Unit operation in food engineering:

Units and Dimension:

Units-
Dimensions are measured in terms of units. For example, the
dimension of length is measured in terms of length units: the
micrometer, millimeter, meter, kilometer, etc.

So that the measurements can always be compared, the units have

been defined in terms of physical quantities. For example:

the meter (m) is defined in terms of the wavelength of light;

the standard kilogram (kg) is the mass of a standard lump of
platinum-iridium;
the second (s) is the time taken for light of a given wavelength to
vibrate a given number of
times;
the degree Celsius (°C) is a one-hundredth part of the temperature
interval between the
freezing point and the boiling point of water at standard pressure;
the unit of force, the newton (N), is that force which will give an
acceleration of 1 m sec-2
to a mass of 1kg;
the energy unit, the newton meter is called the joule (J), and
the power unit, 1 J s-1, is called the watt (W).

More complex units arise from equations in which several of these

fundamental units are combined to define some new relationship. For
example, volume has the dimensions [L]3 and so the units are m3.
Density, mass per unit volume, similarly has the dimensions [M]/[L]3,
and the units kg/m3. A table of such relationships is given in Appendix
1. When dealing with quantities which cannot conveniently be
measured in m, kg, s, multiples of these units are used. For example,
kilometers, tonnes and hours are useful for large quantities of meters,
kilograms and seconds respectively. In general, multiples of 103 are
preferred such as millimeters (m x 10-3) rather than centimeters (m x
10-2). Time is an exception: its multiples are not decimalized and so
although we have micro (10-6) and milli (10-3) seconds, at the other
end of the scale we still have minutes (min), hours (h), days (d), etc.

Care must be taken to use appropriate multiplying factors when

working with these units. The common secondary units then use the
prefixes micro (µ, 10-6), milli (m, 10-3), kilo (k, 103) and mega (M,
106).
Dimensions-
It has been found from experience that everyday engineering
quantities can all be expressed in terms of a relatively small number of
dimensions. These dimensions are length, mass, time and
temperature. For convenience in engineering calculations, force is
added as another dimension.
Force can be expressed in terms of the other dimensions, but it
simplifies many engineering calculations to use force as a dimension.
(remember that weight is a force, being mass times the acceleration
due to gravity)

Dimensions are represented as symbols by: length [L], mass [M], time
[t], temperature [T] and force [F].

Note that these are enclosed in square brackets: this is the

conventional way of expressing dimensions.

All engineering quantities used in this book can be expressed in terms

of these fundamental dimensions.All symbols for units and dimensions
are gathered in Appendix 1.
For example:

As more complex quantities are found to be needed, these can be

analysed in terms of the fundamental dimensions. For example in heat
transfer, the heat-transfer coefficient, h, is defined as the quantity of
heat energy transferred through unit area, in unit time and with unit
temperature difference:
Mass and Energy Balance:
Material and energy balance in food processing is a useful tool for
product formulation, process design, cost estimation and process
efficiency calculation. Material balance is the tracking of inflow
material to a process, out flow from the process and the accumulation
amount of the product. The selection and sizing of process equipment
is made based on the material balance. The required quantity of a
component in a formulation can be calculated from material balance.
The information on energy inflow, out flow and loss or conversion
enables us to design a process in terms of thermal, mechanical
energy and to select the suitable source of energy for the process of
concern. Moreover, a process engineer gains the ideas as to where
loss of energy is taking place and find out the alternative ways to
remedy it.
Material and energy balance is the heart of process design. The
material and energy balance is worked out quantitatively knowing the
material and energy entering the system. The nature of process
decides the new material generation or loss. A chemical process in a
system is always associated with some new component formation.
The principle of mass and energy balance is the basis of material and
energy balance. The mass/energy entering the system plus
mass/energy generated and accumulated equals the mass/energy out
plus mass/energy lost. The batch and continuous process is defined
based on the material flow. A basis is decided in material/energy
balance for quantifying an unknown variable. A tie material is one
which does not change during the process. The mass and energy flow
in a continuous process quantified with respect to time, i.e. the rate of
flow. The overall mass balance and concerned component/constituent
balance is carried out in any food processing problems.
Fluid Flow:
Many raw materials for foods and many finished foods are in the form
of fluids. These fluids have to be transported and processed in the
factory. Food technologists must be familiar with the principles that
govern the flow of fluids, and with the machinery and equipment that is
used to handle fluids. In addition, there is an increasing tendency to
handle powdered and granular materials in a form in which they
behave as fluids. Fluidization, as this is called, has been developed
because of the relative simplicity of fluid handling compared with the
handling of solids.

The engineering concept of a fluid is a wider one than that in general

use, and it covers gasses as well as liquids and fluidized solids. This
is because liquids and gasses obey many of the same laws so that it
is convenient to group them together under the general heading of
fluids.
The study of fluids can be divided into the study of fluids at rest - fluid
statics, and the study of fluids in motion - fluid dynamics. For some
purposes, further subdivision into compressible fluids such as gases,
and incompressible fluids such as liquids, is necessary. Fluids in the
food industry vary considerably in their properties. They include such
materials as:
Thin liquids - milk, water, fruit juices,
Thick liquids - syrups, honey, oil, jam,
Gasses - air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
Fluidized solids - grains, flour, peas.

1) Fluid Statics-
A part of Fluid Mechanics, dealing with fluids while no motion of
particles is present between the fluids, is called Fluid Statics. It occurs
in two distinctive situations, such as when there is no motion and while
moving like a rigid solid. According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure
can be transmitted by static fluids. Similarly, in Archimedes’ point of
view, it can be explained that a buoyant object is the same as the
displaced liquid’s weight. The motion of gasses and liquids are known
as fluid kinematics, and the measurement of the forces when fluid is in
motion is called Fluid dynamics. fluid statics deals with the response
or behavior of the fluid when it is at rest.
2) Fluid Dynamics-
Fluid dynamics is “the branch of applied science that is concerned
with the movement of liquids and gasses,” according to the American
Heritage Dictionary. It involves a wide range of applications such as
calculating force & moments, determining the mass flow rate of
petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns,
understanding nebulae in interstellar space, and modeling fission
weapon detonation.

3) Measurement of Rate of Flow of Fluids-

Flow rate measurement is crucial for all industries in applications
where it determines operational efficiency and help maximise cost-
savings. Accurate flow rate measurement can help improve output
quality, reduce waste and minimise environmental impact.

Flow rate is the measurement of the volume of fluid passing through a

given point in a system per unit of time. Measuring flow rate is
essential for many industrial, scientific, and engineering applications,
including:

Process control: In manufacturing and chemical industries, flow rate

measurements are critical for controlling and optimizing production
processes. Accurate flow rate measurements ensure that the right
amount of fluid is delivered to each stage of the process, preventing
over or underproduction, which can lead to product defects, waste, or
production delays.

Quality control: In industries such as food and beverage production or

pharmaceutical manufacturing, flow rate measurements are crucial for
ensuring product quality and consistency. Proper flow rate ensures
that the right ingredients are added in the right amounts, reducing the
risk of batch-to-batch variation or contamination.

Environmental monitoring: In environmental science and engineering,

flow rate measurements are critical for monitoring water, air, and gas
pollution. Flow rate measurements help scientists and engineers
determine the volume of pollutants emitted into the environment,
helping to identify and prevent environmental harm.

Energy management: Flow rate measurements are important in the

management of energy resources such as oil, gas, and water.
Accurate flow rate measurements help operators to optimize the use
of these resources, reducing waste and costs.

Overall, measuring flow rate is crucial for ensuring efficient and

effective operation of systems in many fields, and it is essential for
maintaining product quality, preventing waste, and protecting the
environment.
Process Heat Transfer:
These operations are controlled by temperature gradients. They
depend on the mechanism by which heat is transferred:
1) Conduction-
In continuous material media, heat flows in the direction of
temperature decrease and there is no macroscopic movement of
mass.
2) Convection-
The enthalpy flow associated with a moving fluid is called convective
flow of heat. Convection can be natural or forced.
Natural convection and forced convection are two fundamental modes
of heat transfer in fluid dynamics. They describe how heat energy is
transported between a solid surface and a fluid (liquid or gas) when a
temperature difference exists.
NaturalConvection-
In natural convection, the motion of the fluid is driven solely by
buoyancy forces due to temperature variations, leading to a natural
circulation of the fluid.
Forced Convection-
Forced convection, on the other hand, involves the use of external
mechanisms, such as pumps or fans, to induce fluid motion and
enhance heat transfer.

Characteristic Natural Convection Forced Convection

Driving Mechanism Natural density and temperature External sources (e.g., fans or
gradients drive fluid motion. pumps) induce fluid motion.

Example Boiling water, rising smoke, or hot Cooling fans, exhaust fans, or
air rising. pumps in HVAC systems.

Rate of Heat Transfer Typically lower due to natural, Generally higher due to external
unassisted movement. equipment assistance.

Control and Regulation Limited control, primarily Highly controllable and adjustable
dependent on ambient with external devices.
conditions.
Overall Heat Transfer Lower compared to forced Higher compared to free
Coefficient convection. convection.

3) Radiation-
Energy transmission by electromagnetic waves. No material media is
needed for its transmission.
Thermal treatments (sterilization and pasteurization), evaporation,
heat exchangers, ovens, solar plates, etc. are studied based on these
heat transfer mechanisms.
Overall Heat Transfer:
Under most conditions, heat transfer from one surface to a fluid or
from one fluid to another will occur by more than one mode of heat
transfer. To account for such situations, an overall heat-transfer
coefficient is utilized, which can be described by the following
expression:

where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient incorporating heat

transfer due to all three modes of heat transfer, if necessary. If, for
example, heat transfer should occur by all three modes of heat
transfer across constant surface area, the overall heat-transfer
coefficient would be defined in the following manner:

In the above equation, each term on the right-hand side represents

the resistance due to the particular mode involved and the sum (l/U)
represents the overall resistance to heat transfer.

Fourier’s Law:
Fourier’s law states that the negative gradient of temperature and the
time rate of heat transfer is proportional to the area at right angles of
that gradient through which the heat flows. Fourier’s law is the other
name of the law of heat conduction.

Heat Exchange Equipment:

In a food processing plant, heating and cooling of foods is conducted
in equipment called heat exchangers. Heat exchangers can be
broadly classified into non contact and contact types.

As the name implies, in non contact-type heat exchangers, the

product and heating or cooling medium are kept physically separated,
usually by a thin wall. On the other hand, in contact-type heat
exchangers, there is direct physical contact between the product and
the heating or cooling streams.
Scraped surface-
Scraped surface heat exchangers are the best method to provide
effective heat transfer due to the scraping blades that keep product
from settling on the interior surfaces.
Blades inside the product channel remove product from the channel
wall to ensure uniform heat transfer to the product.
The scraping blades are made a variety of materials to meet different
processing requirements, and are designed specifically for gentle
product handling to avoid compromising product quality and
consistency.
Scraped surface exchangers can be mounted vertically or horizontally.
Inside, an electric motor turns a rotor fitted with scraping blades.
To prevent damage to product, rotors turn and product the move
through the heat exchanger in the same direction, with product
entering at the bottom and exiting at the top.
The heating surface is polished to a high finish on the inner surface.
The seals are made of single carbon mechanical, carbon flushed /
aseptic, hard face and hard face flushed / aseptic. Suitable materials
will be selected for special applications.
Shell and Tube-
This type consists of a shell (outer vessel) with multiple tubes inside.
One fluid flows through the tubes while the other fluid flows around the
tubes in the shell. They are versatile, robust, and widely used in
industries.
Tubular-
A tubular heat exchanger (THE) is used to warm or cool a product by
exchanging heat between the process fluid and a service fluid, which
is typically water, ice water, glycol or steam. The hot or cold service
fluid flows around the tubes within the The and heat is transferred
between the product and the media. The rate of heat transfer is
dependent on the tubular heat exchanger configuration, temperature
differential, size of tubes, turbulence in the flow and flow velocity.
Different configurations are available, and the selection of the best
solution is based on the properties of the process fluid and production
goals. Our experience and expertise will help ensure you receive the
best solution for your specific needs in terms of production goals,
costs, efficiency and product quality
Plate-
These heat exchangers consist of a series of stacked plates with
alternating hot and cold fluid channels. The plates provide a large
surface area for heat transfer and are compact, efficient, and suitable
for applications with high heat transfer requirements.

Finned Tube Heat Exchangers: These exchangers have tubes with

extended surfaces called fins. The fins increase the heat transfer area
and enhance heat transfer efficiency. They are commonly used in air
cooling and heating applications.
Steam infusion-
Steam infusion is another method of steam heating where the food
product is heated by relatively low-pressure, culinary steam. A steam
infusion device usually incorporates a chamber where the product is
cascaded through a steam environment.
Direct heating involves direct contact between the food and the
heating medium by steam injection or steam infusion.
Steam infusion introduces product through a steam-filled infusion
chamber.
A steam infusion heat exchanger provides a direct contact between
steam and the product. A product in liquid state is pumped to the top
of the heat exchanger and then allowed to flow in thin sheets in the
heating chamber.
It is heated to 142 – 146 ° C in 0.3 seconds and is held for 3 seconds
in a holding tube before flash cooling in a vacuum chamber to 65 -70 °
C.
The flash cooler has dual purposes. First, it reduces the sterilization
temperature in a very short time and second, it removes water from
the product.
The viscosity of the liquid determines the size of the spreader.
Products containing particulates, such as diced vegetables, meat
chunks and rice can be handled by specially designed spreaders.
High rates of heat transfer are archived when steam contacts tiny
droplets of the food. The temperature of the product rises rapidly due
to steam condensation.
Steam infusion has advantages over injection methods because the
liquid does not contact hotter surfaces and burning-on is therefore
reduced.
Steam injection-
Steam injection heating for food products is a direct-contact process in
which culinary steam is mixed with a pumpable food (or ingredient).
Heating occurs when the steam transfers some of its internal energy
to the food product. Steam gives up all of its latent heat of vaporization
while condensing and, depending upon the system pressure, some of
its sensible heat. Since the steam directly contacts the food product
and the condensate becomes incorporated into it, the steam source
must be culinary. Typical steam injection units are compact,
inexpensive and simple to control.