throughout the 4 animal ods aril’ aistribter ion ae ion Biological tage’ known eat plants protease saponins ;), phytatess piold plant king’ feedinB Th f response? jenerally © na inhibitors mcosides oxalic pemrown to De to eerious t health Page fo human and animal health | eo came amounts. nti-nucritional factors (\ u ) rae substances generated in natural £004 siuffs by the O° F is not an intrinsic characterisue of a he digestive PFO of the ingesting anim ‘ANF for monogastric animals, are degraded i i as animal t! ors, which are ‘nants because they shrubs and trees d edible twigs © he presence of ANFS. utritional factors diminish ani ds of scarcity during perio bstances is consumed in large quant or confinement Ww’ ities. Anti-ni cause toxicity rich in these sul found ANF in foods are listed below: 4.6.1 Saponins s composed of a lipid: a triterpenoid structure Saponins are glycoside: consisits of either a sterol or, more commonly, idues that differ in their po to water soluble sugar rest : Pe cabal are a heterogenous group 0! substances that occur in i fy such as chick pea, soybean, Dias gad es > eo Ae and sunflower, Saponins are s! e and metabolism in a number of ways such as: M alee haemolysis, 6 e eae of blood and liver cholesterol, ni ae of growth rate, ; . pa of smooth muscle activity a is inhibition and ‘uction in nutrient absorpti rption. imal productivity but may also hen the feed Most commonly soluble aglycone that type and f naturally occurring foam including kidney bean, and oil seeds such as hown to affect animala : sh affecting i naiority OF Aaponing pele and are known to. inen wi p also known to f ive are al form iy foot zine and calcium, ei i 2 protese Inhibitors: jO" inhibitors are widely distributed 0h yg mont legumes. Protease ii quill ‘of proteolytic enzymes wi ity Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors ‘ap, * inhibitors occurring in raw legume seeds, © or a to be partly respor ce for the growth retarding Prope; qn, ‘These rs have been implicated in reducing : At iit and in the development of pancreatic hypertrophy Protein est polypeptides that form well characterized stable compen te diss tors are : % i i ib yin, obstructing, the enzymatic action. Protease inhibitors ae my gated by heat. is 4 Amylase Inhibitors ge inhibitors are the substances that prevent dietary starches from pny absorbed by the body. Starches cannot be absorbed unless they are broken down by the digestive enzyme amylase and other secondary th Amylase inhibitors are heat labile. 464 Lectins (Phytohemagglutinins) (ins are glycoproteins widely distributed in legumes and some oil i and are characterized by their ability to combine with carbohydrate ¢ receptors. Lectins are proteins that have the ability to clump or futinate red blood cells in a fashion similar to antibodies. Lectins have se capability to directly bind to the intestinal mucosa, interacting with je enterocytes and interfering with the absorption and transportation of satrlents particularly carbohydrates during digestion and causing iihelial lesions within the intestine, Lectins are known for agglutinating uf blood cells, They depress animal growth by interfering with the {gstion and absorption of nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract. Lectins seheat labile. all inte, hall intestine, con with bite Hible nay al onant kingdom and is present Js and cereals. On id nytic AE ou 0.8 rte naturally throu es, oll occurs voy Hepes OF ervecn 1-2%. About , cereal grains and x ihe pl at 8 ies win in es I F the total phosphorous within ; ay the form of organically boum phytin tie acid accumulates in storage sites in ates to it forming # complex. Phytic ming, protein and ™ neral — phytic acid reduced prote! and mineral ind minerals like calcium, iron, form insoluble complexes bdenum to fo testinal tract. bioavailability jum, Zine, cop] that are not readily absorbed from 4.6.6 Oxalates es bind minerals like calcium and magnesium and uscular weakness and oxalates, like phytat int ‘with their metabolism. ‘They also cause ™ jis, Oxalates cause gastrointestinal tract irritation, blockage of the cium oxalate crystals, development of urinary calculi ble oxalate in the body prevents the absorption of soluble calcium ions as the oxalate binds the calcium ions fo form insoluble calcium oxalate complexes. As a result of this, people ba Led to form kidney stones are advised to avoid oxalate-rich foods. Oxalates also react with proteins to form com, lexes whic! inhibitory effect in peptic digestion. a nhevol renal tubules by call and hypocalcaemia. Too much of solul 4.6.7 Tannins Tani fannins are water soluble phenolic compounds. Tannins are widel; 'y distributed in le; bt gume seeds and some mil ure g millets. They h ili Fi a ara from aqueous solution. tie Se Ti =e eel proteins and may bind and sahibie ligestive enzymes. Tannins ha’ * ve also been to interfere with iron absorption. 488 Goitrogens functi are a class S ofthe thyroid oe present in food which cmon ing ih aie ke: ang Since and inhibit the ma is reported to cause en uptake, Long term thyroid bormones play a and secretion of oo of thyroid y an i ‘ roid hormones. important role in the control of bodytheir deficiency results in reduced growth and reproductive ontaining these substances include soybeans (and juetabolsm, erformance. Foods ¢ i 3 sovbenn products such as tofu), peanuts, millet, strawberries, pears, peaches, spinach, radish, and vegetables in the genus Brassica (broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower). 4.6.9 Cyanogenic Glycosides Cyanogenic glycosides are reportred to be present in some legumes like linseed, lima bean, kidney bean and red gram. Cyanogenic glycosides on hydrolysis yield toxic hydrocyanic acid (HCN). The cyanide ions: (a) inhibit several enzyme systems; (b) depress growth through interference with certain essential amino3.3.4 Changes in Vitamins The changes in water soluble vitamins such as vitamin C, thiamin ang riboflavin are of great concem on food processing. Thiamin tends to be stable in the presence of acid but thiamin is destroyed when subjected to heat. Thus, low acid foods like corn and meat tend to lose most thiamin, Riboflavin on the other hand is not affected by heat but is sensitive to light. Ultraviolet rays in sunlight or light from fluorescent bulbs is known to destroy riboflavin. The riboflavin content of food can ‘be maintained by placing the food in a container that blocks the light. Ascorbic acid is the most sensitive vitamin in foods and its stability varies markedly as a function of environmental conditions such as pH and the concentration of trace metal ions and oxygen. Vitamin C is especially sensitive to an enzyme known as ascorbic acid oxidase which is present in all fruits and vegetables as well as in microorganisms. Canning will destroy the enzyme and protect the vitamin C. Fat soluble vitamins are different than the water soluble vitamins in that fat soluble vitamins are unaffected by heat. If the food is prepared in the presence of fat, then the fat soluble vitamins will dissolve into the fat that the food is prepared in as is the case with deep frying. More fat soluble vitamins will dissolve when the food has mors freshly cut surfaces in contact with the cooking medium fat. Water soluble vitamins, especially vitamin C and thiamin, are also 18 general more sensitive to the heat required for commercial sterilization (canning) than fat soluble vitamins. The exact amount of nutrients lost depends on the food composition, container, and heat.Minerals are different than vitamins in that minerals. heat. Minerals and vitamins are similar in that both aed by the water solution in which the food is usually kept or in which out into is prepared. This water solution Which the food Many nutrients that were ‘ : - wasted. Cutti into small pieces provides more surface con igor hea ovide tact with the solution and more mineral and vitamin leakage is seen. To minimize mineral and vitamin leakage, it is best to keep the food in larger pieces and not to submerge the food in the water. Steaming vegetables is much preferred over boiling the vegetables in water. Nutrient losses in food during processing vary with the type of nutrient and the conditions of processing. The main factors that affect nutrient loss include light, oxygen, pH, water content, natural biological enzyme systems of the food, and heat. When evaluating the value of a food processing procedure, the benefits from increased food availability should be weighed against the nutrient loss and the importance of the lost nutrients in the food. Although some nutrients are lost during the blanching and canning processes, many foods would not be as steadily and conveniently available throughout the year if not for these preservation techniques, or would be spoiled and inedible, resulting in complete nutrient loss.Enzymes Enzyme, a substance that acts as acatalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which chemical reactions Proceed without itself being altered in the Process, are chemical reactions, and most are regulated by enzymes. Without nes many of these reactions would not take place at a perceptible rate. Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism. This includes the digestion of food, in which large nutrient molecules (such od a carbohydrates, and fats) are broken down into smaller molecules, Enzymes also have valuable industrial and medical applications. The fermenting of wine, leavening of bread, curdling of cheese, and brewing of beer have been Practiced from earliest times, but not ‘untilAn enzyme will interact with only one type of substance or group of substances, called the substrate, to catalyze a certain kind of reaction. Because of this specificity, enzymes often have been named by adding the suffix “-ase” to the substrate’s name (as in urease, which catalyzes the breakdown of urea). Notall enzymes haye been named in this manner, however, and to ease the confusion surrounding enzyme nomenclature, 8 classification system has been developed based on the type of reaction the enzyme catalyzes. There are six principal categories and their reactions: (3) oxidoreductases: which are involved in electron transfer. (2) transferases: which transfer a chemical group from one substance to another. (3) hydrolases: whichcleavethe substrate by uptake of ‘a water molecule (hydrolysis). oe which form double bonds by adding or removing a (5) isomerases : which transfer a group within a molecule to form an isomer; and (6) ligases, or synthetases + which couple the formation of various chemical bonds to the breakdown of a pyrophosphate bond in adenosine triphosphate or a similar nucleotide. >Specificity is the ability of an enzyme to choose exact substrate from a group of similar chemical molecules. The specificity is actually a molecular recognition mechanism and it operates through the structural and conformational complementarity between enzyme and substrate. Enzymes show different degrees of specificity towards their substrate.gyrmes show dilTerent degrees of specificity: . Relative, tow or bond specificity ee on substrates that are similar in structure and contain i Amylase, which acts 14 dit * some os Blycosidic, bonds in starch, b Lipase that hydrolyzes ester bonds in different triglycerides \ Medea, sea or group specificity "pthis type Of specificity, the enzyme is if wi pee Spec he not only to the type of bond but » ie roan endopeptidase that hydrolyzes central a isan idase that i bonds in which the amino group belongs lo rena amino acids ¢.. phenyl alanine, tyrosine and tryptophan. b. Trypsin is an endopeptidase that hydrol central Peptide bonds in which the amino group belongs to basic amino acids €.8. arginine, lysine and histidine. c Chymotrypsin is an endopeptidase that hydrolyzes central Peptide bonds in which the 1 pend i carboxyl group belongs to d, Aminopeptidase is an cxopeptidase that hydrolyzes Peripheral peptide bood at the amino terminal (end) of polypeptide chain. € Carborypeptidase is an exopeptidase that hydrolyzes Peripheral peptide bond at the terminal of a 2 ee carboxyl o! ‘Abtolute, high or substrate specificity this type of specificity, the enzyme acts only on one substrate ¢.g. 8) Uricase, which acts only on uric acid. b) Arginase, which acts only on arginine. _* °c) Carbonic anhydrase, which acts on carbonic 4) Lactase, which acts on Lactose. = ©) Sucrase, which acts on sucrose. 1) Maltase, which acts on maltose.: substrate but also ‘ Etre Mr eee cay specie nat only 0 configuration ¢.g. ne =| T tino acid oxidase acts only on L amino b Franke ed easiness pyr D amino acids. idle lycosidase ects only on a glycos . Dons whieh are present in starch, dextrin and alycogen. lycosidase nly on fe glycosidic bonds Oeste We ligest glycogen and starch due to presence of a- Prabal slpwep oe cellulose duc to the absence of B- S. Dual specificity There are two types of dual specificity: ‘A- The enzyme may act on two substrates by one reaction type. 68 xanthine oxidase enzyme acts of xanthine and hypoxanthine (two substrates) by oxidation (one reaction type). Xanthine oxidase Xanthine oxidase "Wypetsnthioe + anihine rte cela B. pen gz may ct on one substrate by tro dierent reaction ose by ora aDBenaseexzyme acts on isocitrate (one a : , tr os lowed ty decarboxylation (two different leeciera Isocitnte dehydrogenase . ketogiutarate NAD NADIyH* "CO3gnzymes In Food processing : poxymes al been important to food technology because of their ability ect aS sesiyats, Cansformalng| raw materials into improved food products. to foe main values of enzymes are their substrate specificity , catalytic Trt poxymes modify and improve the functional, nutritional and sensory sts of ingredients and products, and therefore enzymes have found Pespread applications in processing and production of all kinds of food ucts. wi sozymes in Dairy industry « India being the highest lucer of milk in the world, and consequent! ale be tty Racin food ok iry industry to convert the liquid milk into value- products using ees Sor ee nccuna tie tex tt a ee manufacturing was among the earliest applications of exogenous enzymes in food processing. In recent years, proteinases have found additional applications in dairy technology, for example in acceleration of cheese pee modification of functional properties and preparation of dietic products. Animal rennet (bovine chymosin) is conventionally used as a milk-clotting agent in dairy industry for the gee IC of quality cae with oa and Se acts on the milk prot two stages, by enzymatic and by non- enzymatic action, resulting in coagulation of milk. * Lactose, the sugar found in milk and whey, and its corresponding hydrolase, lactase or B-galactosidase, have been extensively researched during the past decade. Lactose can be obtained from various sources its pnts animal organs, bacteria, yeasts (intracellular enzyme), or mol he pn orien prse elon ts ety ment of flavor in ferment i lucts, are ca le of releasing le amino acid residues from oli ay i oe pitino lipases have significant role in dairy food industry, The other minor enzymes having limited applications in dismut z sul; k ydryl oxidase, cau: sat ren an tase, , Cee or een aed vewie Preservation.i logy Enzymes in pakery Techo? rocess t event in mankind The development of bread PR the ve ar te chanization, bread's pongo ret its price waS reduced: thereby white- and aol bee co! ity, within almost everyone 's reach. An contributed toevolution of the baking market was rea e a important aspect that th ion of industrial enzymes inne +, eo represent arelevant segment of the industry. Baking comprises use of enzymes from ith the s: the endogenous enzymes if flour, enzymes associated wi metabolic activity of the dominant microorganisms and exogenous enzymes which are added in the dough. The supplementation of flour and dough with enzyme improvers (technical enzymes) is & usual practice for flour standardization and also as baking aids, Enzymes are usually added t modify dough rheology, 65 retention and crumb softness in b 4 manufacture, tomodify dough rheology in the manufacture rf te biscuits, to change product softness in cake making ep acrylamide formation in bakery products . The enzymes to vedio individually or in complex mixtures, which ma at i can be added inthe production of baked goods , and their y act in a aye Enzymes as technological aids ae usu ty jevels are usually very low, mixing step of the bread makin ally added to flour, during the used in bread makin g process, The enzymes most Amylases can degrad ard the a-amylases from diff act “upon. Se : and produce small dextrins erent oxidases can Ree as hemicellulases, ies for the yeast to network and so improve! a improve the strength lipases and quality of the finished bread, of the glutenEnzymes in Fruit and Vegetable Processing and Juice Extraction e Enzymes are processing aids used worldwide for fruit processing, particularly for the production of clear fruit juice and concentrate. Enzymes can increase the yield of solid recovery during pulp washing, facilitate the production of highly concentrated citrus bases, improve essential oil recovery from peel, debitter juice, clarify lemon juice or increase the worth of waste products. Pectinases are one of the important upcoming enzymes of the commercial sector especially for fruit juice industry as prerequisites for obtaining well clarified and stable juices with higher yields. Other enzymes used in the juice industry are amylases, glucoamylases, cellulases, hemicellulose, _laccase, naringinase and limoninase. Amylases are added together with pectinases at the start of the processing season when apples contain starch. Vegetable juice processing therefore requires more cellulases in addition to pectinases to reduce viscosity sufficiently for juice extraction using a decanter. i2.5.1 Enzymatic Browning This is a significant problem with a number of foods specially fruits such as apricots, apples, pears, peaches, bananas and grapes; vegetables such as potatoes, brinjals, mushrooms and lettuce etc; and sea foods such as shrimp, lobsters and crabs etc. This limits the shelf life of many minimally processed foods and also it is a problem in the production of dehydrated and frozen fruits and vegetables. Enzymatic browning reactions only occur in fresh living tissue where the enzymes are still active. When these enzymes are denatured by heat or any other agent, this reaction no longer occurs. However, all browning reactions in fruits may not be enzymatic. For ex: when orange juice is concentrated, it often darkens with a deleterious effect not only on the appearance but also on the flavor. This browning reaction is non enzymatic, it occurs at temperatures above those which denatures most enzymes. Enzymatic browning occurs in many tissues whenever they are injured. The injury can be the result of bruising, cutting, freezing, or disease. That part of thePosed to air undergoes a rapid : grvaytnatio Serie takes place when the enzyme polyphenol oxidase cs the OxIeRHON Of phenols in the foods to form compounds called no Sa Nse and react non enzymatically with other wall compounds, amino acids ete to produce dark Gea back or red “agents: The quINONES can also Polymetize to form dark melanin pigments, pyptenol a (PRO) are found in almost all higher plants. The ast iinportant actors that determine the rate of the enzymatic browning Pauit and ee are the concentrations of active polyphenol ‘wuase and at nt compounds present, the pH, the temperature and the ‘ot ies . wa rte tissue. pH and oxygen also influence gene HOH © browning. The optimum pH for pol: ase activity is between $ and 7, : a NH, | “eX HOOOH 0, + FRO Buber Otro ee Y (aSHONaON) (Criaion) &S Ho’ yete DOPA 0 ‘HO, oo 1 Re ae S.6-diydrony indole Leven compound +2 —a= Melanin, o Indole 5,6-quinone where DOPA Is Dihydroxy phenyl alanine \ ‘eon of Oxidation of Tyrosine by Polyphenol oxidase and the formation of Melanin Pigments