Lecture for mechatronic studies

Electrical Engineering

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EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 1

 Course organisation

Course instructor: Thomas Schulte

Lectures and exercise courses on Wednesdays at 08:30

Exam: Written exam in presence at university building, one hour

Please sign up to our campus management system unisono and enroll in Moodle.

You can find the PowerPoint slides and exercise sheets in Moodle.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 2

 Fundamental terms
Physical quantities and the associated units
SI- base unit system (fundamental unit system)
Quantity Formula SI-unit Unit Derived SI-units with specific names, e.g.
symbol name symbol
Power P
length l meter m
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�𝑚𝑚𝑚
mass m kilo- kg [P] = 1 W =
𝑠𝑠𝑠
gram
time t second s The SI-base units and the derived
electric I Ampere A SI-units are part of a so-called coherent
current unit system.
temperature T Kelvin K
Characteristic of such a system is that in
amount of n mole mol the conversion of coherent units never a
substance numerical factor other than one occurs.
luminous Iv candela cd
intensity

Advantage: No conversion factors are needed between the units.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 3

 Fundamental terms
Electrical charge Q

Short revision of school physics:

- The charge Q ([Q] = C = Coulomb = As) is responsible for all electric phenomena.

- Charges can neither be created nor destroyed. Charges can only be separated.
Charging a body is only possible by charge separation.

- A body that is no longer electrically neutral is called "electrically charged."

- If you want to charge a body, you have to either take electrons from it or add electrons.
For example this possible by mechanical means.

- Charges with the same sign repel each other. Charges with opposite signs attract
each other. → Coulomb´s law
- elementary charge=e 1,602 ⋅10−19 C
- The elementary charge is the electric charge carried by a single proton or the absolute
value of the electric charge carried by a single electron, which has charge −1 e.
- The electric charge is a integer multiple of the elementary charge Q= n ⋅ e

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 4

 Fundamental terms
Electric current
What is electrical current?
In simple words: Directed movement of electrical charge carriers is referred to as
electrical current.
Or in other words: Current is the time rate of charge flow through a cross-sectional area
of a conductor or circuit element.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 The unit of current I is the Ampere: [I] = A = 1 C/s

General definition: 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Important: Not depending on the cross-sectional area.

Special case: The charge flow does not 𝑄𝑄 𝑛𝑛 � 𝑒𝑒

change with time => Direct Current (DC) 𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

Current direction
A distinction is - technical current direction (movement of positive charge carriers)
made between
- direction of the electron motion (in metallic conductors)

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 5

 Fundamental terms
Electric potential and voltage

Mechanic potential, Electric potential Electric potential φ

gravitat. potential φ3 Work spend for moving Q from a to b
m b Q φ2 =
Charge Q
φ1
lift 𝑈𝑈 separation Energy of a charge in a point in space
=
Charge Q
φ0
earth's surface a -Q counter charge 𝑊𝑊
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜑𝜑 = [φ] = 1 V = 1 Volt
𝜑𝜑𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑄𝑄
𝑚𝑚
Voltage
Definition: The difference between the electrical potentials of two points is called
electrical voltage. The potential that is subtracted has the function of a
reference potential.
Special case – reference potential = 0 V
𝑈𝑈𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝜑𝜑 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 − 𝜑𝜑 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎
𝜑𝜑 𝑃𝑃0 = 0 𝑉𝑉 𝑈𝑈𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝜑𝜑 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 − 𝜑𝜑 𝑃𝑃0 = 𝜑𝜑 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏
[U] = 1 V = 1 Volt

Thought experiment The cause of a current through a conductor

Connect points a and b through is always a voltage respectively an electrical
a conductor. => Current potential difference.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 6
 German and international notation
Some differences in writing physical values and quantities

Decimal separator German international

comma point
Example 4,63275 Ohm 4.63275 Ohm

Formula symbol for the physical quantity „voltage“

German international
U or u V or v
Example U = 4,63275 Volts V = 4.63275 Volts

Comprehension question: Do you know in which cases the upper case letter and in which cases
the lower case letter is used?

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 7

 German and international notation
Circuit element symbols and reference directions
International

Symbols for ideal voltage sources Ideal current source Resistance Inductance

German
𝐼𝐼
𝑈𝑈

Symbol for ideal voltage source Ideal current source Resistance Inductance

International Reference directions German

for voltage and current 𝐼𝐼
+
v Learning outcome: You are able to
𝑈𝑈 R 𝑈𝑈
take part in technical discussions
as an employee or trainee in
-
German companies.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 8

 Fundamental terms
Why do we need reference directions?

𝑅𝑅3
𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼3
𝐼𝐼2
𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅1 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅4
𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅2

𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆𝑆

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 9

 Fundamental terms
Active and passive sign convention, Reference direction for current and voltage
Passive sign convention Active sign convention
𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈
Two- Two-
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
terminal terminal
element element

The reference direction for the current is in The reference direction for the current is
the direction of the reference voltage drop opposite to the direction of the reference
voltage drop

If the calculated current has a positive sign, then the current flows in the direction of the
denoted reference direction.

If the calculated voltage has a positive sign, then the reference direction (arrow) points
from the higher to the lower electrical potential.

Very important: Never change the orientation of a reference direction (arrow)

after or during calculation process.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 10
 Fundamental terms
Electric Energy
Electric potential Potential in diff. form Potential difference
𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜑𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑 = 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜑𝜑𝐴𝐴 − 𝜑𝜑𝐵𝐵 1
𝑄𝑄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
A 𝜑𝜑𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼 Energy at terminal A Energy at terminal B The energy difference
Two- between A and B
terminal 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝜑𝜑𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝜑𝜑𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 = 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴 − 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵
element = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝜑𝜑𝐴𝐴 − 𝜑𝜑𝐵𝐵 2

B 𝜑𝜑𝐵𝐵 Electric current Combining (1), (2), (3) Integration of (4)

Passive sign 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
convention 𝐼𝐼 = 3 = 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 = 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � 𝐼𝐼 � ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑡𝑡

In the case of time-invariant quantities U and I,

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑈𝑈 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑡𝑡
the common notation for electrical energy is:
For time-variant quantities u(t) and i(t),
the general formula for electrical energy is: 𝑊𝑊 = � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 11

 Fundamental terms
Electric Power
In general, the instantaneous value of the power Case: Time-invariant quantities
equals the time derivative of the energy 𝑊𝑊
𝑑𝑑 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑊𝑊 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Calculation of electrical power Electrical power for time-invariant

for arbitrary time-variant quantities quantities (in DC circuits) is given by
𝑊𝑊 = � 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑈𝑈 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑡𝑡
Differentiate with 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 Divide by t 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑈𝑈 � 𝐼𝐼
respect to t
Interpretation of electrical power due to sign and sign convention

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 Two-terminal element with Two-terminal element with

Passive sign convention Active sign convention
𝑃𝑃 > 0 Power P is beeing absorbed. Power P is beeing supplied.
The element acts as a consumer. The element acts as a generator.
𝑃𝑃 < 0 Power |P| is beeing supplied. Power |P| is beeing absorbed.
The element acts as a generator. The element acts as a consumer.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 12

 DC circuits
Electric resistance, conductance and power in a resistor

Around 1820 the German experimental physicist Ohm did experiments with direct
current voltages and metallic conductors at constant temperatures. His discovery: 𝐼𝐼~𝑈𝑈

Introduction of a proportionality factor R, Ohm´s law 𝑈𝑈

denoted resistance (Passive sign 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 or 𝑅𝑅 =
convention) 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼 R Circuit symbol for a resistor 𝑈𝑈 𝑉𝑉
having a resistance R 𝑅𝑅 = = =Ω „Ohm“
𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐴
𝑈𝑈
1 1
The inverse of R is called „electrical conductance G“ 𝐺𝐺 = 𝐺𝐺 = = 𝑆𝑆 „Siemens“
𝑅𝑅 Ω
G
Circuit symbol for conductance 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐺𝐺 � 𝑈𝑈

Calculation of power P for time-independent quantities U and I: 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑈𝑈 � 𝐼𝐼 (1)

Ohm´s law: Combining (1) and (2) 𝑈𝑈 2

𝑈𝑈 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 (2) 𝑃𝑃 = = 𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 13

 DC circuits
Ideal voltage and current sources
In general: Ideal voltage and current sources are active two-terminal elements

Ideal voltage source

The ideal voltage source maintains a specified voltage across its terminals.
The current is determined by the other part of the circuit.
𝐼𝐼
𝑈𝑈
- Constant voltage across its terminals
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈 - Can supply any amount of current to
the load
𝐼𝐼
Ideal current source
The ideal current source maintains a specified current through its terminals.
The voltage across those terminals is determined by the other part of the circuit.
𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈
- Constant current is supplied to the load
𝑈𝑈
- Can supply any amount of voltage to
the load
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 14
 DC circuits
Two very simple circuits and Introduction to branched circuits

Ideal voltage source Ideal current source

and resistance and resistance
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 R 𝑈𝑈 R 𝑈𝑈

=> Calculation of I => Calculation of U

Introduction to branched circuits

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 Node

𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 A node is a point where two
or more circuit elements meet.
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅4 𝑅𝑅5
Loop or closed path:
A loop is a closed path through a circuit that
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 does not encounter any intermediate node
more than once

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 15

 DC circuits
Kirchhoffs´s Laws

Kirchhoff´s current law (KCL):

The algebraic sum of all currents at any node in a circuit at any instant equals zero.
First option: All currents directed to the node
𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 𝑅𝑅2 are counted positively.
� 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣 = 0 𝐼𝐼3 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼3 = 0
𝑣𝑣=1 𝑅𝑅3
Second option: All currents directed to the node
are counted negatively.
−𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 = 0

Kirchhoff´s voltage law (KVL):

The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.
𝑅𝑅1
𝑛𝑛
Clockwise: −𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 + 𝑈𝑈1 + 𝑈𝑈2 + 𝑈𝑈3 = 0
� 𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣 = 0 𝑈𝑈1
𝑣𝑣=1
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈2 𝑅𝑅2
𝑈𝑈3
Anticlockwise: 𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 − 𝑈𝑈1 − 𝑈𝑈2 − 𝑈𝑈3 = 0
𝑅𝑅3

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 16

 DC circuits
Series and parallel resistive circuits
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel
In a series circuit, the same current flows In a parallel circuit, the voltage across
through all of the elements each element is the same
𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛
𝑈𝑈1 𝑈𝑈2 𝑈𝑈𝑛𝑛
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑈𝑈 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑈𝑈 = � 𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐼𝐼 𝑈𝑈 1 𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼 = � 𝐼𝐼𝑘𝑘 = � = 𝑈𝑈 � =
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑅𝑅𝑘𝑘 𝑅𝑅𝑘𝑘 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1

KVL Ohm´s
KCL Ohm´s
law
law
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
1 1
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑘𝑘 =� or 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘=1
𝑘𝑘=1

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 17

 DC circuits
Voltage divider
Consider two resistances in series: Voltage-
divide both sides divider
𝐼𝐼 rule
Ohm´s law: same by U2 and
current multiply by R1 U 1 R1
𝑅𝑅1 𝑈𝑈= U1 U2 U1 U 2
1 I = , I = =
𝑈𝑈 R1 R2 R1 R 2 U2 R2
𝑅𝑅2 𝑈𝑈2

Kirchhoff´s voltage law: U= U1 + U 2

U = R1 I + R 2 I = ( R1 + R 2 ) I

The currents through series U U1 U 2

I
= = =
elements are equal in absolute R1 + R 2 R1 R 2
value and have the same direction.

R1 R2
U1 = U or U2 = U
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2

Voltage-divider rule

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 18

 DC circuits
Current divider
Consider two resistances in parallel:
Current-
divider
Ohm´s rule
𝐼𝐼 law: same divide both sides
𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 U= R1 ⋅ I1 voltage by I2 and R1 I1 R 2
R1 ⋅ I1 = R2 ⋅ I 2 =
𝑈𝑈 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 U= R2 ⋅ I 2 I 2 R1

Kirchhoff´s current law: I= I1 + I 2

 1 1  R1 + R 2
I=
 +  U = U
The voltages across parallel  R1 R 2  R1 ⋅ R 2
elements are equal in absolute R1 ⋅ R 2
value and have the same polarity. U= I =I1 ⋅ R1 =I 2 ⋅ R 2
R1 + R 2

I1 R2 I2 R1
= or =
I R1 + R 2 I R1 + R 2

Current-divider rule

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 19

 DC circuits
Realistic voltage and current sources

Realistic voltage source Realistic current source

ideal 𝐼𝐼 realistic ideal 𝐼𝐼 realistic 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑈𝑈

linear model approach KCL: linear model approach

KVL: 𝑈𝑈 IS − IR − I =0
𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑈𝑈
−U S + R is ⋅ I + U =0 I= IS − I 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
R
U = U S − R is ⋅ I U
= R ip ⋅ I R
𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
U = R ip ⋅ ( I S − I ) 𝐼𝐼
= R ip ⋅ I S − R ip ⋅ I 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

- Voltage across its terminals changes with - Current supplied to the load depends
the current on the load
- Can supply limited amount of current - Can supply limited amount of voltage
to the load to the load
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 20
 DC circuits
Source transformation

linear voltage source linear current source

𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
Transformation
𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅
𝑈𝑈𝑆𝑆 𝑈𝑈 𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈

Equation:
Equation:
U = US − R ⋅ I
U = R ⋅ IS − R ⋅ I

Compare/equate the two equations

US − R ⋅ I = R ⋅ IS − R ⋅ I
A source transformation allows a linear
U S= R ⋅ I S
voltage source to be replaced by a linear
US current source or vice versa.
IS =
R
Condition of equivalence
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 21
 DC circuits
Methods of circuit analysis - Terminology

Terms for describing circuits

node A point where two or more circuit elements join

essential node A node where three or more circuit elements join

path A trace of adjoining basic elements with no elements

included more than once

branch A path that connects two nodes

essential branch A path that connects two essential nodes without passing
through an essential node

loop or closed path A path whose last node is the same as the starting node

mesh A loop that does not enclose any other loops

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 22

 DC circuits
Methods of circuit analysis – Application of Kirchhoff´s and Ohm´s laws

Step by step guidance

Target: Establish a system of linear equations in order to calculate the unknown

values of a branched circuit.

1. Count the number of essential nodes ne

2. Count the number of essential branches be

3. Write ne - 1 equations by applying KCL to any set of ne - 1 nodes

4. Write be – (ne - 1) equations by applying KVL around a set of be – (ne - 1) loops or

meshes

5. Solve the system of linear equations by means of appropriate mathematical

approaches

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 23

 DC circuits
Methods of circuit analysis -Superposition principle
Important precondition for the superposition principle:
Linear DC networks consist exclusively of linear resistors and linear or ideal sources.

The output of a linear circuit can be expressed by a linear combination of its inputs.
Inputs: current sources, voltage sources
Outputs: current through or voltage across given circuit elements

The superposition principle states that the total response is the sum of
the responses to each of the independent sources acting individually.

Application to the analysis of circuits with several sources

1. Calculate the effect of a single source while setting all other sources to zero
2. Add up single effects to complete effect

How to zero or deactivate a source?

- 0-A-Current source open circuit
- 0-V-Voltage source short circuit

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 24

 DC circuits
Methods of circuit analysis - Thévenin equivalent and Norton equivalent

𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
Circuit of
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁
linear
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 with
𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑈𝑈 or 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
resistances
and sources
𝑈𝑈 R=
Th R=N R

Thévenin equivalent Norton equivalent

Step-by-step rules for Thévenin/Norton equivalent circuit analysis

1. Identify two of a), b), c)

a) Determine the open-circuit voltage UTh = Uoc

b) Determine the short circuit current IN = Isc

c) If the circuit contains only independent sources: Determine R by deactivating all

independent sources. Replace ideal voltage sources by short circuits and substitute
open circuits for ideal current sources. Then calculate the resistance seen looking
into the circuit at the terminals.

2. Use the equation UTh = RTh • IN to compute the the remaining value

3. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit or Norton equivalent circuit

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 25

 Capacitance
Phenomena in dielectrics - basics
Homogenious electric field in dielectrics
Example: Parallel-plate capacitor

The fluid mechanics idea about moving partikels or moving No moving charge
charge carriers is not possible with respect to dielectrics. carriers in dielectrics

Here: Special case - Homogenious field:

+ + + + + + + + U
E d
E=
d

+ E ϕ = const.
- Uq
d
Equipotential surface

For the sake of completeness:

- - - - - - - -
Coulomb's law 1Q1 ⋅ Q2
F =
for point charges 4πε 0 r 2
At any point the E-field is normal to the equipotential
surface and the E-field is directed toward the more Derived from 1Q1
EQ =
negative surfaces. Coulomb's law 2
4πε 0 r 2

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 26

 Capacitance
Phenomena in dielectrics - electric flux and electric flux density

Parallel-plate capacitor with plate area A Thought experiment:

Let us establish a field line between
each positive and each negative
elementary charge.
Sectional view + + + + + + + + The totality of all field lines leaving
the positive charged plate or arriving
the negative charged plate is referred
+ E to as electric flux Ψ.
= more
ϕThe const.
- Uq charges there are on the
plates, the greater the electric flux.
The following applies to a
- - - - - - - - Ψ =Q
parallel-plate capacitor:

General expression for the electric flux

 
Ψ Q Ψ= ∫D⋅ A surface integral
If we divide the flux by the area D
= =
A A A
over which it is distributed, we closed surface integral
get the electric flux density D. As C  
[ D=] =

Ψ ∫ D ⋅=
= A Q (Gauss´s law)
m2 m2
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 27
 Capacitance
Phenomena in dielectrics – permittivity and capacitance
Permittivity
ε r relative permittivity
  
(1) =D ε=
rε 0 E εE ε 0 electric constant (permitivity of free space / vacuum)
ε permittivity
D: causes the E-field E: effects force on charges

Capacitance
Relation between E and U in a homogenious field U= E ⋅ l (2)
Relation between D and Q in a homogenious field Q= D ⋅ A (3)
U Q Q A
Combining equations 1-3:=Q ε=ε EA ε ε A solving for = ε rε 0
r 0 r 0
l U U l

Q Q A As
is denoted as capacitance C C
= = ε rε 0
U l
[C=] = F Farad
U V
Definition of capacitance:
Capacitance means how many charge carriers are able to accumulate on the plates
when a certain voltage is applied.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 28

 Capacitance
Phenomena in dielectrics – further properties of a capacitance
Time rate of change of current and voltage in the capacitor
dq
We consider a constant capacitance C, the capacitor charge changes with time
dt
Q
Basic equation for DC quantities C = or Q= C ⋅ U
U
dq C ⋅ du dq
Charge changes with time = with =i
dt dt dt
du 1 t
solving this differential equation u (t ) i ( t ) dt + u ( t0 )
C ∫t0
i= C ⋅ =
dt

Capacitors as energy storage elements

i
1. During a charging process a capacitor absorbs the u
dW = uidt
infinitesimal energy dW in the infinitesimal time dt
2. Replacing idt by Cdu dW = u C du
U
3. The capacitor voltage rises from u = 0 to u = U during charging process W = ∫ Cu du
0
2
1 Q 1Q
W = CU 2 or with U = W=
2 C 2 C
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 29
 Inductance
Description and calculation of the magnetic field
Introduction to the magnetic field intensity H

I=
a I=
b Ic a) and b) same diameter

c) half diameter compared

with a)

b) and c) half of the windings

compared with a)

a) and c) same magnetic

3 field lines 6 field lines field intensity
6 field lines

Source: Harriehausen, Schwarzenau: Moeller Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik, 24. edition, Springer Vieweg, page 225, figure 4.7
The magnetic field intensity
in a) and c) is twice as
great as in b)

Let us introduce the magnetic field intensity H inside the toroidal coil as a new quantity.
The unit of the magnetic field intensity H is A/m.
H in a toroidal magnetomotive force
The absolute value of H depends on (mmf)
coil:
- current
- Number of turns NI Θ Important: H does not depend
H =
=
- Length of the field line ( l = π d R ) l l on any material property.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 30

 Inductance
Description and calculation of the magnetic field

Magnetic flux density and permeability

The quantity H is linked with the current by means of the Ampère's circuital law.
But this law does not consider the characteristics of the material in which the magnetic
field exists.
So - how can we take the material properties into account?

µr relative permeability H: magnetic field intensity

  
=B µ=
r µ0 H µH µ0 magnetic constant A
[H ] =
µ permeability m
B: magnetic flux density
H
µ= 4π ⋅10−7 Vs
0
m [ B=] = T (Tesla )
m²
H: causes the magnetic field B: effects force on moving charges (current)

physical quantity of cause physical quantity of effect

Magnetic flux density can be considered as the field line density of the magnetic field.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 31

 Inductance
Description and calculation of the magnetic field
Magnetic flux in a homogenious magnetic field

To indicate the resulting effect of the magnetic field (e.g. the generation of voltage),
the magnetic flux is introduced.

Consider a homogenious field B that is Φ= B ⋅ A [Φ ]= Vs= Weber = Wb

perpendicular to an area A :
Φ : magnetic flux

Comparison with the equations of the

electrical flow field and the electric
field in dielectrics
(homogeneous fields):
A
I= J ⋅ A electrical flow field
Ψ= D ⋅ A electric field in dielectrics

B Please take into account:

Only the in the electrical flow field
there is a real flow of charge carriers.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 32

 Inductance
Effects associated with the magnetic field

Faraday's law of induction

N Number of turns
Φ magnetic flux
Ψ linked magnetic flux

Inductance
(Self-inductance)
Θ = Ni Θ magnetomotive force (mmf)

l
Rm = Rm: Magnetic reluctance or
µ0 µr ⋅ A magnetic resistance

1 1 µ µ ⋅A
Φ
= Θ
= Ni
= 0 r Ni Relation between the quantities
Rm l l
µ0 µr ⋅ A

µ0 µr ⋅ A di N 2 di di Inductance L
2 Faraday's law
ui =
N ⋅ == L
l dt Rm dt dt of induction [ L=] H= Henry

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 33

 Inductance
Effects associated with the magnetic field

Inductors as energy storage elements

1. During a process of rising current an inductor stores the

infinitesimal energy dW in the infinitesimal time dt dW = uidt

di di
2. Replacing u by L ⋅ dW =
L ⋅ idt =
Lidi
dt dt

3. The inductor current rises from i = 0 to i = I during energizing process W = ∫ Li di

0

1 2 Please note that this formula is just an approximation,

W= LI
2 if the inductor contains ferromagnetic material.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 34

 Transients
Introduction to the dynamics of circuits

We focus on circuits that consist only of sources, resistors, and either (but not both)
inductors or capacitors.

The time-varying currents and voltages resulting from the sudden application of
sources, usually due to switching events, are called transients.

Some simple examples with a DC voltage source:

t=0 t=0
i i
R R
U L uL U C uC

These RL and RC circuits are called first-order circuits because their voltages and
currents are described by first-order differential equations.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 35

 Transients
Basic terms and steady state analysis

Some basic terms

The complete response of a circuit is the sum of the transient response
and the steady-state response.

Transient response: This part exists for a (normally) short time and it decays to
negligible values (zero)

Steady-state response: The transient component has decayed to zero (t >> 0)

Complete response = transient response + steady-state response

DC steady state analysis

Target: Find currents and voltages in the circuit for t >> 0 after the switching event occurs
duC
1. Replace capacitances with open circuits =iC( )t C= 0 for t >> 0
dt
diL
2. Replace inductances with short circuits u=L ( t ) L= 0 for t >> 0
dt

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 36

 Transients
Natural and step response
Natural response: The stored energy in a capacitor (or inductor) is suddenly released to a resistive
network. No external voltage or current sources determine the behaviour of currents and voltages.
RS a b t=0
i
t=0
u(0) = US C u R
US C R

t=0
i i
t=0 i(0) = IS
RS L R L R
IS

t=0 Step response t=0

R iC i
Find uC when a dc R Find iL when a dc
uR
source is suddenly source is suddenly
US C uC applied to C US L uL applied to L

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 37

 Transients
Behaviour of the basic electrical circuit elements

Step responses to impressed voltage and impressed current

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 38

 Sinussoidal steady-state analysis
Introductory example and characteristics of sinusoidal quantities
Characteristic of
Homogeneous magnetic flux density 𝐵𝐵 Induced voltage of a periodicity:
Induced conductor loop rotating 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
voltage (emf) in a magnetic field 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℤ
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) dΦ
constant 𝑇𝑇 u=N
dt
rotation
spanned •
•
•

area A 1 t
f =
sliding T
conductor loop contacts
Trigonometric function

𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡) 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑0 )

𝜔𝜔𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧̂ angle 𝑧𝑧̂ : amplitude, peak value (𝑧𝑧̂ > 0)
𝜔𝜔 : angular frequency
𝜑𝜑0 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝜑𝜑0 : (initial) phase angle −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜑𝜑0 ≤ 𝜋𝜋
1 𝜔𝜔
𝑓𝑓 = = respectively 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇 2𝜋𝜋
Here only steady-state sinusoids without constant components are considered
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 39
 Sinussoidal steady-state analysis
Why do we use the term „angular frequency“ here?

Representing sinusoidal quantities by rotating arrows

Diagram with rotating arrows Time diagram

Source: Harriehausen, Schwarzenau: Moeller Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik, 24. edition, Springer Vieweg, page 323, figure 5.9

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 40

 Sinussoidal steady-state analysis
Phase shift angle

𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡
𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢� � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 )

𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝚤𝚤̂ � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 )

𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 In this example

𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 is positiv, i.e. leftward shift
𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 is negativ, d.h. rightward shift
𝜑𝜑 of the original sine function

Phase shift (angle) 𝜑𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 − 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖

Rule 1: The arrow for identifying the (initial) phase angle (𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 , 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ) points from the
positive zero crossing, which is closest to the origin, to the origin.

Rule 2: In the time diagram the phase shift angle 𝜑𝜑 is indicated by an arrow with
one arrowhead, which is directed from the positive zero crossing of the voltage to the
nearest positive zero crossing of the current.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 41
 Sinussoidal steady-state analysis
Alternating quantities and instantaneous power at a resistance
AC voltage source connected Voltage, current and instantaneous
to a resistance power at a resistance
R i(t) p, i, u = f (t)
p
u(t) p
u
∼ i
p
A „symmetrical alternating quantity“ is a quantity,
which is
- periodic and 1
t +T

u = ∫ u ( t ) dt
0
i ωt
- has the arithmetic mean zero. T t 0
u

with DC component without DC component p ( t ) = u ( t ) ⋅ i ( t ) = uˆ ⋅ iˆ ⋅ sin 2 ωt

1 ˆ
= uˆ ⋅ i (1 − cos 2ωt )
2
The instantaneous power p(t)
never becomes negative at a
Source: Harriehausen, Schwarzenau: Moeller Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik,
24. edition, Springer Vieweg, page 311, figure 5.1
Source: Harriehausen, Schwarzenau: Moeller Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik,
24. edition, Springer Vieweg, page 312, figure 5.2
ohmic resistance.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 42
 Sinussoidal steady-state analysis
Root mean square 1
p, i, u = f (t) Arithmetic mean of the instantaneous power
p 1
t0 + T Known from the previous slide
p P= p=
T ∫ p ( t ) dt p (t ) =
1 ˆ
uˆ ⋅ i (1 − cos 2ωt )
u
t0
2
i Applied to the present case
p ˆˆ T
ui ˆˆ 
ui 1 
T

(1 − cos 2ωt ) dt =
2T ∫0
P=
p= t− sin 2ωt 
2T  2ω 0
i ωt
2
 uˆ 
root mean square
ˆ ˆ uˆ 2  2  U 2
ui (RMS)
u = = = =
2 2R R R
2
 iˆ  2
Or expressed in terms P = p =   ⋅R = I R
of the current:  2
From the DC circuit U2
P= A sinusoidal alternating voltage with the peak value 𝑢𝑢�
theory it is known: R
generates the same heat output at a resistance as a
uˆ constant DC voltage with the value 𝑢𝑢/
� 2.
Comparison: U=
2
Relation between RMS and peak value
In the AC theory U is referred to as root mean
for a sinusoidal quantity. square (RMS) value or effective value.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 43
 Sinussoidal steady-state analysis
Root mean square 2
Periodic, non-sinusoidal voltage curve Arithmetic mean of the instantaneous power
1 2 3 4 5 Recall: t0 +T T
u(t) U 2 1 u 2 (t )
1
R T ∫0 R
V p ( t ) dt P= p= = dt
T t∫0
P= p=
u(t)
30
solving for U
U
20
General formula for
10
calculating the RMS
0 T T T 2T 5T
T t valid for every
6 3 2 3 6
-10 periodic signal

 T6 2
T T
2
5T
T 2 
1   60 V  3
 120 V
2
 6
 60 V  
t  dt + ∫ ( 30 V ) dt + ∫  70 V − ( )
2 2

T  ∫0  T ∫ ∫
U  t  dt + −10 V dt +  −60 V + t  dt 
 T T T  T 5T  T  
 6 3 2 6 
= 5,56 + 150 + 72, 22 + 33,33 + 5,56 V
= 16,33 V

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 44

 Complex numbers
Revision: How to express complex numbers
Cartesian or rectangular form 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 complex plane
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑗𝑗 = −1 absolute value 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
(or modulus or magnitude)
Trigonometric form or polar form 𝑧𝑧̂
𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̂ cos 𝜑𝜑0 + 𝑗𝑗 � 𝑧𝑧̂ sin 𝜑𝜑0 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � sin 𝜑𝜑0
𝜑𝜑0
respectively
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � cos 𝜑𝜑0 + 𝑗𝑗 � sin 𝜑𝜑0 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧
𝑥𝑥
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧̂ = 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � cos 𝜑𝜑0
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ẕ 𝑦𝑦
𝜑𝜑0 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Values of 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 for common angles:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(ẕ) 𝑥𝑥
value of 𝜑𝜑0 : −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜑𝜑0 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗0 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗0° = cos 0° + 𝑗𝑗 � sin 0° = 1
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗180° = cos 180° + 𝑗𝑗 � sin 180° = − 1
From Euler´s formula −𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 2 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗90° = cos −90° + 𝑗𝑗 � sin −90° = − 𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 = cos 𝜑𝜑0 + 𝑗𝑗 � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜑𝜑0 𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗90° = cos 90° + 𝑗𝑗 � sin 90° = j
follows the exponential form
1 1
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 It follows: = 𝑗𝑗90° = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗90° = −𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 45
 Complex numbers
Revision: Basic arithmetic operations

Given are: 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1 and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑧𝑧2̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑2

Addition and subtraction 𝑧𝑧1 ± 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥1 ± 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦1 ± 𝑦𝑦2

Multiplication Division
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1̂
𝑧𝑧1 � 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑧𝑧2̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜑𝜑1 +𝜑𝜑2 = � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜑𝜑1 −𝜑𝜑2
𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧̂2
Case 1: Multiplikation Case 2: Division by j,
with j, i.e. 𝑧𝑧2 = j i.e. 𝑧𝑧2 = j
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1
𝑧𝑧1 � 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗90° = 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜑𝜑1+90°) = = 𝑗𝑗90°
= 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜑𝜑1−90°)
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ẕ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ẕ 𝑧𝑧1

𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1 = −𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧1
𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧1̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1
j𝑧𝑧1

90° 90° Rotation by -90 °

Rotation by +90 °
𝜑𝜑1 𝜑𝜑1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ẕ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ẕ

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 46

 Complex numbers
Rotating phasor

Now: Transition from the static phasor to the rotating phasor

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 During time t the phasor rotates by

the angle ωt in mathematically positive
= 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜑𝜑0
direction.
ω = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 0 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 At the beginning (t = 0) the phasor is

𝜑𝜑0 located in the position with the
initial phase angle 𝜑𝜑0 .
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧

The complex rotating phasor 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜑𝜑0 consists of

a) a time-independent part 𝑧𝑧̂ = 𝑧𝑧̂ � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑0 (static) phasor

(or complex amplitude)

b) a time-dependent part 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 term of rotation

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 47

 Phasors in electrical engineering
Complex representation of sinusoidal quantities
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑢𝑢 Im 𝑖𝑖 u 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧
0
𝑧𝑧̂
𝑡𝑡1 𝑢𝑢 𝑧𝑧̂ � sin 𝜑𝜑0

𝑢𝑢 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡1
𝜔𝜔 𝜑𝜑1 𝜑𝜑 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧
𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 Re 𝑢𝑢 𝑧𝑧̂ � cos 𝜑𝜑0
𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡1 Re 𝑖𝑖 𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 0 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡1 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝜑𝜑

Complex rotating
amplitude phasor 0 Time diagram

Rule: In the complex plane the phase shift angle 𝜑𝜑 is indicated by an arrow with
one arrowhead, which is directed from the phasor current to the phasor voltage.
Generalization of this example: 𝑡𝑡1 → 𝑡𝑡
Complex-number domain Time diagram (time domain)
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 u = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑢𝑢 = I𝑚𝑚(𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 ) = 𝑢𝑢� � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 )
𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖 = I𝑚𝑚( �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ) = �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 )

Next step: Removal of „term of rotation“ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 (t = 0) Why can we remove this term?

Complex amplitude for voltage and current: 𝑢𝑢� = 𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 und �𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 48
 Complex voltage and complex current
Transition from (static) amplitude phasor to (static) rms phasor
Remember:
Amplitude and rms value of sinusoidal quantities differ in the
uˆ iˆ
factor 2. This also applies to complex pointers. U= and I=
2 2

𝑢𝑢�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑈𝑈 𝑢𝑢� 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼�𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝑈𝑈 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼
𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈
𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 𝜑𝜑 𝐼𝐼 𝜑𝜑 𝐼𝐼
𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖
𝜑𝜑 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈
𝑢𝑢� 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 �𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼
�𝑖𝑖

𝑢𝑢� 𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 �𝑖𝑖 �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖

𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 = = und 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = =
2 2 2 2

The complex amplitude becomes the (static) rms phasor or effective phasor.

When calculating AC networks, complex rms phasors are usually used.

These phasors are called complex voltage 𝑼𝑼 and complex current 𝑰𝑰
or phasor voltage 𝑼𝑼 and phasor current 𝑰𝑰.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 49

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Introduction of the impedance Z
Time 𝑢𝑢 Frequency 𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈
domain domain

𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼
passive two-terminal element passive two-terminal element
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢� � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = �𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

𝑢𝑢 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈 𝑗𝑗(𝜑𝜑 −𝜑𝜑 ) 𝑈𝑈 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑

𝑍𝑍 = = = = 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
= � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑍𝑍 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
𝑖𝑖 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍: Impedance 𝑍𝑍
Z, Z, In Words: 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋 R, X
measured
We define impedance Z as 𝑋𝑋
𝑅𝑅: resistance in Ohms the phasor voltage divided 𝜑𝜑
by the phasor current.
𝑋𝑋: reactance 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍: magnitude of the impedance 𝑅𝑅

𝑋𝑋 gives the phase difference complex impedance plane
𝜑𝜑 = arctan
𝑅𝑅 between voltage and current
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 50
 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Introduction of the admittance Y

Recall the concept of conductance we introduced for DC circuits: 1 I

G= =
R U
1 𝑖𝑖 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼 𝑗𝑗(𝜑𝜑 −𝜑𝜑 ) 𝐼𝐼 −𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
𝑌𝑌 = = = = = 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
= � 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢 = � 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑌𝑌 � 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
𝑍𝑍 𝑢𝑢 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈

Ye jϕY =
Y= Re Y + j Im Y =
G + jB In Words:
We define admittance Y as
the phasor current divided
by the phasor voltage.
𝑌𝑌: admittance
Y, Y,
𝑌𝑌 = 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵 G, B 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍 𝐺𝐺
measured 𝑍𝑍 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑌𝑌 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑌𝑌
𝐺𝐺: conductance in Siemens 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍

𝐵𝐵: susceptance 𝑋𝑋 ϕY = −ϕ
𝐵𝐵
𝜑𝜑
𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌: magnitude of the admittance 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍 𝑌𝑌
𝐵𝐵
𝜑𝜑𝑌𝑌 = arctan 𝑅𝑅
𝐺𝐺
impedance plane admittance plane
ϕY = −ϕ

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 51

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Impedance of an ideal resistor
Time 𝑢𝑢 Frequency 𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈
domain domain
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 R 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼 R
R

𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑢𝑢 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 and 𝑖𝑖 = 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

𝑢𝑢 = 𝑅𝑅 � �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 )

2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅 � 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

There is no phase shift between

voltage and current. 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 Rule for R:
Current and voltage
𝑈𝑈 are always in phase.
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 = = 𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼
𝜑𝜑 = 0
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍
𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝜑𝜑 = 0 𝜑𝜑 = 0
𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 52

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Impedance of an ideal inductor
Time domain 𝑢𝑢 Frequency domain 𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖
u = 𝐿𝐿 𝑢𝑢 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖 L 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼
L L
𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 )
𝑢𝑢 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 and 𝑖𝑖 = 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
u = 𝐿𝐿 �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑢𝑢 = 𝐿𝐿 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 � 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 �𝑖𝑖 � cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖
2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 � 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝜋𝜋
cos 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥 +
𝜋𝜋 2 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼 Rule for L:
= 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 �𝑖𝑖 � sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 + Current lags the
2
𝑈𝑈 voltage by 90°.
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑍𝑍 𝐿𝐿 = = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼
voltage leads
the current by 90°
𝑈𝑈 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝜑𝜑 = 𝜋𝜋
2 2 𝜑𝜑 =
𝐼𝐼 2
𝜑𝜑 𝜑𝜑
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 53

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Impedance of an ideal capacitor
Time domain 𝑢𝑢 Frequency domain 𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈
1 1
u= � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 = � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼
C C C
𝑖𝑖 = �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 )
𝑢𝑢 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 and 𝑖𝑖 = 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
1
u = � �𝑖𝑖 � sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 2 � 𝐼𝐼 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑢 = � 2 � 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
�𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 = 0
=− � cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 2 � 𝐼𝐼 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 2 � 𝑈𝑈 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑒𝑒
𝜋𝜋 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
1
cos 𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑈𝑈 = � 𝐼𝐼 = −𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 � 𝐼𝐼 Rule for C:
2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
�𝑖𝑖 𝜋𝜋 Current leads the
= � sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 − 𝑈𝑈 1 1 voltage by 90°.
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 2 𝑍𝑍 𝐶𝐶 = = = −𝑗𝑗
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
voltage lags behind 𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍 𝜑𝜑 = −
the current by 90° 𝐼𝐼 2
𝜋𝜋 𝜑𝜑
− 𝜋𝜋 𝜑𝜑 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍
2
𝜑𝜑 = −
𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 2 1
𝑍𝑍 =
𝑈𝑈 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 54

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Kirchhoff´s laws (KVL and KCL)
KVL
We already know KVL from DC circuits: U1 + U 2 + ... + U n =
0 The algebraic sum of all the
voltages around any closed
path in a circuit equals zero.
KVL is universally valid for any kind voltages: u1 + u2 + ... + un =
0

i.e. KVL is also valid for sinusoidal voltages

We know that a sine function can be expressed by a complex rotating amplitude phasor: Im ( u ) = u

Here exemplary three phasors: 𝑢𝑢1 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈1 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 , 𝑢𝑢2 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈2 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 , 𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛 = 2 � 𝑈𝑈𝑛𝑛 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

Applying KVL and combining with this expression: Im ( u1 ) + Im ( u 2 ) + ... + Im ( u n ) =

0

which we simplify as Im ( u1 + u 2 + ... + u n ) =

0

Insert the three phasors: Im ( )

2 ⋅ e jωt (U 1 + U 2 + ... + U n ) =
0

with 2 ⋅ e jωt ≠ 0 U 1 + U 2 + ... + U n =

0 KVL can be applied to phasor voltages.

KCL
A similar derivation applies to a set of sinusoidal currents. Thus if i1 + i2 + ... + in =
0
then I 1 + I 2 + ... + I n =
0 KCL can be applied to phasor currents.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 55
 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Impedances in series or parallel
In general: The rules for combining impedances in series or parallel are the same
as those for resistors. The only difference is that we need to use complex numbers
instead of real numbers.

Impedances in series Impedances in parallel

In a series circuit, the same current flows In a parallel circuit, the voltage across
through all of the elements each element is the same
𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍 1 𝑍𝑍 2 𝑍𝑍 𝑛𝑛 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼 1 𝐼𝐼 2 𝐼𝐼 𝑛𝑛
𝑈𝑈 1 𝑈𝑈 2 𝑈𝑈 𝑛𝑛
𝑈𝑈 𝑍𝑍 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑈𝑈 𝑍𝑍 1 𝑍𝑍 2 𝑍𝑍 𝑛𝑛 𝑈𝑈 𝑍𝑍 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑈𝑈

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
1 1
𝑍𝑍 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑍𝑍 𝑘𝑘 =� or 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1
𝑍𝑍 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑍𝑍 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘=1
𝑘𝑘=1

Equivalent impedance Equivalent impedance/admittance

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 56

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Voltage divider and current divider
Consider two impedances in series:
U U1 U 2
I
= = =
𝐼𝐼 Z1 + Z 2 Z1 Z 2

𝑍𝑍 1 𝑈𝑈 1
Z1 Z2
𝑈𝑈 U1 =U or U2 =U
Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
𝑍𝑍 2 𝑈𝑈 2
Voltage-divider rule

Consider two impedances in parallel: Z1 ⋅ Z 2

𝐼𝐼 U= I =I 1 ⋅ Z 1 =I 2 ⋅ Z 2
Z1 + Z 2
𝐼𝐼 1 𝐼𝐼 2
𝑈𝑈 I1 Z2 I2 Z1
𝑍𝑍 1 𝑍𝑍 2 = or =
I Z1 + Z 2 I Z1 + Z 2

Current-divider rule

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 57

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Example: AC circuit with elements connected in series
We have learned that KVL is also applicable for complex rms phasors.
Here R, L and C are connected in series an fed by an sinusoidal voltage source.
𝑈𝑈 𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈 𝐿𝐿 𝑈𝑈 𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼 Let us find the phasor diagram for
- Impedance
𝑈𝑈 R L C - current and voltage
𝑈𝑈
= 𝐼𝐼
1 1 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 − 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 − = 𝑍𝑍 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑈𝑈 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑈𝑈 𝐶𝐶
2 1
2
1 = 𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐼 +𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼 − 𝑗𝑗 𝐼𝐼
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 − 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
1 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿
𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 −
𝜑𝜑 = arctan 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅
In this example, the following applies:
1 −𝑗𝑗
𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 >
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 58
 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Power for inductive and capacitive loads
Power for an inductive load
L i(t)
u Phase shift angle 90°
u, i
u(t) i
∼ 𝜑𝜑

t0 + T ωt
1
PL= p=
T ∫ p ( t ) dt=
t0
0W
p(t)

Power for a capacitive load

C i(t) Phase shift angle -90°

u, i u
u(t)
i
∼ 𝜑𝜑

t0 + T
ωt
1
PC= p=
T ∫ p ( t ) dt= 0W
t0 p(t)

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 59

 Application of complex quantities in AC circuits
Power calculations

Recall: A resistor R absorbs the power P = RI 2

In analogy to this, we define the complex power for any passive two terminal device.

S= Re ( S ) + j Im ( S ) =
ZI 2 = RI 2 + jXI 2 =
P + jQ The magnitude of complex power is
S: complex power (in VA (volt-amps)) referred to as apparent power (in VA):
P: active power or real power (in W (Watts))
S S=
= P2 + Q2
Q: reactive power (in var (volt-amp reactive))

The power can also be calculated directly from the

U 2 Ue jϕu 2 *
element voltage and element current using the S = I = jϕi I = Ue jϕu ⋅ Ie − jϕi = U I
conjugate-complex of the rms phasor current: I Ie

This formula is valid for passive and active two-terminal

elements. We can derive the following expressions: Power factor
( u i) j ϕ −ϕ
=S UIe
= UIe jϕ
P relation between
S S= UI
= PF= λ=
S absorbed active power
=P Re
= ( S ) UI cos ϕ and converted
PF= λ= cos ϕ apparent power
=Q Im
= ( S ) UI sin ϕ
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 60
 Three-phase circuits
Balanced three-phase voltage source – time domain
One-phase generator (principle) Three-phase generator N
Homogeneous magnetic flux density 𝐵𝐵 (principle)
W1 V2
Induced u1 ( t ) = uˆ sin ωt
voltage (emf) ω
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) ( t ) uˆ sin (ωt − 120° )
u2= U2 U1
constant B
rotation
( t ) uˆ sin (ωt − 240° )
u3 = V1 W2
spanned Rightward shift of the
area A original sinus function
S
sliding
conductor loop contacts

𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
u ( t ) = uˆ sin ωt
•
•
•

Source: User:J JMesserly, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:3_phase_AC_waveform.svg

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 61

 Three-phase circuits
Phasor diagrams of balanced three-phase voltages
positive phase sequence negative phase sequence
im im

U3 UU23
U1 U
U11
re re
U2
UU3 2

j 0° U= U1 ⋅ e j 0°
We assume the positive U=
1 U1 ⋅ e 1

phase sequence for all U= U 2 ⋅ e − j120° U=

2 U 2 ⋅ e − j 240°
2
calculations. U= U 3 ⋅ e − j120°
U=
3 U 3 ⋅ e − j 240° 3

A set of balanced three-phase 0

U1 +U 2 +U 3 = The sum of the phasor
voltages: voltages is zero.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 62

 Three-phase circuits
Non-interlinked three-phase system

N U1 i1(t)
W1 V2 ~ u1(t) R

ω U2
U2 U1
W2
B
V1 W2 V2 R
~ u3(t) ~ u2(t)
i2(t)
V1 R i3(t)
S W1

Balanced load: The three load impedances are equal

In this case: - the three coils are not electrically connected

- altogether 6 source terminals

- load all three voltage sources with the same resistance R

- there are three currents having the same rms value

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 63

 Three-phase circuits
Y-connected source
U1 i1(t)
~ u1(t) R
U2 separate phase windings
of the source
W2
V2 R
~ u3(t) ~ u2(t)
i2(t)
V1 R i3(t)
W1

Y-connected source

Y-connected source
(or wye-connection
or star-connection)

Y-connected load
(or wye-connection
or star-connection)

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 64

 Three-phase circuits
Important terms and definitions for balanced three-phase voltages
Four-wire system (star-connected source) alternative
im
representation
U31
U23 U3
U1
U2 re

U12

Source: Harriehausen, Schwarzenau: Moeller Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik, 24. edition, Springer Vieweg, page 499, figure 8.6
Why are both representations valid?

U 1, U 2 , U 3 U= U 1 ⋅ e − j120° ,
Phasor for line-to-neutral voltage 2

U 2 ⋅ e − j120° =
U3 = U 1 ⋅ e − j 240°
U=
1 U=
2 U=
3 U Star
= U Y Magnitude of line-to-neutral voltage
U= U1 −U 2,
12
Important
U 12 , U 23 , U 31 U= U 2 − U 3,
Phasor for line-to-line voltage 23
relations
U=
31 U 3 −U1
0
U 12 + U 23 + U 31 =
U= 12 U= 23 U=
31 U=
∆ U Magnitude of line-to-line voltage
“voltage U of the three-phase system“
U= U 12 ⋅ e − j120° ,
I 1, I 2 , I 3 Phasor for line current
23

U 23 ⋅ e − j120° =
U 31 = U 12 ⋅ e − j 240°
IN Phasor for neutral current Do not interchange the
phase sequence!
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 65
 Three-phase circuits
Relation between line-to-neutral and line-to-line voltage
Star-connected three-phase source ② ③
L2 U=
12 U=
12 U L2
U=
1 U=
2 U=
1 U=
2 UY ½∙U
U12
absolute values
U2 ½∙U •
UY
U1 N
L1 30° 60° N
L1
UY

Phasor diagram for complex voltages Right-angled triangle:

1
U
① cos30° = 2
L2
UY In words:
U12 U The magnitude of the
2 ⋅ cos30° =
U2 UY line-to-line voltage is
U1 N U 𝟑𝟑 times the magnitude
L1 U23 3=
UY of the line-to-neutral voltage.
U3 U
U31
= UY
3
L3 U
= 3 ⋅UY

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 66

 Three-phase circuits
Δ-connected source
In addition to the star connection, it is also possible to connect
the three-phase source in a delta (Δ) configuration.

U12 L1 - no neutral conductor (3-wire-system)

U3 U1
~ ~ - only one voltage level provided
U31 to consumers

L2
~ - the connected load can be either
U23 Y-connected or Δ-connected
U2 L3
Source Load

Y Y Altogether four
Conclusion regarding Y Δ different configurations
connection of three-phase are possible.
Δ Y
sources and loads
Δ Δ

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 67

 Three-phase circuits
Star-connected load with neutral conductor
Non-symmetrical load Symmetrical load
L1 𝐼𝐼
Line conductor 1 U3
U3
current is equal Z1
to phase current UZ1 UZ2 𝐼𝐼 3
φ3 𝐼𝐼 3
L2 𝐼𝐼 2 𝐼𝐼 2 φ3
U1
U1
UZ3 Z2 φ2 φ1
φ1
𝐼𝐼 2
𝐼𝐼 1 φ2
𝐼𝐼 1
L3 𝐼𝐼 3 Z3 𝐼𝐼 3 𝐼𝐼 N
𝐼𝐼 1
𝐼𝐼 3
U2
U1 U2 U3 𝐼𝐼 2 𝐼𝐼 1 U2
𝐼𝐼 2
N 𝐼𝐼 N

Non-symmetrical load, general star-connected load Symmetrical load (balanced load)

U Z1, U Z 2 , U Z 3 complex phase voltages Z=
1 Z 2= Z =
3 Z , I phase= I=
1 I 2= I=
3 IY

1 factor between phase voltages 1

U phase
= U=Y U
and line-to-line voltages
I N = I1 + I 2 + I 3 = (U 1 + U 2 + U 3 )
3 Z
U
I1
U1
= , I2
U2
= , I3
U 3 Line current or line conductor = 1 (1 + e − j120° + e − j 240° ) =0
Z1 Z2 Z 3 current Z
In case of symmetrical load,
KCL: I N = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 calculation of neutral current the neutral wire can be omitted.
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 68
 Three-phase circuits
Star-connected load without neutral conductor

L1 𝐼𝐼 1 L2
Z1 U12
U 1′ U 2′ U 1′
S U ′
2

L2 𝐼𝐼 2 S U2
UN
L1 U23
U 3′ Z2 U1 N
U 3′
U3
L3 𝐼𝐼 3 Z3 U31

U1 U2 U3 UN What does this neutral point displacement

L3
N 𝐼𝐼 N = 0 voltage mean for the connencted consumers?

3. Calculate phase I 1 U 1′=

= Y1 (U 1 − U N )Y 1
1. To simplify the calculation, the impedances
currents
are replaced by admittances I 2 U 2′=
= Y2 (U 2 − U N )Y 2
1 1 1
= Y1 = , Y2 = , Y3
Z1 Z2 Z3 I 3 U 3′=
= Y3 (U 3 − U N )Y 3
4. KCL 0
I1 + I 2 + I 3 =
2. Compute the phase voltages U=
1
′ U1 −U N (U 1 − U N )Y 1 + (U 2 − U N )Y 2 + (U 3 − U N )Y 3 =
0
(load branch voltages) in terms
of line-to-neutral voltages and U=
2
′ U 2 −U N U 1Y 1 + U 2 Y 2 + U 3 Y 3
5. Solve for UN UN =
neutral point displacement ′ U 3 −U N Y1 + Y 2 + Y 3
U=
voltage UN 3

In case of symmetrical load (Z1 = Z2 = Z3) UN becomes 0 V.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 69
 Three-phase circuits
Delta(Δ)-connected load
L1 𝐼𝐼 1 I31 Non-symmetrical load

Z12 U12 Exemplary calculation

U12 𝐼𝐼 31 U of line current I1
31 φ31
𝐼𝐼 2 I12
L2 𝐼𝐼 12 Z
φ12
31 I12 I 1 I 12 − I 31
=
U31 𝐼𝐼 23
U23 φ23
𝐼𝐼 3 Z23 I1
-I31
L3 I23
Line-to-line voltages are equal to phase voltages
U23
Non-symmetrical load, Symmetrical load (balanced load)
general Δ-connected load ϕ= ϕ= ϕ= ϕ 1 1
12 23 31 I1 I1 Right-angled triangle
I= I= I= I phase cos30
= 2
° = 2
Computation of phase currents
12 23 31
I 31 I 31 with absolute values
(load branch currents) I1 1
I line
U 12 U 23 U 31 • cos30° = 2 generalization
I 12 = , I 23 = , I 31 I12 I phase
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31
30° I31 60° I line
I2 2 ⋅ cos30° =
I phase In words:
I 1 I 12 − I 31
KCL: Calculation of =
I23 The magnitude of the
line currents I= I 23 − I 12 I line
2 3= line current is 𝟑𝟑 times
I3 I phase
I=3 I 31 − I 23 the magnitude of the
I line
= 3 ⋅ I phase phase current.

EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 70

 Three-phase circuits
Power calculations
Star-connected load Delta-connected load
L1 𝐼𝐼1
L1 𝐼𝐼1
Z1 UZ2 Z12
UZ1 U12 𝐼𝐼31
L2 𝐼𝐼2
L2 𝐼𝐼2
𝐼𝐼12 Z
UZ3 Z2 31
𝐼𝐼3 U23 U31 𝐼𝐼23
L3 Z3
𝐼𝐼3 Z23
U1 U2 U3 L3
N 𝐼𝐼N

Power calculations for Total power calculations for star- Total power calculations for delta-
each individual phase connected symmetrical load connected symmetrical load
complex U line−to−line U U phase U=
= U
S phase = U phase I phasee jϕ U phase
= = line −to −line
power 3 3 I line I
I phase
= =
apparent I phase =I 3 3
S phase S=
= U phase I phase
phase
power U I
3⋅
S= I= 3UI 3 ⋅U
S= = 3UI
3 3
Pphase Re
= ( S phase ) U phase I phase cosϕ real
power
U I
3⋅
P= I cos ϕ = 3UI cos ϕ 3 ⋅U
P= cos ϕ = 3UI cos ϕ
3 3
Q phase Im
= ( S phase ) U phase I phase sin ϕ reactive
power 3⋅
Q=
U
I sin ϕ = 3UI sin ϕ 3 ⋅U
Q=
I
sin ϕ = 3UI sin ϕ
3 3

- φ is the phase shift angle between the complex phase current and the associated complex phase voltage
- in the case of asymmetrical load, the total power must be calculated from the sum of the individual phase loads
EE Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schulte 71