is adequate to handle the
moisture load

22
PROJECT: EXAMPLE III – PRODUCT DRYING

FLB - 12500
135° F

23
EXAMPLE IV: CONTROLLED HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE AREAS
Many air conditioned manufacturing areas often have a required air flow to handle a sensible load in
that space. This air quantity requirement and the accompanying dehumidifier size are usually greater`
than those needed to handle a latent load.
By designing, a system for the sensible load situation and then determining the appropriate dehumidifier
to handle the moisture load, the desired conditions for the space can be maintained.
Physical Facts
1. Area to be conditioned – 62.5' x 55' x 14'
2. Outside design conditions – 95oF db; 77oF wb
3. Controlled space requirement – 55oF db; 30 % RH; 20 gr/lb
4. Door – 1 (6' x 8'), 6 openings/hr; 1 (3' x 7'), 4 openings/hr
5. Other (fixed) openings – 2.8 sq. ft., w/tunnel 10' deep
6. Number of people working in area – 10
7. Air required for sensible temperature control – 24,715 cfm, 42oF
8. Construction – Block walls; drywall ceiling with vapor proofing; concrete floor on grade
9. Make-up air required – 2400 cfm
10. Air available for make-up – 50oF db/49oF wb; 50 gr/lb.
Problem
To determine the size of the dehumidifier needed in a controlled humidity and temperature area.
Moisture Load to be Computed
1. Permeation
2. Load through doors
3. Load through fixed openings
4. Population load

24
TOTAL ROOM MOISTURE LOAD
450,846 gr/hr Permeation
12,491 gr/hr Door Load
3,643 gr/hr Door Load
1,822 gr/hr Fixed Opening Load
11,000 gr/hr Population Load
479,802 gr/hr TOTAL ROOM LOAD
The total room latent moisture load is 479,802 gr/hr, which is added into the calculation below to find the
entering grain condition needed for the space.

Thus the air to the room must be 15.4 gr/lb and the air mixture (return from the room plus the
dehumidifier discharge) entering the main system fan should be 15 gr/lb. to allow for possible leakage
into the system duct work. Here one must resort to trial and error techniques to select the dehumidifier
size.
cfm x (S – G) x 60 = X cfm – 7500 cfm – dehumidifier capacity (trial)
14
14 = constant
S = 20 gr/lb. condition in the controlled space
G = 4 gr/lb. air leaving dehumidifier (Chart 1, Appendix IV) with entering air 53°F, 30 gr/lb.
7500 x (20-4) x 60 = 514,285 gr/hr
14

25
Note that the make-up air of 2400 cfm must mix with 5100 cfm of return air before entering the
dehumidifier.
RECOMMENDATION
The FLB - 12500 Dehumidifier will satisfy the room load conditions when mixed with the remaining
17,215 cfm of return air and delivered into the conditioned space.

26
 FLB - 12500
96° F

27
EXAMPLE V: PRODUCTION OF DRY AIR moisture content of the outside air.
FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE EXAMPLE VI: WATER TREATMENT
Many applications require a specific quantity of PLANTS
outside air to be delivered at a given moisture
In most water pumping stations, filteration plants,
content and temperature. This requirement may
and waste water control plants, control of
be a need to make up air exhausted from a space
humidity in the pipe galleries, pump rooms, and
or to supply air for a process such as a drying
control rooms is of prime importance. By
oven.
reducing the dew-point temperature of the air
PHYSICAL FACTS below the temperature of the piping and walls,
sweating and condensation can be eliminated.
1. Maximum allowable moisture content – 17 By circulating warm, dry air through the areas,
gr/lb of dry air water accumulation is avoided, maintenance for
2. Maximum allowable temperature – 115°F electrical controls, motors, and instruments is
3. Quantity of air required – 6,000 cfm reduced, and paint lasts longer on the pipes,
4. Maximum condition of outside air – 95°F, 130 valves, and flanges.
gr/lb
A standard rule-of-thumb is used to approximate
From Chart 1, Appendix IV, it is obvious that 130 this type of application load:
grain air cannot be reduced to 17 grains in a
single pass through a dehumidifier, without other Volume of space to be conditioned = CFM dehumidifier
conditioning. Examination of Chart 1 shows that 25
to produce 17 grains air leaving the dehumidifier, (For each 25,000 cu.ft. space, supply 1,000 cfm
the inlet condition should be 64 grains or less at of dry air.)
60°F or less.
The use of an after-cooling coil for the dry air
This is accomplished as shown above by
discharge from the dehumidifier can be
installing a cooling coil upstream of the
dehumidifier to reduce the temperature and omitted in most installations since the warm,

28
dry air (low RH) will help heat the space during water seals on the condensate lines. Cooling
cool or winter conditions. Heat should not build devices, especially the coils and fan, and the
up to an objectionable level because the large filter box need to be handled properly when
piping and wall areas are at the same cleaned, and they, too, must be tight.
temperature as the water in the system. Warm Obviously, there are many factors that ban
air also has the advantage of reducing the RH restrict the zero leak principle.
and increasing the air's capacity to carry away
One way to maximize the chances for a zero
moisture.
leak system is with air treatment equipment
ZERO LEAK SYSTEM FOR A LOW and dehumidifiers designed to fit and operate
HUMIDITY SPACE together effectively. Buying directly from the
equipment manufacturer and not mixing
In a system where the ductwork and sources of various equipment components
components are outside the controlled space, focuses the accountability for moisture
dry air leaving the system will induce the flow of tightness.
humid air into the system. If the humid air is not
dehumidified, each cfm will induce a load Bry-Air constructs custom dehumidifiers and
absorbing the capacity provided by 5 to 10 cfm low dew-point AHUs for maximum efficiency.
of the dehumidified air. If all air that enters the This extra care in design and construction
system must pass through the dehumidifier, means zero leak performance. Proper
the additional load will be reduced by 50% or operating balance compensates for this
more. Typical air handling units (AHUs) are not situation.
built to be vapor tight. Standard sheet metal When end users, consulting engineers, or
type ductwork has lapped seams that allow other “specifiers” require a system to be
leakage. However, excellent silicone-based substantially air tight, they means there is no
sealants are available; for applications leakage at any joint.
requiring very dry spaces, the seams must be
welded shut. Assuring zero leak begins in the fabrication
and construction stages. We recommend
Having a “zero leak” condition means that all flanged or gasketed connections with welded
air leaving the controlled space is under seams and joints. As a minimum, all seams
positive pressure (to minimize infilteration), and joints should be caulked. Removable
and all the entering air passes through the panels and access doors should be completely
dehumidifier. The cost of dehumidification is enclosed. (Coils will leak where return bends
high when moisture levels must be low. In enter tube sheets.)
these situations, even a small leak can double
operating costs. Since ducts are a once-only Prior to insulating, the system should be tested
expense, attention to ductwork is vital. The and deficiencies corrected. The best method is
other approach to this situation-a higher to use an open flame, if permissible. This
capacity dehumidifier- means added costs, requires candles or other sources of flame. In
year after year. other situations, smoke devices or soap suds
could be used.
It is unusual to find air handling units
constructed for zero leak performance. Leaks When all these precautions in fabrication,
are anticipated at removable panels, bearing construction, and testing are complete, the
flanges, drain pans, and through condensate system will perform as designed. Periodic
drains with dry traps. Such units require inspection during operation will allow leaks to
additional sealing and check valves or positive be located and corrected.

29
PART SIX:
BRY-AIR DEHUMIDIFIERS FOR PRODUCT DRYING
Product drying applications include two general the best solution. For temperatures in the 120°F
types: bulk drying and continuous drying. In bulk to 140°F range, the decision depends on the
drying the material is loaded into a compartment product characteristics and the desired degree of
and the entire load is dried as a batch. With dryness.
continuous drying the wet material is Drying operations involve the removal of free
continuously fed into a drying chamber and moisture, hygroscopic moisture, or a
material continuously leaves the chamber, dried combination of both. Free moisture is water
to the desired moisture level. held on the surface or between molecules of a
substance. Free moisture occurs when actual
Drying potentials can be increased in two ways liquid water is used to mix or wash the product
by: prior to drying. Hygroscopic moisture is held
·Raising the product temperature by within the material's cells. Hygroscopic
exposing it to heated air moisture will take up or dispel water in relation
to the relative humidity of the air mixture to
·Physically removing moisture from the which it is exposed. When in equilibrium with air
surrounding air at 100% RH, the material will be
hygroscopically saturated. Any hygroscopic
The quantity of air needed for proper drying will material containing free moisture must be
vary widely with either type of drying system. But hygroscopically saturated.
the drying characteristics and the approach to the
problem are similar. The removal of free water is a surface
evaporation function and follows the calculation
The Bry-Air Dehumidifier performs no miracles shown in Appendix III of this manual. The surface
extracting moisture from the product into the water temperature should be assumed to be the
surrounding air. But by maintaining the air at a wet-bulb temperature of the surrounding air
lower moisture level, the Dehumidifier can mixture. Note that air velocity is critical the drying
increase the drying potential and the drying rate. speed.
More important, it can remove the variable of The removal of hygroscopic moisture depends
weather as a factor in a drying operation. on the relative humidity difference between that
of the products' equilibrium condition and that of
Heating is less expensive than drying, so the
the surrounding air. Velocity of the air over the
obvious questions is: Where do Bry-Air product has little or no bearing on the drying
Dehumidifiers apply? speed.
In most drying processes, the released moisture The figure Fig 1 shows a typical drying curve. The
goes into the air and must be physically removed sudden change in drying rate (at the critical point)
or diluted with outside air. However, without a denotes where the initial drying via removal of
desiccant dehumidifier, the lowest possible free moisture ends and hygroscopic drying takes
moisturelevel in the chamber will equal that of the over. In other words, the product has lost its free
outside make-up air. But in practical terms, the moisture, but is still hygroscopically saturated.
moisture content of the air in the chamber will
generally be somewhat higher than that of the Each material has a different physical form that
outside air. determines how it holds or gives up moisture.
Since many of the newer materials lack
When heat is used alone, the drying potential is published data on their drying rates, selecting
limited by the specific humidity of the outside air appropriate air drying equipment must be done
plus the safe temperature to which the product experimentally. The net effective drying surface
can be raised. Generally, a proper drying and the hygroscopic properties cannot be
potential can be established with heat and determined in any other way.
outside air if the temperature can be raised to
140°F or above. If the temperature can not be Most drying problems are really a request for
raised over 120°F, then a Bry-Air Dehumidifier is improving the speed or quality of an existing

30
 enough to keep the RH in the surrounding air at
5% or less.
Continuous type drying system. Here one
must remove material samples at the start, finish,
and at regular intervals along the drying tunnel.
Such test points should be accurately marked
and related to the drying time. Each sample
should be weighed as soon as removed, then
thoroughly dried at elevated temperature and
reweighed. The dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb
temperature, and air velocity over the product
should be determined at each point of product
supply as well as at the start and end of the drying
tunnel.
From this information the weight readings can be
converted into% of moisture and plotted against
drying time. Moisture content should be
expressed as a percentage of the product's bone
dry weight, not as a percentage weight of the test
drying operation. For example, before today's sample. If both free and hygroscopic water are
advanced dehumidifying equipment was removed from the sample, a characteristic curve
available, candy manufacturers could make their will resemble that shown in the figure 1 on page 31.
product only in winter. In summer, attempts to
manufacture candy might often end with a moldy SIZING THE DESICCANT DEHUMIDIFIER
product. Now, to meet production demands, the Bulk type drying. On the characteristic curve,
use of cooling equipment and a desiccant indicate the wet-bulb and dew-point
dehumidifier can imitate winter conditions all temperatures equivalent to the reading taken
year. during the test up to the critical point. From the
Solving a drying problem usually involves a critical point to the curve's end, show the dry-bulb
rather simple analysis of the drying cycle. If the temperature and the RH. The hygroscopic drying
analysis (that is, the test run) can occur during phase should be considered in making the first
weather conditions that consistently give the analysis (that is, the drying curve).
desired drying result, the problem is simplified. Some hygroscopic moisture (near the product's
Regardless, any test run will show the product's surface) is removed at the critical point. So make
characteristics and give clues for solving the two assumptions:
problem.
·The product is hygroscopically saturated at
The test run should be made under actual
this point.
production operation to secure information in
either of the two following categories. ·The product is substantially in equilibrium
with the final RH at the end of the test (when it
Bulk type drying system. Several trays in
reaches the desired moisture content).
different locations in the compartment should be
weighted and identified before being placed in Thus, the average drying potential for this part
average RH observed
the drying cabinet. They should be weighed at of the test is: – during the hygroscopic
the start and at predetermined intervals (usually drying portion of the test.
hourly), subtracting the tray weight, and quickly
returning the tray to its original position after
weighing. At the same time a wet-and dry-bulb
reading (average throughout the cabinet) and air
velocity reading over the product should be If our test took 12 hours and we want it to be
taken. Continue these procedures until the complete in 8 hours, or two-thirds the amount of
product in satisfactorily dried; weight should be time, then the hygroscopic portion of the test,
noted at this point. The purpose is to establish a which took 9 hours, needs to be completed in 6
totally dry weight. Temperature should be high hours. Further, the product's moisture level at the

31
critical point minus the moisture remaining after recirculated air (at the average specific humidity
complete drying equals the total weight of water already determined) and a minimum of 5%
to be removed in 6 hours. outside air (refer to Typical Flow Diagram). This
This amount can be converted into grains per establishes the level at which the dehumidifier
minute: must operate. From Chart I Appendix IV, the
leaving moisture is determined. The difference
Total hygroscopic water removed in lbs x 116.6
between the gr/lb. moisture level maintained in
Time in hrs
the dehumidifier and the same parameter in the
To accomplish this dryness faster, the drying air leaving the dehumidifier is the pick-up factor.
potential must be increased proportionately to This figure divided into the average required
the rate of test time vs. the desired time. But the moisture removal in gr/min determines the
product's average moisture level will be dehumidifier size in lb./min air capacity.
unchanged. Therefore, the average RH for
This unit capacity must be checked against the
drying is found by:
“free moisture” requirement this way:
Average product RH – Required RH potential.
Total weight of free moisture (gr/min)
The average product RH combined with the Dehumidifier air capacity (lb/min)
average dry-bulb temperature dictates the
= moisture pickup factor (gr/lb)
specific humidity that must be maintained and
defines the operating conditions for the Refer to Chart 1, Appendix IV. Knowing the
Desiccant Dehumidifier. desired drying temperature helps pinpoint the
inlet where the necessary moisture removal will
The drying temperature should be as high as
occur. For example, if 42 gr/lb. must be removed
practical (usually 10°F below the maximum
(the drying temperature is 95°F), then follow the
allowable product temperature). 95°F entering
95°F curve to the point where the difference
air is the highest recommended level (See Chart
between the inlet and outlet moisture is 42 gr/lb.
1, Appendix IV). Thus if temperatures greater
Here the result is nearly 60 gr/lb.; that is where
than 95°F are needed in the drying chamber, the
the leaving moisture is approximately 18 gr/lb.
recirculating air should be cooled to 95°F or
below. Here the cost of the cooling coil, booster To be safe, use a condition approximately 5 gr/lb.
fan, and water used will be offset by the gain in above that shown on the curve and allow for 5%
moisture removal capacity. (Reduced ratings for outside air. Then the needed dew-point and wet-
inlet temperatures up to 115°F can be calculated. bulb temperature values can be established.
See your Bry-Air representative for details.) Determine the vapor pressure equivalent for the
temperature using Appendix III. The difference
The Bry-Air Dehumidifier will handle a mixture of
between these items establishes the drying
potential. Then determine the average vapor
pressure difference for the test run from the same
table using the test dew-point and wet-bulb
readings. The ratio of vapor pressure difference
with the Bry-Air Desiccant Dehumidifier over that
measured during the test should equal or be
greater than the ratio of the drying time. (test vs.
desired.)
Since air velocity also affects free moisture
evaporation, drying can be some what controlled
by changing air velocity to as high a level as
possible without disturbing the product. Use a by-
pass or fans within the chamber to increase the
total circulation in the drying air circuit above the
Bry-Air Dehumidifier's capacity.
For the test run, establish a velocity factor:
(1 + test velocity in ft/min)
230*

32
* An established constant. Refer to Appendix IV, Chart 1 to calculate the
moisture level leaving the Dehumidifier and
Also establish a velocity factor for the actual
determine the removal per pound value;
design:
Total moisture removal load, (gr/min)
(1 + actual velocity in ft/min)
Moisture removed by Dehumidifier (gr/lb)
230
= Dehumidifier size lb/min air capacity
At any given vapor pressure difference, the
evaporation will vary directly according to the The next step is to check the performance of the
above factors. Dehumidifier in the hygroscopic drying section,
measured in gr/min.
Continuous drying. Since continuous drying
systems characteristically have open ends, they Dehumidifier performance (lb/min)
usually require a great deal of additional outside 2
or make-up air to make up for all the openings. + moisture level of air leaving Dehumidifier
For efficiency, keep such openings as small as
= average moisture content of air in this portion
practically possible. A minimum leakage
of the drying chamber
equivalent to a 200 fpm velocity through the area
should be positively introduced into the system. Use the curve in Appendix IV, Chart 2 to
determine the temperature of air leaving the
The typical flow pattern for a continuous drying
Dehumidifier. The departing moisture will have a
operation, has a separate circulating system for
cooling effect; to find the average temperature
free moisture removal; the dehumidifier
subtract 0.625°F for each gr/lb. pickup.
discharge is directed through the hygroscopic
moisture phase. This configuration takes Now that moisture content and temperature are
advantage of rapid circulation in the first space known, the average RH needed is easily
without carrying the wetter air into the final drying determined from a psychrometric chart.
space. Note the separate circulating system for Compare this figure with the necessary RH to
the free moisture removal stage. Dehumidifier insure proper drying within the bulk type
discharge is directed through the hygroscopic dehumidifier. This comparison will reveal
moisture phase. This arrangement allows rapid whether or not the dehumidifier has the capacity
circulation in the first space without carrying over to produce the desired drying rate.
moisture into the final drying space.
Maintaining drying temperature. As already
Use the bulk drying method to establish the vapor noted, water evaporation is a cooling process.
pressure difference to allow drying to proceed Approximately 1052 Btu are needed to evaporate
satisfactorily in the free moisture stage. Keep the one pound of water. In other words, 6.65 gr/lb.
velocity and temperature as high as practical. represent 1 Btu or 1 gr/lb. represents 0.625°F.
Design specifications will help establish the total
As a product is dried, it releases moisture.
circulation. The temperature plus necessary
Without proper control, this moisture can cool
vapor pressure difference will establish the
down the environment and result in an
specific humidity (in gr/lb), that must be
equilibrium condition where the drying practically
maintained.
ceases. So to maintain drying temperatures, heat
Express the total product moisture removal in must be supplied in an amount represented by
gr/min and add the moisture load introduced by the evaporation rate. Also, heat can be lost by
make-up air. This latter load derives from the conduction through cabinet walls. Thus it may be
difference in specific humidity between the necessary to control the product to drying
maximum design outdoor level and that temperature (heat or cool it), and heat the make-
maintained in the compartment multiplied by the up air to maintain the optimal drying temperature.
quantity of outdoor air (in lb./min). The
The process of adsorption is an exchange of heat
proportionate quantity of recirculated and outside
in a like amount in the reverse direction. Thus, air
air also determines the specific humidity of the
heats as it passes through the desiccant
mixture- which typifies air entering the
dehumidifier. Approximately 30% additional
Dehumidifier.
heat builds up in the desiccant from the previous
If the pre-cooling Bry-Air Desiccant Dehumidifier reactivation period, so the dehumidifier supplies
is used, the air temperature leaving the coil all the required heat for evaporation and an
determines the Dehumidifier operating level. additional 30% for other purposes. In some,

33
instances that additional heat is required; in other This strategy yields reduced energy
cases, cooling may be needed. consumption and supplies the minimum energy
needed to maintain the process condition.
DEHUMIDIFIER CAPACITY CONTROL
Modulation of reactivation inlet temperature
Several methods provide dehumidifier control. and air volume. By modulating the reactivation
On/Off control of the dehumidifier. Humidistat air volume and temperature at specific values,
or dew-point control monitoring of space or return the reactivation capability is increased and can
air is a method used where continuous process be used over a wide range of operating
air is not needed. Often the dehumidifier is conditions. This method also compensates for
installed as an independent unit and is not tied reductions in adsorption capacity.
into the make-up or outside air circulation Process face and bypass damper control.
system. Here the moisture control of leaving air is due to
On/Off control of reactivation heaters and varying the volume of air that bypasses the
blower. This control method applies to dehumidifier. However, a constant supply air
continuous process air flow situations. However, volume must be maintained. This is the best
the process air will have more variation in scanario for tight humidity control.
humidity than with other control methods.
CONCLUSION
Modulation of reactivation inlet temperature.
Information in this manual was prepared to help
customers choose the most effective hand
efficient dehumidifiers. Please contact Bry-Air's
dehumidifier experts for additional assistance
and for more detailed information about physical
characteristics and performance data relating to
Bry-Air Dehumidifiers.

Bry-Air procuced systems that are built to meet specific customer needs.
Many customers require heating, cooling, air filtration, etc, in addition to air drying.

34
APPENDIX I:
PROCESSES AND PROPERTIES OF AIR
Dry-bulb, wet-bulb, dew-point temperatures, per cubic foot are correct on a standard chart. But
relative humidity-these terms are so closely for given dry-bulb and wet-bulb readings at non-
related that if two properties are known, all others standard barometric pressures, all properties
shown in the figure 3 may be read from the chart. must be corrected.
When air is saturated, dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and
INTERPRETING THE AIR CONDITIONING
dew-point temperatures are identical. (See
Example 2.) CHARTS
Generally, in graphic presentations, humidifying
Enthalpy of air for any given condition is the
is shown by an upward line and dehumidifying is
enthalpy at saturation corrected by the enthalpy
shown by a downward line.
deviation due to the air not being in a saturated
state. The enthalpy (h) in Btu per pound of dry air Heating and cooling air without changes in
is the enthalpy at the saturation hwb plus the moisture content involve only a change in
enthalpy deviation hd See Example 2. sensible heat and appear as a horizontal line, to
right or left respectively. Changes occur in dry-
H + hwb + hd bulb, wet-bulb, RH, and enthalpy. Specific
If the air's moisture content increases or humidity and dew-point temperature remain
decreases in a psychometric process, the heat constant.
added (q) or removed (-q) is the difference In heating and humidifying, both sensible heat
between the enthalpy of the final or leaving air hla and specific humidity increase-shown as a line
and the initial or entering air hea minus the sloping upward and to the right. Changes occur in
enthalpy of the moisture (water in liquid or ice dry-bulb, wet-bulb, dew-point temperatures, and
state) added hw or rejected hw. enthalpy. A difference in RH depends on the
slope of the line.
q = h la - h ea - h w
For cooling and dehumidifying, both sensible
See Examples 4 and 5. heat and specific humidity decrease, so the line
The enthalpy of added or rejected moisture is slopes downward and to the left. Dry-bulb, wet-
shown in the small graphs at the top of the chart. bulb, dew-point temperatures, and enthalpy all
change. Changes in RH are dependent on the
Enthalpy of added or rejected moisture and slope of the line.
enthalpy deviation are usually omitted in
applications not requiring precise results- for Evaporative cooling refers to air brought in
example, comfort air conditioning. Errors due to contact with spray water at a temperature equal
omissions for wet-bulb temperatures below 32°F to the wet-bulb temperature of the air. The
is much larger than for omissions above 32°F. process takes place upward along the wet-bulb
line. As sensible heat of the initial air vaporizes
Sensible heat factor. This is part of certain the water, the air's dry-bulb temperature falls.
calculations for installing air conditioning The sensible heat used to vaporize the water
equipment. A scale along the right side of the enters the air as latent heat in added vapor; thus
figure in Example 4 used with an origin at 80°F no heat is added or removed. Wet-bulb
dry-bulb temperature and 50% RH provide a temperature remains constant. Dew-point
reasonable heat factor value. See Example 4. temperature, RH, specific humidity, and enthalpy
Barometric pressures. In comfort air increase. (In most evaporative cooling
conditioning, a mercury reading of one inch or installations, heat may be added or removed
less either above or below the standard 29.92 during the process due to outside sources, this
inches of mercury is considered a standard amount is usually negligible.)
reading. In chemical dehydration, the air that contacts the
When dry-bulb and dew-point temperatures are chemical either adsorbs or absorbs moisture
known for air at non-standard barometric from the air. Thus in this energy constant
pressures, values of % RH and grains of moisture process, heat is liberated and added to the air-

35
 Follow horizontal line left to saturation curve,
read DP = 53.6°F.
Interpolate between lines representing cubic feet
per pound of dry air, read v = 13.53 cu ft.
Follow horizontal line to right, read grains of
moisture per pound of dry air, W=61.4 gr.
Grains of moisture per pound of dry air (61.4)
divided by cubic feet per pound of dry air (13.53)
= 4.54 gr per cu ft
EXAMPLE 2. Reading properties of Air

Locate point of intersection on the chart of 50%

and this amount is basically equal to the latent
RH line and oblique line representing 60°WB. All
heat of vaporization of the moisture removed.
values are read from this point.
Indicated by a downward sloping line
approximating the wet-bulb line, the slope of the
chemical dehydration line may be either slightly
greater or less than the wet-bulb line, depending
on if heat is stored, liberated, or absorbed.
AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES such as
heating, cooling, humidifying and dehumidifying
may be shown graphically on the chart. See
Figure 1.
EXAMPLE 1. Reading Properties of Air

Locate point of intersection on the chart of

Follow vertical line downward to dry-bulb
vertical line representing 70°DB and oblique line
temperature scale, read DB = 71.9°F
representing 60°WB. All values are read from this
point of intersection. Follow horizontal line left to saturation curve,
read DP = 52.3°F.
Interpolate between relative humidity lines on
70°DB line, read RH = 56%. Follow horizontal line to right, read grains of
moisture per pound of dry air, W = 58.4 gr.
Follow wet-bulb line to “Enthalpy at saturation”
scale and read Hwb = 26.46 Btu. Read enthalpy
deviation for point of intersection hd = -.08 Btu.
Enthalpy of air at given condition h= hwb + hd =
26.46 + (-.08) = 26.38 Btu per lb of dry air.
EXAMPLE 3. Heating process
(no change in moisture content)

36
Locate the condition initial air on the chart. Exact Solution – Heat removed:
o
Follow horizontal line to 75 DB. q = hla – hca – hw = 23.21 – 33.13 – (0.08) = -9.84
o
Read:RH=15% : WB=51.5 F : DB=25.2 F. o Btu per lb dry air.

Exact Solution – Head added: Approximate Solution – Heat removed:

Read enthalpy at saturation initial air hcwb = q = hlwb – hcwb = 23.22 – 33.25 = -10.03 Btu per lb
10.10 Btu dry air.

Read enthalpy deviation initial air hcd = 0.06 Btu Approximate solution is 1.9% higher than exact
solution.
Enthalpy of initial air hca = hcwb + hcd = 10.10 + .06 =
10.16 Btu To determine Sensible Heat Factor, draw a line
between initial and final conditions. Draw a line
Read enthalpy at saturation of final air hlwb = 21.14 parallel to this line from reference point (80 DB,
Btu 50RH) to Sensible Heat Factor scale, read SHF =
0.68.
Read enthalpy deviation of final air hld = 0.10 Btu
EXAMPLE 5. Mixture of Air
Enthalpy of final air hla = hlwb + hld = 21.14 + (-0.10)
= 21.04 Btu
Heat added q = hla - hca =21.04 – 10.16 = 10.88 Btu
per lb of dry air
Approximate Solution – Head added: Locate on chart conditions of inside and entering
q = hlwb - hcwb = 21.14 – 10.10 = 11.04 Btu per lb of air. Draw line connecting two points. Measure off
dry air. distance equal to ¼ of line, starting from inside air
condition. Point thus established represents
The approximate solution is 1.5% higher than condition of mixture of inside and entering air.
exact solution.
EXAMPLE 4. Cooling and Dehumidifying
Process
(a) Moisture rejected as water condensate

Locate initial and final conditions of air on chart.

Read: hcwb = 33.25 Btu
hlwb = 23.22Btu
hcd = -0.12 Btu
hld = -0.01 Btu
hca = 33.25 + (-0.12) = 33.13 Btu Read properties of mixture:
hla = 23.22 + (-0.01) = 23.21 Btu DB = 80oF, WB = 65.6oF, h = 30.50 + (-0.11) =
Read grains of moisture in initial air Wca= 84 30.39 Btu Moisture content (W) = 71.3 gr per lb of
dry air.
Read grains of moisture in final air Wla = 63 w =
Wla – Wca = 63 – 84 = 21 (moisture rejected) When air quantities being mixed are at widely
different temperatures, the above method is
Read enthalpy of rejected moisture (hw) from slightly in error. For exact solution calculate
diagrams at top of chart for 21 gr grains and 55 F properties of mixture on basis of specific humidity
= -0.8 Btu. and enthalpy.

37
38
 II

DEHUMIDIFIER SURVEY SHEET DATE

PRO. NO.
CUSTOMER PHONE /
ADDRESS CONTACT
APPLICATION
DATE PROPOSAL REQ'D DATE EQUIPMENT REQ'D
INSTRUCTIONS

CONDITIONS EXHAUST AIR

FDB FWB GR/LB %RH CFM CONTAMINATES
AMBIENT
SURROUNDING
DESIGN OTHER MOISTURE LOADS
ROOM SIZE
TYPE SQ. FT. F° BTUH
L W H FT'
CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL TYPE V P
WALLS INTERNAL SENSIBLE LOADS
WALLS LIGHTS WATTS
CEILING MOTORS DRIVEN IN OUT H.P.
FLOOR OVENS BTUH
MATERIALS F° S.H. LBS/HR
INSULATION OTHER
TYPE THICKNESS U FACTOR
WALLS
SERVIC ES A VAIL ABLE
CEILING
FLOOR ELECTRIC VOLTS PH Hz
STEAM PSIG
DOORS HOT WATER F° GPM PSIG
NO. TYPE WIDTH HEIGHT OPENINGS / HR GAS CFH BTUH
WATER F° GPM PSIG
REFRIGERATION TYPE BTUH

MAKE - UP AIR
FIXED OPENINGS (CONVEYORS, WINDOWS, & ETC.) CFM FDB FWB gr / lb
NO. WIDTH HEIGHT DEPTH USAGE

FILTERS REQUIRED
TYPE TYPE %
PEOPLE RETURN AIR
NO. TYPE WORK (LT. MOD. HEAVY) PROCESS AIR
REACT AIR
PRODUCT LOAD STATIC PRESSURES
lbs / hr OR gr/hr REMOVED OUTLET INLET EXT

39
APPENDIX III:
DETERMINING MOISTURE OR LATENT LOADS
Moisture load can come from many sources, city is 95oF db (dry-bulb temperature) and 76oF
which provide the data needed to calculate the wb (wet-bulb temperature), this condition equals
total latent load on any air conditioning or drying 104 gr/lb. But there will be many days when 76oF
system. The total latent load equals the sum of wb. will occur at a lower dry-bulb temperature.
applicable individual loads. From the table below, the proper design specific
humidity for comfort would be 115 gr/lb; for
Outside design level. Bry-Air Dehumidifier
industrial work it would be 125 gr/lb. Figures
performance characteristics are expressed in
below assume that these levels will be reached or
terms of specific humidity or grains per pound of
exceeded on 30% of summer days for comfort
air. To determine the outside design moisture
work and 10% of days process work.
level, use the standard design dry-bulb and wet-
bulb conditions because this value measures the Ventilation latent load. Determining the latent
design total heat (wet-bulb) occurring with the load equivalent to the outside air by subtracting
highest practical dry-bulb. The design moisture the indoor or maintained specific humidity and
level will exist when a lower dry-bulb occurs with multiplying that amount by the pounds of outside
the design wet-bulb. This condition represents air brought into the system.
the same total heat, but a higher specific
EXAMPLE: If 1,000 cfm ventilation air is at 125
humidity. The table below lists the
gr/lb. design and the design inside condition is 70
recommended design specific humidity for
gr/lb., what is the ventilation latent load?
various design wet-bulb temperatures. Use the
standard accepted design wet-bulb for your
locality.
The average density of air is given as 14 cu.ft. per
EXAMPLE: If the accepted design level for your pound of air and is used regardless of the actual
density at design conditions
RECOMMENDED DESIGN OUTSIDE LATENT HEAT DISSIPATED BY
MOISTURE LEVEL ADULT OCCUPANTS

Evaportion from a wetted surface. Determine the amount of moisture evaportion from a pan, tank
or other wetted surface into a space using the following calcutions:
Where:
Gr. = moisture evaporated in grs/hr.
Vel = air velocity in F.P.M.
VL = vapor pressure equivalent to temperature of surface water- inches of mercury.
VA = vapor pressure equivalent to dewpoint temperature of air over surface – inches of mercury.
Activity factor

Activity factor

40
 TYPE OF POOL ACTIVITY FACTOR
Residential 0.5
Condominium 0.65
Therapy 0.65
Hotel 0.80 (Maximum)
Public Schools 1.0 (Maximum)
Whirlpools Spa 1
Wave Pools 1.50 (Minimum)
DESIGN CONDITIONS
TYPE OF POOL AIR TEMP O F WATER TEMP O F
Recreational 75 to 85 75 to 85
Competition 78 to 85 76 to 82
Therapeutic 80 to 85 85 to 95
Diving 80 to 85 80 to 90
Whirlpools Spa 80 to 85 97 to 104

Moisture permeation. This is discussed in detail above relationship may exist. But after surface
in Part four. drying is complete, further drying will occur at a
rate that depends on the rate of diffusion within
Moisture loads in the table above represent the material; the rate varies with the degree of
unvented appliances. Although personal dryness within the material and is based on
judgement is used to determine vent or hood expected structural changes that occur during
efficiency, the hood efficiency should never be the drying process.
higher than 50%.
Establish the drying rate of hygroscopic materials
Drying hygroscopic materials. The in order to establish the hourly moisture load.
calculations shown above apply only to Unfortunately these rates must be determined
evaporation of free water from a surface. When experimentally in each situation.
hygroscopic materials are in the first stages of
drying-when the surface is actually wet-then the Usually, the desired outcome with hygroscopic

41
drying is to improve drying rate or degree of Storage of hydroscopic materials. When
dryness in the final product within an existing set hygroscopic materials enter a dry storage space,
up or with the addition of a Dehumidifier. In doing even for a short time, they contribute a moisture
so, the desired drying period is generally load that must be absorbed by the dehumidifier.
included with the total weight of material to be The table (Page 43) lists the moisture holding
handled. capacity of various materials in equilibrium with air
at the relative humidities shown. The % compare
Wt. of material entering – Average drying rate
the moisture to the substance's totally dry weight.
= Wt. of material leaving
If the incoming material has an unknown moisture
Drying time (hrs) content, assume that it is in equilibrium with 60%
One caution here; the drying period cannot be RH air. In winter, the materials will likely come into
arbitrarily assumed; it must be realistic. For a room in equilibrium with 90% RH air. However, in
example, if dry air circulates in a dehumidifier and winter most other sources of RH are lower, so the
cannot dry a material totally within 2 hours, then 2 summer figure (60%) can be used all year, unless
hours will be neither a possible nor a realistic the product loads makes up most of the entire total
desired drying time. and the permeation load is minor by comparison.

42
43
IV

44
 V

45
46
The above applications represent a very small% of the needs and uses for dry air; the conditions cited
are typical of past uses. Specific needs change, as do technology and manufacturing process. Your
Bry-Air representative can determine appropriate values for a particular application.

47
VI

48
49
 /

DEWPOINT DEWPOINT DEWPOINT DEWPOINT

Degrees Degrees Grains/ Degrees Degrees Grains/ Degrees Degrees Grains/ Degrees Degrees Grains/
o o o o o o o o
F C Pound F C Pound F C Pound F C Pound
100 37.78 302.3 50 10.00 53.6 -1 -18.33 5.2 -51 -46.11 .3
99 37.22 292.7 49 9.44 51.6 -2 -18.89 5.0 -52 -46.67 .3
98 36.67 283.4 48 8.89 49.7 -3 -19.44 4.7 -53 -47.22 .2
97 36.11 274.4 47 8.33 47.8 -4 -20.00 4.5 -54 -47.78 .2
96 35.55 265.6 46 7.78 46.1 -5 -20.56 4.2 -55 -48.33 .2
95 35.00 257.1 45 7.22 44.3 -6 -21.11 4.0 -56 -48.89 .2
94 34.44 248.9 44 6.67 42.6 -7 -21.67 3.8 -57 -49.44 .2
93 33.89 240.9 43 6.11 41.0 -8 -22.22 3.6 -58 -50.00 .2
92 33.33 233.1 42 5.55 39.5 -9 -22.78 3.4 -59 -50.56 .2
91 32.78 225.6 41 5.00 38.0 -10 -23.33 3.2 -60 -51.11 .1
90 32.22 218.3 40 4.44 36.5 -11 -23.89 3.1 -61 -51.67 .1
89 31.67 211.2 39 3.89 35.1 -12 -24.44 2.9 -62 -52.22 .1
88 31.11 204.3 38 3.33 33.7 -13 -25.00 2.7 -63 -52.78 .1
87 30.55 197.7 37 2.78 32.4 -14 -25.55 2.6 -64 -53.33 .1
86 30.00 191.2 36 2.22 31.2 -15 -26.17 2.4 -65 -53.89 .1
85 29.44 184.9 35 1.67 29.9 -16 -26.67 2.3 -66 -54.44 .1
84 28.89 178.8 34 1.11 28.8 -17 -27.22 2.2 -67 -55.00 .1
83 28.33 173.0 33 0.56 27.6 -18 -27.78 2.1 -68 55.56 .1
82 27.78 167.2 32 0.00 26.5 -19 -28.33 2.0 -69 -56.11 .1
81 27.22 161.7 31 -0.56 25.3 -20 -28.89 1.8 -70 -56.67 .1
80 26.67 156.3 30 -1.11 24.2 -21 -29.44 1.7 -71 -57.22 .1
79 26.11 151.1 29 -1.67 23.1 -22 -30.00 1.6 -72 -57.78 .1
78 25.55 146.0 28 -2.22 22.0 -23 -30.56 1.6 -73 -58.33 .1
77 25.00 141.1 27 -2.78 21.0 -24 -31.11 1.5 -74 -58.89 .1
76 24.44 136.4 26 -3.33 20.1 -25 -31.67 1.4 -75 -59.44 .1
75 23.89 131.7 25 -3.89 19.1 -26 -32.22 1.3 -76 -60.00 .0
74 23.33 127.3 24 -4.44 18.2 -27 -32.78 1.2 -77 -60.56 .0
73 22.78 123.0 23 -5.00 17.4 -28 -33.33 1.1 -78 -61.11 .0
72 22.22 118.8 22 -5.56 16.6 -29 -33.89 1.1 -79 -61.67 .0
71 21.67 114.7 21 -6.11 15.8 -30 -34.44 1.0 -80 -62.22 .0
70 21.11 110.7 20 -6.67 15.1 -31 -35.00 1.0 -81 -62.77 .0
69 20.56 107.0 19 -7.22 14.4 -32 -35.56 .9 -82 -63.33 .0
68 20.00 103.2 18 -7.78 13.7 -33 -36.11 .9 -83 -63.89 .0
67 19.44 99.7 17 -8.33 13.0 -34 -36.67 .8 -84 -64.44 .0
66 18.89 96.2 16 -8.89 12.4 -35 -37.22 .8 -85 -65.00 .0
65 18.33 92.8 15 -9.44 11.8 -36 -37.78 .7 -86 -65.56 .0
64 17.78 89.6 14 -10.00 11.2 -37 -38.33 .7 -87 -66.11 .0
63 17.22 86.5 13 -10.56 10.7 -38 -38.89 .6 -88 -66.67 .0
62 16.67 83.4 12 -11.11 10.2 -39 -39.44 .6 -89 -67.22 .0
61 16.11 80.4 11 -11.67 9.7 -40 -40.00 .6 -90 -67.78 .0
60 15.56 77.6 10 -12.22 9.2 -41 -40.56 .5 -91 -68.33 .0
59 15.00 74.8 9 -12.78 8.8 -42 -41.11 .5 -92 -68.89 .0
58 14.44 72.1 8 -13.33 8.3 -43 -41.67 .5 -93 -69.44 .0
57 13.89 69.5 7 -13.89 7.9 -44 -42.22 .4 -94 -70.00 .0
56 13.33 67.0 6 -14.44 7.5 -45 -42.78 .4 -95 -70.56 .0
55 12.78 64.0 5 -15.00 7.1 -46 -43.33 .4 -96 -71.11 .0
54 12.22 62.3 4 -15.56 6.8 -47 -44.89 .3 -97 -71.67 .0
53 11.67 60.0 3 -16.11 6.4 -48 -44.44 .3 -98 -72.22 .0
52 11.11 57.8 2 -16.67 6.1 -49 -45.00 .3 -99 -72.78 .0
51 10.56 55.7 1 -17.22 5.8 -50 -45.56 .3 -100 -73.33 .0
0 -17.78 5.5

50
51
52
 (9/5C + 32)

53
54
 CONVERSION FACTORS

Quantity SI Unit c.g.s. Unit f.p.s. or other

Length 1m 100 cm 3.281 ft=39.37 in
Time 1s 1s 1s
Mass 1 kg 1000g 2.205 ib
Area 1 m2 104 cm2 10.764ft2=1550.0 in2
Volume 1 m3 106 cm3 35.31 ft3=6.102x104 in3
Frequency 1 Hz 1 c/s 1 c.p.s.
Rotational frequency 1 S-1 1 rev/s 60 r.p.m.
Density 1 Mg/m3 1 Kg/m3 62.43 lb/ft3=0.036131lb/in3
Velocity 1 m/s 100 cm/s 3.281 ft/s=39.37 in/s
Fluid velocity 1 m3/s 6x104 lts./min.=106cm2/s 2119 ft3/min=6.1 x 104 in3/s
Force 1N 0.102 kgf=105 dynes 0.2248 lbf=7.233 pdl
Surface Tension 1/m 1 dyne/cm
Pressure 1 Mpa 10.20 kgf/cm2=107dyne/cm2 145 p.s.i.
Stress 1 kPa 10.20 gf/cm2=104dyne/cm2 0.1450 p.s.i.
Strength 1 Pa 7.5x10-3mmHg
Modulus 1 mN/m2 7.5x10-6mmHg
Torque 1 N/m 10.20 kgf cm 141.6 oz in
Energy 1J 1.0197x104gf cm= 0.738 ft lbf=9.48x10-4Btu
0.239cal=107ergs
Power 1 W 1 MJ 0.278kWh=239 kcal
0.86 kcal/h 0.00134 HP=3.41 Btu/h 948 Btu
Momentum 1 kgmS-1 105 g cms-1 7.23071b ft S-1
Moment of Inertia 1 kg/m2 107 g cm2 23.730 lb ft2
Thermal Conductivity 1 W/mK 0.00239 cal/cm°c 6.93 Btu In/ft2°F
Viscosity - dynamic 1 Ns/m2 10 poise 0.02089 lbf s ft2
Viscosity - Kinematic 1 m2/s 104stokes
Permeability 1 m4/Ns 1.013x109cm2
Electrical Resistivity 1 ohm 100 ohm
* Pressure may also be expressed In bars (b)
2
1 bar = 105 N/m = 14.504 p.s.i.
+ Electrical, mechanical or heat energy
Commonly used Metric Conversions
AREA
1 inch2 in2 = 645.6 mm2
1 inch2 in2 = 0.000 645 m2
1 foot2 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
1 yard2 yd2 = 0.836 m2

DENSITY
1 gram per cc g/cc = 0.036 1 lb/in3
1 pound per cu ft lb/ft3 = 16.02 kglm3
1 pound per cu ft lb/ft3 = 62.37 g/cc
1 pound per cu in lb/in3 = 0.027 7 kg/m3

ELECTRICAL
1 volt per mil V/mil = 25.4 kV/mm

ENERGY - WORK
1 erg dyn.cm = 1 x 10-7 J
1 Newton-meter N.m = 1J

55
1 watt-second W.s = 1J
1 foot-pound ft.lbf = 1.356 J
1 horsepower-hour hph = 2.685 x 106 J
1 kilowatt-hour kWh = 3.6 106 J
1 calorie cal = 4.19 J
1 British thermal unit Btu = 1.055 J
1 British thermal unit Btu = 0.000 11 cal
1 inch-pound in.lbf = 0.133 J
FORCE
1 dyne dyn = 1 x 10-5 N
1 kilogram-force kgf = 9.81 N
1 pound-force lbf = 4.448 N
1 ton-force tf = 9.810 N

IMPACT STRENGTH
2 2 2
1 foot pound per inch ft.lb/in = 0.475 5 kJ/m
1 foot pound per Inch of notch (Izod test) ft.lb/in = 0.018 73 J/m
1 kgcm/cm kgcm/cm = 10 J/m
LENGTH
1 kilometer km = 1,000 m
1 centimeter cm = 0.01 m
1 millimeter mm = 0.001 m
1 micron um = 1 x 10-6 m
1 nanometer nm = 1 x 10-9 m
1 Angstrom unit A = 1 x 10-10 m
1 inch in = 0.025 4 m
1 foot ft = 0.304 8 m
1 yard yd = 0.9144 m
1 mile mile = 1.609 Km
1 inch/inch per °F in./in./°F = 0.5567 mm/mm/°C
MASS
1 gram g = 0.001 kg
1 ounce oz = 28.4 g
1 pound lb = 0.453 6 kg
1 ton t = 1,000 kg
POWER
1 kilowatt kW = 1,000 W
1 horsepower hp = 746 W
1 foot pound per second ft.lbf/s = 1.356 W
SPECIFIC ENERGY
1 calorie per gram cal/gm = 4,190 J/kg
1 Btu per pound Btu/lb = 2,326 J/kg
1 hph per pound hph/lb = 5.92 x 106 J/kg
1 kWh per kg kWh/kg = 3.6 x 106 J/kg
1 Kwh per kg kWh/hg = 1.644 hph/lb
STRESS
1 dyne per cm2 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa
1 Newton per meter2 N/m2 = 1 Pa
1 Joule per meter3 J/m3 = 1 Pa
1 atmosphere atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
1 mm mercury mm Hg = 133.3 Pa
1 mm water mm H2O = 9.81 Pa

56
1 bar bar = 1 x 105 Pa
1 pound per inch2 psi = 6,890 Pa
1 megapascal MPa = 145 psi

TEMPERATURE
1 degree Farenheit °F = 1.8°C + 32
1 degree Celcius °C = 0.5555 (°F-32)
1 degree Kelvin °K = °C + 273.16
1 degree Rankine °R = °F + 459.69

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1 gram = 419 J/ms.K
1 Kcal/m.h.°C = 1.163 J/ms.K
1 Btu/ft.hr. °F = 1.76 J/ms.K
1 Btu/in.ft2.h.°F = 0.144 J/ms.K
1 Btu/ft.s. °F = 6,230 J/ms.K
1 Wm.k = 1 J/ms.K
VISCOSITY
1 poise poise = 0.1 Pa.s
1 poise poise = 14.5 x 10-6 psi.s
1 poise poise = 1 dyne/cm2
1 poise-second/in2 psi.s = 6,897 Pa.s
VOLUME
1 x 10-6 m
3
1 cubic centimeter cc =
1 liter L = 0.001 m3
1 milliliter mL = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 cubic inch in3 = 1.639 x 10-5 m3
1 cubic foot ft3 = 0.028 32 m3
1 gallon US gal US = 0.003 785 m3
1 gallon UK gal UK = 0.004 546 m3
ABBREVIATION
A = Angstrom Unit kg = Kilogram
atm = Atmosphere L = Liter
BTU = British Thermal Unit lb = Pound
C = Degrees Celsius m = Meter
cal = Calorie ml = Milliliter
cc = Cubic Centimeter mm = Millimeter
cm = Centimeter Mpa = Megapascal
cu = Cubic N = Newton
f = Force oz = Ounce
dyn = Dyne Pa = Pascal
F = Degrees Farenheit psi = Pounds per Square Inch
ft = Foot R = Degrees Rankline
gal = Gallon s = Second
g = Gram t = Ton
h = Hour tn = Ton US
Hg = Mercury ton = Ton UK
Hp = Horsep V = Volts
in = Inch w = Watt
J = Joule yd = Yard
K = Degrees Kelvin

57
NOTES

58
 NOTES

59