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MODULE 6: ACID AND BASE REACTIONS

Inquiry Question 1:
What is an acid and what is a base?

- (6.1.1) investigate the correct iupac nomenclature and properties of

common inorganic acids and bases

Acids are compounds which form hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous solution

● Examples: H2SO4 sulfuric acid, CH3COOH acetic acid

● Sour, corrosive, conductive, pH < 7, turns blue litmus red

Bases are compounds which form hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution

● Examples: NaOH sodium hydroxide, NH3 ammonia

● Bitter, caustic, conductive, pH > 7, turns red litmus blue

- (6.1.3) predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations
to represent

Acid-Base Reaction - NEUTRALISATION:

ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER

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Acid-Carbonate Reaction:

ACID + METAL CARBONATE→ SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE

Acid-Metal Reaction:

ACID + ACTIVE METAL → SALT + HYDROGEN GAS

Net Ionic Equations:

To write a net ionic equation:

1. Write the balanced equation with states

2. For aqueous ionic species only, break them down into their aqueous ions
3. Leave all other species untouched (solid, liquid, gas)
4. Cancel off the ions which are on both sides of the reaction (spectator ions)

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- (6.1.2) conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and use of

indicators as illustrators of the characteristics and properties of acids and
bases and their reversible reactions

Indicators are substances that change colour based on the pH of the environment

Indicator pH transition Acidic range Transition range Basic range

range

Methyl orange 3.1 - 4.4 Red Orange Yellow

Bromothymol blue 6.0 - 7.6 Yellow Green Blue

Litmus Paper 5.5 -8.0 Red Purple Blue

Phenolphthalein 8.3 -10.0 Colourless Pale PInk Pink

INVESTIGATION 1: PREPARING AND TESTING A NATURAL RED CABBAGE INDICATOR

Aim: To prepare and test a natural indicator from red cabbage

Background:

● Red cabbage contains a class of weak acids called anthocyanins (H2Antho)

○ Anthocyanins change colour dependent on the number of removable
proton (H+) that remain attached to the molecule

According to LCP, as the [H+] change, the equilibrium will shift, thus a colour change.
● Hence, anthocyanins act as pH indicators

ACIDIC environment = high [H+] = eq. SHIFTS LEFT (LCP) = more H2Antho (red)
● as the solution becomes more acidic, solution becomes more red

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BASIC environment = removes [H+] = eq. SHIFTS RIGHT (LCP) = more HAntho- (blue)
● In very basic environments, a second equilibrium also operates between the
blue HAntho-(aq) and yellow Antho-(aq)

Method:
1. Prepare 0.1 x 10-1, 0.1 x 10-2, 0.1 x 10-3, 0.1 x 10-4, 0.1 x 10-5 and 0.1 x 10-6
solutions of HCl (acid) and NaOH (base) by performing serial dilutions
○ Place 1mL of 1M HCl in a measuring cylinder
○ Add water to the 10mL mark
○ Mix, transfer to a test tube and mark as 0.1M
○ Repeat these steps, using the most recently prepared solution as a stock
solution, to prepare each required concentration
○ Repeat using NaOH
2. Finely chop half a red cabbage, and boil in 100mL water
3. Once the solution is a deep purple colour, remove the cabbage pieces by
straining, and collect the solution
4. Cool the solution
5. Place two drops of each dilution of NaOH and HCl prepared earlier onto a spot
plate over a white background
6. Test one drop of each solution with universal indicator, comparing the colour
with the colour chart and reading off the pH
7. Test the other drop with cabbage juice, recording the colour change
8. Test a sample of demineralised water with both universal indicator and
cabbage solution, noting the colour

Discussion:

The red cabbage indicator is able to classify into pH ranges based on colour changes,
and hence fulfils the essential function of an indicator.

However compared to universal indicator, it is less precise in identifying a specific

pH for middling pH’s (4-7)

Red cabbage indicator may be better than universal indicator for pH < 3 or pH > 11,
however these substances are less common in everyday life

Red cabbage indicator is most useful when broadly categorising substances as

acidic/basic/neutral, but less useful when trying to distinguish similar pH values

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- (6.1.6) explore the changes in definition and models of an acid and a base
over time to explain the limitations of each model, including but not limited
to

● arrhenius' theory
● brønsted-lowry theory

Scientist Theory Advantages Disadvantages

Antoine Acids: substances that contained First development of a Oxygen containing substances
Lavoisier oxygen formal definition for acids were basic (CuO, Na2O)

Bases: neutralised acids Acidic substances lacked

oxygen (HCl, HF)

Humphry Acids: substances that contained Worked for many acids Could not account for acidic
Davy replaceable hydrogen Cu(s) + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2 oxides (SO2) or basic oxides

Bases: neutralised acids Cu replaced the hydrogen

in acid

Arrhenius’ Theory:
Definitions
Acids: acids are substances which, in aqueous solution, ionised to form H+ ions

Bases: bases are substances which, in aqueous solution, dissociate to form OH- ions

Benefits Limitations

● Works for many but not all acids ● Does not recognise the role of the solvent
● Explains the common fundamental on strength of acids
mechanism of acid-base neutralisation rxn ○ Strength or weakness of an acid
○ producing salt and water depends on the acid and solvent
● Explains the difference in potency between ○ HCl is a strong acid in water and weak
strong and weak acids by relating it to the in other solvents, such as diethyl ether
degree of ionisation ● Metal oxides and carbonates are basic,
however do not contain OH- in their structure
● Only accounts for acid-base reactions in
ionised form (reactions occur w/ molecules)

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The Brønsted-Lowry Theory of Acids:

Proposed independently by Johannes Brønsted and Martin T.Lowry

Acid: acids are substances which tend to donate protons (H+) PROTON DONOR

○ In aqueous solutions, the acid donates a proton to a water molecule,

forming the hydronium ion (H3O+)

○ A substance’s acidity in aqueous solution can be demonstrated by

showing the formation of H3O+ ions (BL theory), rather than the
formation of H+ ions (Arrhenius theory)

Base: bases are substances which tend to accept protons (H+) PROTON ACCEPTOR

○ In aqueous solutions, the acid donates a proton to a water molecule,

forming the hydronium ion (H3O+)

Benefits

● Explains the behaviour of acids and bases in ● An acid can only be defined in relation to a
non-aqueous solution or in gaseous phase base. Proton can only be donated if it is
● Unlike Arrhenius’ theory, it considers the accepted by another species
role of the solvent in determining the
strength or weakness of an acid Consider:
● Explains how some species can act as both
● HCl(aq) donates proton - acid
acids and bases depending on their
● H2O(l) accepts proton - base
environment (amphiprotic)

Amphiprotic substances

An amphiprotic substance can act as either an acid or base specifically due to its
ability to donate or accept a proton in different chemical environments

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Inquiry Question 2:
What is the role of water in solutions of acids and bases?

- (6.2.4) write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids and bases
in water, conjugate acid/base pairs in solution and amphiprotic nature of
some salts, for example:

● sodium hydrogen carbonate

● potassium dihydrogen phosphate

Proticity [number of donatable protons - monoprotic (1), diprotic (2), triprotic (3)]

Proticity refers to the number of donatable protons

● Monoprotic acids (one proton available): HCl, HNO3, HF
● Diprotic acids (two protons available): H2CO3, H2SO4
● Triprotic acids (three protons available): H3PO4

The ionisation of polyprotic acids (acids with two or more protons to donate) occurs
stepwise:

FIRST IONISATION: goes to completion (degree of ionisation is 100%) strong

SECOND IONISATION: does not go to completion (degree of ionisation is <100%) weak

Acid Strength [degree of ionisation: 100% DOI = strong acid, <100% DOI = weak]

For an acid HA(aq), the degree of ionisation of an acid is defined as:

Degree of ionisation = [H3O+]produced /[HA]initial x 100%

A strong acid completely ionises in aqueous solution to form H3O+ ions. Therefore
the ionisation reaction goes to completion. ie. the degree of ionisation is 100%

Examples of strong acids:

* Unidirectional arrow represents

reaction going to completion
(degree of ionisation is 100%)

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A weak acid DOES NOT completely ionise in an aqueous solution to form H3O+ ions.
Any acid with <100% degree of ionisation is considered weak.

Examples of weak acids:

* Bidirectional arrow represents a

reversible reaction that does not go to
completion
(degree of ionisation is <100%)

Strong Acids Weak Acids

HCl HF

HBr CH3COOH

H2SO4 H2CO3

HI H3PO4

HNO3 C6H8O7

*Sulfuric acid is special since its first ionisation is strong, but its second is weak

Conjugate Acid/Base pairs

Acid and base are always the reactants, and the conjugate acid and conjugate base
are always the products

Species Name

HA Acid

B Base

A- Conjugate Acid

HB+ Conjugate Base

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Amphirotic Substances

An amphiprotic substance can act as an acid or base in different chemical

environments
● Examples of amphiprotic substances: HCO3-(aq) H2PO4(aq)

To demonstrate amphiprotic substances, write one equation with a strong base, and
another equation with a strong acid
● strong base: (OH-, NaOH, KOH). Amphiprotic species acts as the ACID
● strong acid: (H3O+, H2SO4, HCl). Amphiprotic species act as the BASE

● sodium hydrogen carbonate

1. With the strong base (NaOH), sodium hydrogen carbonate acted as the
Bronsted-Lowry acid
2. With the strong acid (HCl), sodium hydrogen carbonate acted as the
Bronsted-Lowry base

● potassium dihydrogen phosphate

1. With the strong base (KOH), potassium dihydrogen phosphate acted as the
Bronsted-Lowry acid
2. With the strong acid (HCl), potassium dihydrogen phosphate acted as the
Bronsted-Lowry base

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- (6.2.2) calculate pH, POH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and hydroxide
concentration ([OH-]) for a range of solutions

A substances acidity is dependent on the concentration of hydronium ions in

aqueous solution: [H3O+]

The number of decimal places in the final pH equals the number of significant
figures in the [H3O+]

Factors that affect an acid’s pH

There are four factors which have a substantial effect on an acids pH:

1. Concentration
2. Strength
3. Proticity (for strong acids)
4. Degree of ionisation (for weak acids)

Concentration:
● More concentrated acids tend to have a lower pH
○ The more concentrated the acid, the greater the [H3O+]

Strength:
● Strong acids tend to have a lower pH than weaker acids
● For example: 1M solutions of strong HCl and weak acetic acid
○ HCl produces [H3O+] = 1M
○ Acetic acid incompletely ionises, therefore [H3O+] < 1M
○ The pH of acetic acid is higher than HCl

Proticity:
● Strong acids with higher proticity tend to have a lower pH
● For example: 1M solutions of strong H2SO4 and HCl
○ HCl is a monoprotic strong acid, therefore produces [H3O+] = 1M
○ H2SO4 is a diprotic acid with strong first ionisation (produces [H3O+] = 1M)
and a weak second ionisation (produces [H3O+] > 1M)
○ H2SO4 will have a lower pH value than HCl

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Degree of ionisation:
● Weak acids with a higher degree of ionisation will tend to have lower pH
● For example: consider citric acid (triprotic), carbonic acid (diprotic) and acetic
acid (monoprotic)
○ The actual order is citric acid < acetic acid < carbonic acid
○ Despite carbonic acid having more protons available than acetic acid, its
degree of ionisation is much lower, resulting in a lower final [H3O+] and
higher pH

Defining Acidic, Basic and Neutral solutions and calculating pOH

The self-ionisation constant of water:

Kw increases with temperature, as self-ionisation of water is endothermic

ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER

Final solution may be acidic, basic or neutral depending on the salt formed. Salts
may be acidic, basic or neutral

1. Strong ACID and Strong BASE: generally neutral salt (NaCl, KNO3)
2. Strong ACID and Weak BASE: generally acidic salt (NH4Cl)
3. Weak ACID and Strong BASE: generally basic salt (NaCH3COO)

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- (6.2.1) conduct a practical investigation to measure the pH of a range of

acids and bases
- (6.2.3) conduct an investigation to demonstration the use of pH to indicate
differences between the strengths of acids and bases

INVESTIGATION: COMPARING THE pH OF VARIOUS ACIDS, BASES AND SALT

SOLUTIONS

AIM:

Using pH probes and indicators, to:

● Distinguish between acids and bases and varying strengths; and,
● Determine the acidic, basic or neutral nature of salt solutions

pH probe: detects a potential difference and translate that potential into a value for
[H3O+], and therefore pH

Advantages:
● pH probes are a form of non-destructive testing. They do not alter the
solution they are testing
○ Indicators themselves are typically weak acids and can distort the pH
○ pH probes can be used multiple times on the same sample

● pH probes are more accurate than indicators (values to 2dp)

○ pH probes provide objective and quantitative measurements using the
pH scale, whereas indicators rely on colour change which is subjective
and not precise

Disadvantages:
● pH probes are more expensive and fragile than indicators - easily broken
○ More efficient to use indicator if trying to distinguish between acid/base

● pH probes must be calibrated (tested in a buffer solutions of pH 4,7,10)

○ Keep in a buffer solution between uses to prevent degradation

● pH probes must be cleaned with denim water

○ Take longer to use than indicators

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MATERIALS:
● pH probes and standard solutions for calibration
● Methyl orange, Bromothmol blue, Phenolphthalein, Universal Indicator
● 0.1M solutions of acids: HCl, H2SO4, CH3COOH, C6H8O7
● 0.1M solutions of bases: NH3, NaOH
● 0.1M solutions of salts: NaCH3COO, NH4Cl, NaCl

METHOD:

1. Place 50 mL of each test solution in a separate 250 mL beaker

2. Remove the pH probe from storage solution
3. Carefully wash the tip of the probe with denim water, and dry with tissue paper
4. Calibrate probe by placing it in standardised solutions (pH 4,7,10) to calibrate
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 twice more, as per probe calibration manual
6. Repeat step 3 before placing the probe in solution to be tested. The first
reading is taken when the display value stops. Record pH.
7. Repeat step 6 for each of the solutions
8. Place four samples of each of the test solutions on a spot plate
9. Test each solution with indicators: methyl orange, bromothymol blue,
phenolphthalein and universal indicator, Record colour changes
10.Table results and compare pH probe and colour changes for indicators

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Inquiry Question 3:
How are solutions of acids and bases analysed?

- (6.3.1) conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration of an

unknown acid or base by titration

TITRATION, or volumetric analysis, is a technique by which the concentration of a

solution is determined by measuring the volumes of solutions involved in a
reaction.

STEP 1 - SELECTION OF A PRIMARY STANDARD

A primary standard must be a substance of sufficiently high purity and stability such
that a standard solution can be prepared with a known concentration

Important properties of primary standard:

● Water solubility
● High purity
● Stability in air
● High molecular weight

Acidic: Oxalic acid monohydrate (weak acid). Suitable for titration with strong bases
Basic: Sodium carbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate (weak base). Suitable for
titration with strong acids.

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Choice of primary standard should avoid weak acid-weak base titration, since they do
not have a clear equivalence point (small and unclear on equivalence curve).

Poor primary standards:

● HCl and HNO3 are too volatile
● NaOH and KOH are deliquescent: they absorb water from the air to form a
solution. Not stable in air.
● H2SO4 is hydroscopic: it absorbs water from the surrounding environment
● Hydrated salts (hydrated sodium carbonate) may lose water over time

Substances that are poor primary standard such as NaOH and H2SO4 can be used as
secondary standards (solutions standardised against another primary standard)

STEP 2 - PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD SOLUTION

1. Dry the solid, powdered primary standard in a drying oven

2. Weigh the approx. amount required in a beaker using a mass balance
3. Dissolve the measured mass of primary standard with the least amount of
demin water
4. Transfer solution using a funnel to volumetric flask (rinsed with demin water)
5. Rinse the beaker three times, ensuring the residue of the solid primary
standard is fully dissolved
6. Dilute the solution by filling the volumetric flask to the gradation point
○ Hold flask at eye level to avoid parallax error
7. Stopper the flask and invert 20 times to homogenise the solution

STEP 3 - SELECTION OF AN APPROPRIATE INDICATOR

Indicator changes colour over a pH range that corresponds to pH of salt produced

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STEP 4 - RINSING OF GLASSWARE

All glassware should be previously cleaned with demineralised water

Pipettes and Burettes: delivering solutions - concentration must be accurate

● Rinse with the solution they are to contain - ensures concentration of

substances are accurate

● DO NOT rinse with demin water - residual drops will slightly change the conc.

Volumetric and Conical Flask: containing solutions - moles must be accurate

● Rinse with demineralised water - number of moles of the substances is

accurately known

STEP 5 - PERFORMING THE TITRATION

CONICAL FLASK

1. Transfer 25mL of standard solution from the volumetric flask to the conical
flask using a pipette and bulb filler

○ Rinse pipette 3 times w/ demin water then 3 times w/ standard solution

○ Rinse the sides of the conical flask with demin water to ensure aliquot
reached the base
INDICATOR

2. Add a few drops of appropriate indicator to the conical flask. Place the flask
against a white background and note initial colour

BURETTE

3. Fill and position the burette appropriately

○ Rinse burette 3 times w/ demin water then 3 times w/solution

○ Fill the burette and open the tap - ensure no air bubbles are trapped in
the burette (ensure liquid is below 0mL mark)
○ Read off the initial volume to two decimal places

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TITRATION

4. Perform an initial rough titration by delivering solution from the burette

quickly into the conical flask. Slow down to add solution dropwise once a
colour change is observed
○ Once a colour change lasts longer than 15 seconds, the titration is
complete
○ Complete 3 proper titrations (excluding rough)

SET-UP

- (6.1.4) investigate application of neutralisation reactions in everyday life

and industrial processes

EVERYDAY LIFE:

1. ANTACID TABLETS

● Human stomach contains HCl gastric acid with pH of 1.5 - 3.5 (strong acid)
● Acid reflux is when acid from stomach causes burning pain in oesophagus
● Antacid tablets which contain basic compounds which undergo neutralisation
reactions with the HCl, increasing pH and therefore reducing irritation

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2. PREVENTING TOOTH DECAY

● Acids in soft drinks can develop tooth decays. Bacteria in the oral cavity
converts sugars to acids, accelerating decay
● Toothpaste is weakly alkaline, undergoing a neutralisation with the acids
present in the oral cavity to prevent harm

3. BAKING

● Baking soda (NaHCO3(s)) reacts with acids in the other components of baking
powder, as well as acids in the dough, producing CO2(g), which helps the
dough the rise → gives bread and cakes light, airy quality

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES:

1. ACID & BASE SPILLS

● Neutralisation reactions are essential in industry to neutralise harmful spills

● Solid powders are preferred as they contain the spill w/out increasing SA
○ Sodium hydrogen carbonate solid is used for industrial spills as it is
amphiprotic and bubbles when reacted with acid

2. TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER

● eg. In the semiconductor industry, hydrofluoric acid (HF) is used to etch silicon
substrates and can then contaminate wastewater
○ NaOH and Ca(OH)2 are used to neutralise HF and the CaF2(s) is removed

● Weak acids such as citric acid or acetic acids are used in wastewater is basic

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- (6.3.2) investigate titration curve and conductivity graphs to analyse data to

indicate characteristic reaction profile, for example:

● strong acid/strong base

● strong acid/weak
● weak acid/strong base

TITRATION CURVES

A titration curve plots the pH (or conductivity) of the reaction mixture in the conical
flask against the volume of the titrant added

● Successful titration - there must be an identifiable endpoint/equivalence

point where the pH and colour of the indicator change rapidly
● The shape of the curve depends on whether the acid is placed in the burette or
conical flask

STRONG ACID - STRONG BASE

Consider NaOH titrated into HCl

1. pH very low - strong acid in conical flask

2. NaOH added from burette → neutralisation

reaction occurs
● H+ ions deplete → pH gradually rises

3. Equivalence point, all H+ ions are consumed

● Salt is neutral → equivalence point occurs at pH = 7

4. NaOH continually released from burette → pH rapidly increases

● Presence of additional OH- ions
○ *pH scale is logarithmic → a small amount of base produces a
substantial increase in pH

5. The pH does not change and gradient of the curve

flattens off
● Solution has excess OH- ions -

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STRONG ACID - WEAK BASE

Consider NH3 titrated into HCl

1. pH very low → strong acid in conical flask

2. NH3 added from burette → neutralisation

reaction occurs
● H+ ions deplete → pH gradually rises

3. Equivalence point - depletion of excess H+ ions

● Salt is acidic → equivalence point occurs at pH < 7

4. NH3 continually released from burette → pH rapidly increases

5. The pH does not change and gradient of the curve flattens off
● The final pH is lower than the strong acid - strong base titration

WEAK ACID - STRONG BASE

Consider NaOH titrated into CH3COOH

1. pH starts moderately low → weak acid in conical flask

2. NaOH added from burette → neutralisation reaction occurs

● Initially, the added NaOH reacts rapidly with the present H+ ions,
causing a short, steep rise in pH

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3. The establishment of an CH3COO-/CH3COOH buffer system stabilises the pH

4. Equivalence point - depletion of excess H+ ions (rapid ↑ pH)

● Salt is basic → equivalence point occurs at pH > 7

5. NaOH causes a further increase in pH

● The final pH is higher than the strong acid - strong base titration

WEAK ACID - WEAK BASE

Consider NH3 titrated into CH3COOH

1. pH starts moderately low → weak acid in conical flask

2. CH3COOH added from the burette

● H+ ions are depleted → gradual increase in pH

3. Equivalence point - No rapid increase in pH at equivalence

● Hard to detect using indicators (it is not performed)

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CONDUCTIVITY GRAPHS

Conductivity refers to the propensity of a material to conduct electricity

● Conductivity depends on concentration, charge, size and identity

A conductivity graph plots the total conductivity of the reaction mixture in the
conical flask against the volume of titrant added

● Used to track the progress of a reaction and identify the equivalence point

STRONG ACID - STRONG BASE

Consider NaOH titrated into HCl

1. Initial conductivity is high → HCl ionises completely (monoprotic acid)

○ When the concentration of ions is high, the conductivity is high

2. NaOH added from burette →

neutralisation reaction occurs

● The OH- (from NaOH) reacts with H+ to form water, lowering the
conductivity in a linear trend

3. The equivalence point occurs where the conductivity is lowest

○ All H+ ions have been eliminated
○ Solution now contains only Na+ and Cl- ions

4. Further NaOH added from burette - conductivity rises as this strong base
dissociates

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STRONG ACID/BASE - WEAK BASE/ACID

Consider NH3 titrated into HCl

1. Initial conductivity is high → HCl ionises completely

2. NH3 added from burette → neutralisation

reaction occurs

● NH3 reacts with H+ to form NH4+, lowering the conductivity in a linear

trend
○ NH4+ bulkier than H+ (↓ conductivity)

3. The equivalence point occurs where the conductivity is lowest

○ All H+ ions have been eliminated
○ Solution now contains only NH4+ and Cl- ions

4. At the equivalence point, the graph is curved

○ Acidic salt undergoes chemical equilibria with water (salt hydrolysis)

5. Further NH3 is added → the conductivity remains essentially stable

STRONG ACID/BASE - WEAK BASE/ACID

Consider NaOH titrated into CH3COOH

1. Initial conductivity is low → acetic acid does NOT ionise completely

2. The first trend is downwards → OH- ions from NaOH reacts with H+ to form
water, lowering the conductivity

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3. More NaOH is added

→ neutralisation occurs:

○ This produces Na+ and CH3COO- ions, increasing the concentration of

mobile charge carriers → conductivity increases

4. The equivalence point occurs where there is a change in the gradient of the
line

● At the equivalence point, the graph is curved

○ Basic salt undergoes chemical equilibria with water (salt
hydrolysis)

5. Further NaOH is added → the curve increases more steeply since strong base
introduces more ions as it dissociates

WEAK ACID - WEAK BASE

Consider NH3 titrated into CH3COOH

1. Initial conductivity is low - acetic acid does NOT ionise completely

2. The first trend is downwards → NH3 reacts with H+ to form bulky NH4+ ions,
lowering the conductivity

3. More NH3 is added → neutralisation occurs:

○ This produces CH3COO- and NH4+ ions, increasing the concentration of

mobile charge carriers → conductivity increases

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4. The equivalence point occurs where there is a change in the gradient of the
line

● At the equivalence point, the graph is curved

○ Salt undergoes chemical equilibria with water (salt hydrolysis)

5. Further NH3 is added → the conductivity remains essentially stable

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- (6.1.5) conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of

neutralisation

INVESTIGATION: ENTHALPY OF NEUTRALISATION

Aim: To determine the enthalpy of neutralisation (ΔHneutralisation)

Background:

● Net ionic equation for neutralisation is often:

● Enthalpy of neutralisation: Calculated as the enthalpy change

per mole of water formed

● Neutralisation reactions are exothermic - negative ΔH

Method:
1. Pour 50mL of 1M NaOH(aq) into the styrofoam
2. Using a retort stand and clamps, suspend the thermometer in the cup such that
the tip does not contact the walls of the cup
3. Observe the initial temperature and record
4. Pour 50mL of 1M HCl(aq) into the cup and stir briefly with stirring rod
5. Observe the change in temperature and record the maximal temperature
change
6. Repeat the experiment twice more and find the mean temperature change

Discussion:

● The key issue with this experiment is minimising heat loss to the environment
○ Styrofoam cup is a good but imperfect thermal insulator
○ Sytrofoam lid on the cup to reduce heat losses

● Assumptions:
○ Thermal energy produced from neutralisation transferred to the water
○ Heat capacity of the salt solution = water (4.18 J/g/K)
○ The density of the salt solution was taken to be the same as that of
water (1g/mL)
■ Both reasonable if salt was dilute

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- (6.2.5) construct models and/or animations to communicate the differences

between strong, weak, concentrated and dilute acids and bases

- (6.3.3) model neutralisation of strong and weak acids and bases using a
variety of media

INVESTIGATION: MODELLING ACIDS AND BASES

Aims: Model the different between strong, weak, concentrated and dilute acids and
bases

MODEL 1: ACID STRENGTH

1. Assemble 8 H2O molecules with a moly-mod kit

2. Assemble 4 HA molecules (acid)

3. Demonstrate the ionisation of HA and formation of H3O+ by breaking the H-A

bond and attached the free H atom to the H2O molecule

4. If no further ionisation is modelled, this represents an equilibrium of a weak

acid in aqueous solution

WEAK ACID (incomplete ionisation) →

5. Perform further ionisations by breaking the H-A bonds, and attaching the free H
atoms to the H2O molecule. This represents the complete ionisation of a strong
acid

STRONG ACID (complete ionisation) →

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MODEL 2: ACID CONCENTRATION

1. Establish two separate models side-by-side, each with 8 H2O molecules

● First model - assemble 4 HA molecules.
● Second model -more concentrated solution with 8 HA molecules

2. In each, represent 25% ionisation of the weak acids (first model - one HA
ionised, second model - two HA ionised)

3. Second model has a higher [H3O+] and a lower pH

4. Represent the first model as a strong acid (all HA molecules ionise). Keep the
second model untouched

5. Compare the [H3O+] of each model:

○ The strong acid (model 1), whilst less concentrated than the acid in
model 2, still has a greater [H3O+]
○ The degree of ionisation and the concentration are both important in
determining the [H3O+] of an acid

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MODEL 3: NEUTRALISATION

1. Establish a model with 4 HA acid molecules and 4 BOH base molecules

2. Demonstrate the neutralisation reaction by splitting the H-A bond and B-OH
bond, donating the proton H+ to OH-, forming H2O.

Discussion:

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

● Acids are proton donors and bases are ● Does not show electron-level interactions
proton acceptors (Bronsted Lowry Theory) ○ Electron pair transfer for the Lewis
● Demonstrates acid strength definition of acids and bases
○ Incomplete ionisation for weak acids ● Inaccurate representation of molecular size,
○ Complete ionisation for strong acids bond angles, and timescale of the process
● Demonstrates acid concentration ● Cannot represent exothermic nature of rxns
○ Changing number of acid molecules
● Demonstrates neutralisation reactions as a
proton transfer reaction

Conclusion:

● Despite the inherent weakness of MolyMod Kids, we were successfully able to

model acids and bases, including neutralisation reactions

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- (6.3.4) calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa =
-log10(pKa)) to determine the difference between strong and weak acids

Acid Dissociation Constant - allows comparison of weak acids in terms of DOI

Consider weak acid HF:

● When Ka is high - equilibrium lies to the right - high degree of ionisation

● When Ka is low - equilibrium lies to the left - low degree of ionisation

Therefore, acids with lower Ka are weaker than those with a higher Ka

● Strong acids have a very high Ka - completely ionise in solution

● Higher the Ka, the lower the pKa

Polyprotic Acids and Ka

● Ionisation of polyprotic acids is considered in a stepwise manner. Each step

being represented with its own equation and has its own associated Ka value

● The pH of different weak acids can be compared by their Ka

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Base Dissociation Constant

Weak bases do not completely dissociate in solution

● A base with a higher Kb is stronger than one with a lower Kb

There is a relationship between Ka and Kb which applies foe conjugate acid-base

pairs:
Ka x Kb = Kw = 1.0 x 10-14

Therefore, if the Ka of an acid is known, then the Kb of its conjugate can be easily
determined

- (6.3.5) explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:

● by industries
● by aboriginal and torres strait islander peoples
● using digital probes and instruments

ACID BASE ANALYSIS IN INDUSTRY

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) content of aspirin

● ASA is the active ingredient in aspirin

○ ASA (HC9H7O4) is a monoprotic weak acid
■ thus a strong base (NaOH) must be used

● Aspirin is a solid powder - meaning that in a direct titration with NaOH,

clumping of the powder will occur, causing the reaction to be incomplete

○ Dissolve in ethanol (aspirin more soluble in ethanol than water)

○ Hence, a back titration is performed in ethanol solvent

1. 1g of aspirin is dissolved in 10mL of ethanol solvent

2. 40mL of 0.1M NaOH - excess reagent - is added to make the solution 50mL

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3. Burette is filled with 0.1M HCl and a titration is performed to find the
concentration of the leftover (excess) NaOH - take avg. titre over 3 trials
4. Compare this with the results of a blank titration:
○ Conical flask contains 10mL of ethanol and 40mL of 0.1 NaOH but no
aspirin
○ Difference in titre between the blank and back titration represents the
volume of NaOH required to completely neutralise the ASA in aspirin

Back titration is particularly useful for solid powders and slow neutralisation
fractions, both of which make direct titrations difficult

ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDERS USES OF ACIDS AND BASES

The original antacids: Using clays to neutralise stomach acid

● Many ochres and clay contain hydroxides of transition metals

● Modern antacid tablet contain mental hydroides to neutralise the HCl acid in
the human stomach

● Aboriginal Australians would ingest ochres and clay as a remedy for stomach
discomfort. Hydroxides in clay neutralised the acid of the stomach

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- (6.3.8) describe the importance of buffers in natural systems

A BUFFER is composed of comparable/similar concentrations of a weak acid (or

base) and its conjugate, which resists the change in pH if another acid or base is
added

● weak acid and conjugate base

● weak base and conjugate acid

How do buffers work?

eg. Carbonic acid mixed with sodium hydrogen carbonate. This is called the
H2CO3/HCO3- buffer system:

To demonstrate how this solution behaves as a buffer, the effect of the addition of an
acid and a base must be considered:

1. Adding ACID (H3O+)

○ This acid is consumed by HCO3- shifting the equilibrium to the left
○ Overall there is a minimal change in [H3O+] and thus pH remains stable
2. Adding BASE (OH-)
○ THis base is consumed by H2CO3 shifting the equilibrium to the left
○ Overall there is a minimal change in [OH-], thus pOH and pH are stable

Sample Exam Answer:

Describe how H2CO3/HCO3- is a buffer 3 marks

A buffer is composed of comparable/similar concentrations of a weak acid (or base)

and its conjugate, which resists the change in pH if another acid or base is added.

In this case, H2CO3(aq) is the weak acid, and HCO3-(aq) is the conjugate base.

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Le Chatelier's Principle states that if a system at dynamic equilibrium is disturbed,

then the system will shift to minimise the change until a new equilibrium is formed.

● When an acid is added, [H3O+] increases, so equation 1 shifts to the left by LCP
and reduces [H3O+]
● When a base is added, [OH-] increases, so equation 2 shifts to the left by LCP
and reduces [OH-]

HUMAN BLOOD BUFFER

● pH of blood is regulated at 7.4 by buffers that maintain homeostasis

● CO2(g) is produced as a waste product of respiration
○ Dissolves in blood to form H2CO3 (equation 1)
● H2CO3 is converted to HCO3- by enzyme carbonic anhydrase, so there is
comparable concentration of H2CO3 and HCO3- in blood

● If blood becomes acidic (during exercise) - [H3O+] increases, and equation 2

shifts to the left, increasing [H2CO3] and buffering pH of blood
○ This causes equation 1 to shift to the left to produce more CO2
○ Rate of respiration increases, so you breathe out more CO2(g)

● If blood becomes basic (hyperventilation) - [OH-] increases, and equation 3

shifts to the left, increasing [HCO3-] and buffering pH of blood
○ At the same time, [H3O+] is depleted, causing equation 2 to shift left
○ This causes equation 1 to shift to the right to reduce CO2(g)
○ Rate of respiration decreases, so you breathe out less CO2(g)

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THE OCEAN BUFFER

● CO2(g) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid

● Since the ocean is basic, there is little unionised H2CO3 in the ocean. Most of it
exists as HCO3- (88%) and CO32- (11%)

● HCO3-/CO32- buffer is formed

● If ocean becomes acidic, [H3O+] rises so equation 1 shifts left, stabilising pH

● If ocean becomes basic, [OH-] rises so equation 2 shifts left, stabilising pH

● Shells and limestone naturally protect and preserve the HCO3-/CO32- buffer
○ These are both composed of calcium carbonate, which can dissolve
under acidic conditions to release further CO32-

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- (6.3.7) conduct a practical investigation to prepare a buffer and

demonstrate its properties

INVESTIGATION: PREPARING AN ACETIC ACID BUFFER SOLUTION

Aim: To prepare an CH3COOH/CH3COO- buffer solution and demonstrate its ability to

buffer changes in pH

1. Prepare the buffer solution by mixing 20mL of 0.1M CH3COOH with 60mL of
0.1M NaCH3COO solution in a clean beaker.

2. Measure the pH of this buffer (pH probe) and calibrate it to the required pH (4)

3. Use a measuring cylinder to separate this buffer control, by placing 20mL of

solution into three clean beakers

4. Label beakers: “buffer control”, “buffer with acid” and “buffer with base”.
Add 2-3 drops of universal indicator.

5. Make a non-buffer solution with the same pH as the buffer (HCl and demin)

6. Use a measuring cylinder to separate this non-buffer solution, by placing 20mL

of solution into three clean beakers

7. Label these beakers as “non-buffer control”, “non-buffer with acid”, and

“non-buffer with base”. Add 2-3 drops of universal indicator.

8. Add 5 drops of 0.1M HCl to the beakers labelled “with acid” and record colour

9. Add 5 drops of 0.1M NaOH to the beakers labelled “with base”, record colour

* Buffer: pH stable

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