The link between student motivation and achievement is simple.

If students
want to learn the content in a subject, they will likely do well in that subject.
If students do not want to learn, they will probably not do well. This
connection is supported by a lot of research, which you can see in Figure
15.1. Except for the research by Steinkamp and Maehr (1983), the
numbers in Figure 15.1 are quite large, showing the strong effect of
motivation on learning.
We know that motivation and achievement are connected, but we don’t fully
understand how motivation works. Let's look at the research and theories
about how motivation works.
Research and Theory
Motivation is a complex idea, but we can explain it by looking at five main
theories that help us understand it better: (1) drive theory, (2) attribution
theory, (3) self-worth theory, (4) emotions, and (5) self-system. For more
details, you can read about the work of Bandura (1997), Covington (1992),
and Harter (1999).
Motivation is about why we do things. Martin Covington (1992) explains
that motivation is about the reasons behind behavior. For example, why do
people choose to work on some tasks and not others? Why do some
people work with more energy, and why do some people keep working until
they finish, while others give up early? Some people even keep trying to
find better answers, even when good answers are already there.
Drive Theory
Many ideas about motivation in the classroom come from the work of John
Atkinson (1957, 1964, 1987) and David McClelland (1965). Atkinson
believed that motivation can be explained by two forces: wanting to
succeed and fear of failing. These two forces work at the same time. Over
time, people can become more focused on success or more afraid of
failure. This focus on success or fear becomes part of their emotions when
facing new tasks.
Students who focus on success want to try new tasks because they expect
to feel good when they succeed. Students who fear failure do not want to
try new tasks because they are afraid of feeling bad if they fail. This makes
classroom motivation hard, especially when teachers have high standards.
Students who focus on success are usually motivated by challenges, but
those who fear failure are not. In fact, students who fear failure might
create excuses to fail for reasons other than their ability.
Some of these excuses include procrastination (putting off tasks), setting
goals that are too high (so they are impossible to reach), or admitting small
weaknesses to have an excuse for failing (called “academic wooden leg”)
(Covington, 1992; Covington, Omelich, & Schwarzer, 1986). While drive
theory is part of modern motivation theories, today's ideas about motivation
are also strongly influenced by attribution theory.

Attribution Theory
Bernard Weiner (1972, 1974) and others (Weiner, Frieze, Kulka, Reed,
Rest, & Rosenbaum, 1971) developed attribution theory, which says that
how students think about the reasons for their past successes and failures
affects their motivation and how hard they keep trying. This is more
important than just being used to success or avoiding failure. People
usually think there are four reasons for their success: ability, effort, luck,
and how hard the task is. Among these, effort is the most helpful because
believing that effort causes success makes people more willing to try hard
tasks and keep going.
Covington (1992) explains that one important part of attribution theory is its
focus on effort in achieving things. This focus is important for a few
reasons:
1. If students think they fail because they didn’t try enough, they are
more likely to stay hopeful about doing well in the future.
2. Working hard can make students feel proud when they succeed and
less guilty when they fail.
3. Most importantly, effort is something teachers can help students
change, so they can try harder.
Attribution theory gave new ideas to motivation theory. From this
perspective, motivation is not something fixed; it can change. According to
Martin Seligman (Seligman, 1975; Seligman, Maier, & Geer, 1968;
Seligman, Maier, & Solomon, 1971), people can even change their
motivation by changing how they think about the reasons for their success
or failure. Seligman’s idea is known as "explanatory style." He, like Weiner,
believes people learn to explain why they succeed or fail in certain ways.
But they also have the power to change from a negative style, called
"learned helplessness," to a positive, success-focused style called "learned
optimism."

Self-Worth Theory
Self-worth theory says that one of the most important things for people is to
feel good about themselves (Covington, 1984, 1985, 1987; Covington &
Berry, 1976). Feeling good about oneself usually means being accepted by
people around them, like friends and classmates. Because of this, the
classroom can feel like a scary place for some students. Covington (1992)
explains that in our society, people often think that their value is the same
as their achievements. Simply put, people believe they are only as good as
what they achieve.
This belief can make students confused, especially those who already feel
unsure about themselves. They may start to think their value depends on
their abilities. This is a risky belief because schools often do not give
enough rewards for all students to feel successful. Instead, many students
struggle just to avoid failing.
Self-worth theory adds another way of looking at motivation in the
classroom. If being accepted in the classroom depends on doing well
compared to others, then only a few top students can feel a strong sense of
self-worth.

Emotions
In the last 20 years, many researchers have talked about how important
emotions are in human motivation (Gazzaniga, 1992; LeDoux, 1994, 1996;
Pinker, 1997; Restak, 1994; Sylwester, 1995). In his book "The Emotional
Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life," Joseph LeDoux
(1996) explains that emotions have a big role in motivation. He says that
people have very little control over their emotions.
LeDoux explains that anyone who has tried to fake an emotion or has seen
someone else do it knows that it’s hard to control emotions. We have a
hard time controlling emotions because the way our brain is wired makes
emotional signals stronger than thinking signals. This means emotions
often take over.
LeDoux also explains the power of emotions:
Emotions guide what we do moment by moment and help us reach long-
term goals. But emotions can also cause problems. For example, fear can
turn into anxiety, desire can become greed, and annoyance can turn into
anger. Anger can turn into hatred, friendship into envy, love into obsession,
and pleasure into addiction. When this happens, our emotions can work
against us. To stay mentally healthy, we need to take care of our emotions.
Problems with emotions can lead to mental health issues. Emotions can
have both good and bad effects.
According to LeDoux, emotions are strong motivators that can sometimes
be stronger than a person's values and beliefs. Nisbett and Wilson (1977)
found that people often misunderstand the causes of their feelings. They
concluded that people always try to find reasons for their emotions, and if
they can’t find logical reasons, they just make them up and believe them.

Self-System
The self-system is made up of goals that help us decide if we want to do a
new task (Markus & Ruvulo, 1990; Harter, 1980). Many things described in
earlier theories also fit into the self-system, or "the self." Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) says that the self is not just regular information; it
includes almost everything we remember, do, want, like, or dislike. It also
shows the order of goals we have built over the years. Usually, we are only
aware of a small part of it at any time.
The key part of the self-system is that it holds our deep needs and dreams
in a certain order. This order gives a new view of classroom motivation.
Abraham Maslow (1968, 1971) was the first psychologist to make popular
the idea of human needs in a pyramid shape. He said there are five levels
of needs:
1. Basic needs like food and water
2. Safety needs, like feeling safe
3. Social needs, like belonging and having friends
4. Esteem needs, like feeling good about oneself and being respected
by others
 5. Self-actualization, which means feeling fully satisfied with what one is
capable of achieving
Although Maslow’s hierarchy has been criticized as being unscientific
(Wahba & Bridwell, 1976), it still helps us understand human motivation.
Covington (1992) says it is a good way to think about what makes people
act.
Maslow’s highest need, self-actualization, adds a new part to motivation
that was not in other theories. The earlier theories, like drive theory, self-
worth theory, attribution theory, and the effect of emotions, fit into the first
four levels of Maslow's pyramid. They do not explain motivation at the fifth
level. Covington (1992) calls this fifth level the need to see that “one is
achieving fully what he or she is capable of becoming.”
Maslow’s work suggests that people have dreams that help define who
they are. These dreams are different for each person. One person may
dream of running a marathon, while another dreams of writing a best-
selling book. Where these dreams come from is not clear. They may be
influenced by culture, home, friends, or the media.
While the source of self-actualization is not well understood, we do know
how to encourage it (Klausner, 1965). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) identified
four important factors for completing self-actualizing experiences, which he
calls “flow experiences”:
1. The freedom to set goals that are meaningful to the person
2. Having the resources and being fully involved in trying to achieve
these goals
3. Paying attention to what is happening and making changes when
needed
4. Enjoying short-term successes while keeping focused on the final
goal
What can schools learn from all this research on motivation to help
motivate students? It is clear that students develop a drive to either
succeed or avoid failure, and these drives affect their willingness to try
school tasks. For some, hard tasks are not a problem because they have a
strong drive to succeed. For others, even simple tasks are scary because
of their strong fear of failing.
Emotions and the need for self-worth make it hard to motivate students
who are afraid of failure. However, these drives are not fixed; they can
change based on how students explain their successes and failures.
Understanding their own style of explanation can help students have more
control over their motivation. Finally, students who achieve their dreams
feel a great sense of fulfillment. Their success needs the freedom to set
their own goals and work toward them.

Action Steps
I suggest four action steps that a school or teacher can take to improve
student motivation.
Action Step 1: Provide students with feedback on their knowledge
gain.
If success in the classroom is measured by comparing students to each
other, only a few students can be successful. But if success is measured by
personal growth, then all students can be successful, no matter how they
compare to others. To do this, we need two things:
1. Measure how much students know when they start the class or
lesson.
2. Measure how much students know when they finish the class or
lesson.
With these measurements, we can see how much each student has
learned.
Some teachers do this by giving a test at the beginning and another test at
the end. Usually, these tests are scored on a scale of 100 points. I like to
use rubrics for the beginning and end of the study, like the one shown in
Figure 15.2 (p. 150). This rubric is the basic version of what was shown in
Chapter 10. The rubric in Figure 15.2 can be used to track performance on
different class topics. For example, a 5th-grade math teacher might cover
topics like probability, distributions, and data analysis in one unit. The
teacher can use the rubric in Figure 15.2 to assess each student’s
knowledge at the start and end of the class or unit. The difference in the
rubric scores will show how much the student has learned.
There are also other ways to celebrate and show knowledge gain, which
gives all students the chance to feel successful. For example, I once
worked with teachers at a school that had a traditional honor roll. They also
started a quarterly “on-a-roll” program that recognized students for their
personal academic growth.

Action Step 2: Provide Students with Tasks and Activities that Are
Inherently Engaging
Thomas Malone (1981a, 1981b) explains that human motivation suggests
some tasks are naturally engaging. These tasks have three key
characteristics:
1. Manageable Challenges: Tasks should match the student's current
abilities while allowing some control over the difficulty. Covington
(1992) notes, “Tasks are engaging to the degree they challenge the
individual’s present capacity, yet permit some control over the level of
challenge faced” (p. 160). This balance helps keep students
interested without overwhelming them.
2. Curiosity Arousal: Engaging tasks should be complex enough that
their outcomes aren't immediately obvious. This keeps students
curious. As Covington (1992) states, this is done by “providing
sufficient complexity so that outcomes are not always certain” (p.
160). When students are unsure of the outcome, they are more likely
to engage deeply.
3. Fantasy Arousal: Engaging tasks should also involve a sense of
imagination or fantasy, allowing students to use their growing abilities
creatively. Covington (1992) describes this as not just "wish fulfillment
or fairy tales," but rather "the creation of imaginary circumstances that
permit the free and unfettered use of one’s growing abilities” (p. 160).
This encourages students to think creatively and apply what they've
learned in novel ways.
Example of Engaging Tasks:
Covington (1992) provides examples of various engaging tasks, often
conducted in game-like environments. One example is a game called
Global Gambit. In this game, the class is divided into teams, each
representing a different nation. The setting is a conference aimed at finding
solutions to global warming. Before the game, the teacher provides
information about the potential effects of global warming, such as rising
ocean levels threatening cities like London or droughts leading to riots in
Los Angeles.
The objective of the game is for the teams to negotiate plans to address
these global warming challenges. Teams can choose to create strategies
that protect their own nation's interests or work together to find broader
regional or worldwide solutions. In developing their plans, teams must also
consider the impact on other nations.
Instructional games like Global Gambit are not only engaging for students
but also help develop essential skills such as self-reflection, effective group
behaviors, and critical inquiry (Engle & Ochoa, 1988). By integrating these
elements into classroom activities, teachers can foster a more dynamic and
motivating learning environment that encourages students to actively
participate and invest in their education.

Action Step 3: Provide Opportunities for Students to Construct and

Work on Long-Term Projects of Their Own Design
To achieve a high level of motivation, known as a "flow experience," it's
essential to engage students in tasks that address Maslow’s fifth category
—self-actualization. These tasks encourage a deeper, more personal form
of motivation, which is often superior to other types. As Covington (1992)
states, these tasks inspire “the desire to become more effective as a
person or to perform actions for their own sake” (p. 157). They go beyond
inherently engaging tasks by being intensely personal and connected to
students' long-term aspirations.
The Impact of Long-Term, Self-Designed Projects:
Allowing students to work on long-term projects of their own design
encourages intrinsic motivation. These projects resonate with their personal
goals and passions, making the learning process more meaningful and
rewarding.
A Personal Example:
In my book A Different Kind of Classroom (Marzano, 1992), I highlighted a
personal example of my son, Todd, whose academic journey was
transformed by pursuing a personal goal aligned with self-actualization. At
that time, Todd set his sights on a long-term aspiration that completely
changed his academic profile. His journey included completing officer
candidate school in 1992, earning his "wings of gold," flying F/A-18s in
Desert Fox over Iraq, and Operation Enduring Freedom over Afghanistan,
earning two combat air medals. His ultimate achievement was graduating
from the Navy's Top Gun training program in 1999, a personal dream that
became reality.
Programs Supporting Self-Actualization:
Since the publication of A Different Kind of Classroom, I have encountered
programs that support students in pursuing their passions through long-
term projects. One example is the Pathfinder Project
(www.Pathfinderusa.com), which aims to awaken students’ passions by
presenting them with inspiring stories, like Todd’s. These stories motivate
students to identify their own long-term goals, which they then work
towards with structured support.
Implementing Long-Term Projects in Schools:
Schools can easily adopt similar initiatives, where students are encouraged
to identify and work on their own long-term projects. Upon completing their
projects, students can present their accomplishments and reflect on what
they learned about themselves. This process not only supports their
academic growth but also fosters a deeper sense of self-awareness and
fulfillment, contributing to their overall motivation and engagement in
learning.
By integrating opportunities for self-directed, long-term projects, educators
can tap into students' intrinsic motivations, making education a more
personalized and empowering experience that addresses their higher-level
needs and aspirations.

Action Step 4: Teach Students About the Dynamics of Motivation and

How They Affect Them
This final action step is one of the most direct methods to enhance student
motivation, as it involves educating students about the dynamics of
motivation both generally and personally. By understanding these
dynamics, students can gain insight into how their motivations are shaped
and influenced, empowering them to take control of their engagement and
effort in their educational journey.
Research Supporting This Approach:
Gregory Andrews and Ray Debus (1978) conducted a study with 6th
graders to help them understand the impact of their negative attributions on
their motivation and behavior. In this study, students were randomly
assigned to experimental and control groups. Those in the experimental
group received training on the nature of attributions and were reinforced
when they attributed their failures to effort rather than ability. This approach
led to significant changes in student behavior: students who had been
previously described as demoralized showed greater persistence in their
school tasks and demonstrated more effective thinking strategies.
Similar results have been observed in other studies, which found that
teaching students about motivation and attribution can lead to improved
outcomes (Chapin & Dyck, 1976; Dweck, 1975; Wilson & Linville, 1985;
Zoeller, Mahoney, & Weiner, 1983). These findings suggest that when
students understand that effort, rather than inherent ability, is a key factor
in success, they are more likely to persevere and adopt more effective
learning strategies.
Incorporating Seligman’s Work:
Martin Seligman’s model of personal explanatory style, which distinguishes
"optimists" from "pessimists" based on how they explain success and
failure, is also highly relevant to this action step. Optimists tend to attribute
success to internal, stable factors like effort and persistence, while
pessimists often attribute failures to fixed personal deficiencies.
Understanding these distinctions can help students reframe their
experiences in a more positive light, fostering resilience and a growth
mindset.
While Seligman’s work is primarily geared toward adults, its principles can
be adapted for secondary-level students. Teaching students about
explanatory styles can give them the tools to recognize and shift their own
motivational patterns, promoting a more proactive and empowered
approach to their learning.
Implementing This in the Classroom:
Educators can integrate lessons on motivation dynamics into the curriculum
through discussions, reflective exercises, and targeted activities that help
students explore their own attributions and motivational drivers. For
instance, students can engage in exercises that identify how they typically
explain success and failure, followed by strategies to shift toward more
productive and effort-based attributions.
By explicitly teaching the concepts of motivation and personal explanatory
style, educators can equip students with the knowledge and skills to better
manage their own learning and motivation, leading to increased
engagement, persistence, and academic success. This approach not only
enhances academic performance but also fosters important life skills that
students can carry beyond the classroom.

Todd’s story is a powerful example of how personal aspirations and

intrinsic motivation can drastically change a student’s academic trajectory.
Initially, Todd was not a top-performing student in high school; he excelled
in practical subjects like metal shop and physical education, but struggled
with more academic subjects like mathematics and science. By the middle
of his junior year, Todd decided he did not want to attend college,
reasoning that his talents lay in auto mechanics and that he was not
inclined towards academics or school in general.
Coming from a family of Italian immigrants who highly valued education,
Todd’s decision to forego college was a major source of concern for his
father. Despite numerous discussions about the importance of higher
education, Todd remained unconvinced until he saw the movie Top Gun,
which sparked a desire to become a fighter pilot. This aspiration, though
initially dismissed by his father as unrealistic given Todd’s academic
record, became the catalyst for a dramatic transformation in Todd’s
approach to his education.
Recognizing that becoming a fighter pilot required a college degree, Todd
enrolled in an open-enrollment community college, which was his only
option at the time due to his grades. His commitment to his goal drove him
to excel in his courses, particularly in the challenging fields of mathematics
and science. Todd meticulously planned his academic journey, including
transferring to one of the top engineering schools in the country. His focus
and determination were evident in his obsessive time management and his
pursuit of excellence in all his studies.
Todd’s hard work paid off as he graduated magna cum laude with a degree
in aerospace engineering and was inducted into a prestigious engineering
fraternity. His dedication extended beyond the classroom; he earned his
private pilot’s license with a perfect score on the Federal Aviation
Administration exam—a remarkable achievement that had not been
matched in his region for fifteen years. Ultimately, Todd’s dream of
becoming a fighter pilot took a significant step forward when he was
accepted into the Aviator’s Officer Candidate School of the United States
Navy, making him one of only two candidates from his state to receive this
honor.
Todd’s story underscores the impact of deeply personal goals on student
motivation and achievement. By finding a meaningful purpose in his
education, Todd transformed his academic performance and reached
heights that once seemed out of reach. This illustrates the potential of
allowing students to pursue their passions and aspirations, as doing so can
inspire them to engage fully with their education and push beyond their
perceived limitations.

Summary
The review of student motivation theory and research highlights the
intricate interplay of various factors that influence a student's drive to be
motivated or resistant to motivation. Key dynamics include:
 Drive for Success or Failure Avoidance: Students are motivated
either by the desire to succeed or the need to avoid failure.
 Attributions: How students explain their successes and failures
impacts their motivation levels.
 Sense of Self-Worth: The connection between students' self-worth
and their achievements affects their motivation.
 Emotional Dynamics: Emotions play a significant role in shaping
motivation, with strong emotional responses often overriding rational
thought.
  Self-System: Students' internal goals and aspirations, organized
hierarchically, influence their motivation to engage in tasks.
To enhance student motivation, four action steps are recommended:
1. Altering the Competitive Nature of Classroom Success: Focus on
individual growth rather than comparing students to each other.
2. Engaging Students in Long-Term Projects: Allow students to work
on projects that align with their deep-seated passions and
aspirations.
3. Providing Information and Training on Motivation: Educate
students about motivational dynamics and offer strategies to control
their motivation.
4. Creating Inherently Engaging Tasks: Design tasks that present
manageable challenges, arouse curiosity, and involve imaginative
elements.
By addressing these areas, educators can foster a more motivating and
supportive learning environment for students.