Gnyan gangotri independent pu college,

jamkhandi.
KONNUR SCEINCE PU COLLEGE, YALLATTI.
CHAPTER-11
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER
AND RADIATION

FACILITATOR :
Mr. Kadesh K Karijadar
Lecturer in Physics
Chapter-11
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DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

ELECTRON EMISSION
The liberation of electron from a metal surface is called electron emission. To escape from
a metal surface, the electron must perform a certain amount of work to overcome the restraining
surface forces. The energy required for the electron to do this work can be supplied from external
source. This external energy may come a variety of sources like heat energy, light energy stored
in electric or magnetic fields or the kinetic energy of other electric charges bombarding the metal
surface etc. Depending on the sources of external energy, the electron emission is classified into
four groups as follows.
1. Thermionic emission 2. Field emission
3. Photoelectric emission 4. Secondary emission.
1. Thermionic emission : The process of emission of electron from a heated metal surface is
called thermionic emission. The electrons electrons emitted are called thermo electrons. In this
method, energy is utilised for electron emission. A metal heated to a sufficiently high
temperature (about 25000C) enables the electrons to leave the metal surface.
2. Field emission: The process of emission of electron by the application of very strong electric
field at the surface of a metal is called field emission. The strong electric field of the order of
108 Vm-1 applied to a metal pulls the electrons out of the order of 10 8 Vm-1 applied to a metal
pulls the electrons out of the metal.
3. Photoelectric emission: The process of emission of electron from a metal surface when
radiation of suitable high frequency is incident on the metal surface is called photoelectric
emission. The energy of the incident radiation gets transferred to the electrons in the metal. As
a result, the electrons are liberated from the metal.
4. Secondary emission: The process of emission of electrons from a metal surface by the
bombardment of fast moving electrons is known as secondary emission. When high speed
electrons strike a metal surface, they give their kinetic energy to electrons in the metal. If the
electrons gain sufficient energy, they are emitted from the metal surface and they are called
secondary electrons. The incident electrons are called primary electrons.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metals
when radiation of suitable frequency are incidental on them. The electrons emitted in this
phenomenon are called photoelectrons and the current produced due to these electrons is called
photoelectric current.
Hertz’s observations:
While studying experimentally the
production of electromagnetic waves by
means of spark discharge, Hertz found
that high voltage sparks across the
detector loop were enhanced when the
emitter plate was illuminated by
ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. This
observation was explained as follows:

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When ultraviolet light is incident on the metal surface, some electrons near the surface
absorb energy from the incident radiation. If the electrons absorb enough energy to overcome the
attraction of positive ions in the material of the surface, they escape from the surface of the metal
into the surrounding space.
Lenard’s observations:
Lenard observed that if a potential difference is applied across two metal plates enclosed in
an evacuated tube, no current flows in the circuit. When one plat called emitter plate kept at a
negative potential, is exposed to ultraviolet radiation, current begins to flow. As soon as the
ultraviolet radiation falling on the emitter plate is stopped, the current flow is also stopped. These
observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiation fall on emitter plate, negatively charged
particles are ejected from it and these particles are attracted towards the other plate called
collector plate kept at positive potential. This flow of negatively charged particles through the
evacuated tube results in the current in the external circuit. Thus, ultraviolet light falling on the
surface of the emitter causes current in the with collector plate potential and with frequency as
well as intensity of incident light.
Hallwach’s observation
Hellwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to
an electroscope and observed that the zinc plate lost its charge
when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiations. He also
observed that the uncharged zinc plate lost its charge when it
was illuminated by ultraviolet radiations. He also observed that
the uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it
was exposed to ultraviolet radiations. The positive charge on a
positively charged zinc plate was further enhanced when it was
more illuminated by ultraviolet radiations. From these
observations, Hallwachs concluded that negatively charged particles were ejected out from the
plate under the action of ultraviolet radiations.
Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when ultraviolet light fall on the emitter plate, no
electrons were emitted when the frequency of incident radiation was smaller than a certain
minimum value.
Threshold frequency: This minimum frequency of the incident radiation for photoelectron
emission is called threshold frequency.
Note:
The threshold frequency depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.
It was found that certain metals like zinc, manganese, cadmium etc., emitted
photoelectrons only to ultraviolet radiations and not for visible light. However, some alkali metals
such as lithium, sodium, potassium, cesium and rubidium were sensitive even for visible light and
emitted photoelectrons both for ultraviolet rays and visible light.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube T which encloses a photosensitive
plate C (emitter) and a metal plate A (collector). Monochromatic light from a source S passes
through the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C. Electrons are emitted by the plate

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C and they are collected by the plate A because of the electric field created by the battery B. The
battery maintains a potential difference between the plates C and A which can be varied.

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The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator K. Thus, plate A can be
maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with respect to C. when the collector plate A
is at positive potential with respect to the emitter C, the electrons emitted by C are attracted
towards A. This causes an electric current in the circuit which is measured by the micro ammeter
μA . The potential difference between emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltemeter V.
The frequency and the intensity of incident light can be caried.
Experimental observations:
1) Effect of intensity of light on photoelectric current:
The collector plate A is maintained at the emitter C so
that the electrons emitted by C so that the electrons
emitted by C are attracted towards A. Using the incident
radiation of fixed frequency and keeping the potential
difference between A and C fixed, the intensity of light
is carried is measured each time. It is found that the
photoelectric current increases linearly with intensity of
increases light as shown graphically in.

The number of photoelectrons emitter per second

(photocurrent) is directly proportional to the intensity
of the incident radiation.
2) Effect of potential on photoelectric current:
The emitter C is illuminated with light of fixed
frequency and fixed intensity I1. When the collector A

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is at zero potential with respect to C, a small photoelectric current is observed. This is due to a
small number of photoelectrons reaching the collector A because of their velocity of emission.
Now the positive potential applied to collector A is increased from a small value. It is
observed that the photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating potential, since
more and more electrons reach the collector A. At some stage, for a certain positive potential of
plate A the photoelectric current reaches a maximum value since all the emitted photoelectrons
reach collector A. If the potential of plate A is further increased, the photoelectric current does not
increase. The maximum value of photoelectric current is called saturation current.
Now the collector plate P is made negative with respective to emitter C with the help of
commentator K so that photoelectrons are repelled by the plate A. As the collector A is made
increasingly negative, the photoelectric current is found to decrease rapidly. At a certain sharply
defined, critical value of negative potential V 0 on the plate A, the photoelectric current becomes
zero. This potential is called cut-off or stopping potential.
Thus, stopping potential or cut-off potential V0 is the minimum negative (retarding) potential
given to the collector A for which the photoelectric current becomes zero.
If the experiment is repeated with the incident radiation of same frequency but of
higher intensity I2 and I3 (I3>I2),we find that the saturation current has higher value. This shows
that number of electrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of the radiation. But
the stopping potential V0 remains the same for all these intensities.

Note: The stopping potential as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted is
independent of intensity of the radiation of a given frequency. But they depend on frequency of the
radiation and the material of the emitter plate.

3) Effect of frequency of incident radiation:

The variation of photoelectric current with collector plate
potential is studied for radiations of different frequencies,
say v1, v2 and v3, but the same intensity. The results
obtained is as shown in fig from the graph it is found that
(i) the value of stopping potential is different for
radiation of different frequency,
(ii) the value of stopping potential is more negative for
radiation of higher frequency
(iii) the value of saturation current is independent of
frequency of the incident radiation but it depends on its
intensity.
If we plot a graph between stopping potential and
frequency of the incident radiation for two different metals
A and B, we get a graph as shown in From the graph awe
note that (i) for a given photosensitive material, the
stopping potential varies linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation. (ii) for a given photosensitive material,

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there is a certain minimum and cut – off frequency or threshold frequency v 0 for which stopping
potential is zero.

Laws of photoelectron emission

1. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation below
which no emission of photoelectrons takes place. This minimum frequency is called threshold
frequency.
2. For a given metal and frequency of the incident radiation (above the threshold
frequency),photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy (or the stopping potential) of the
emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but it is
independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectron emission is an instantaneous process.
Photoelectric effect and wave theory of light
The phenomenon of photoelectron effect could not be explained by the wave theory of
light.
i. Calculations show that, if light is wave, it would require several hours or days for a
photoelectron to be emitted. But experimentally, it is observed that photoelectron emission is
instantaneous.
ii. If light is a wave, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron should not depend on
frequency, but it should increase with increase in intensity. But, experiments show that the
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases with frequency, but it does not depend
on intensity.
iii. According to wave theory, a sufficiently intense beam of incident light should be able to
impart enough to electrons for their ejection. So, threshold frequency should not exist. But
experiments show that there is a threshold frequency for photoelectron emission.
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
Based on Max Planck’s quantum hypothesis, Albert Einstein developed a new theory in
1905 to explain photoelectric effect. According to this theory, light energy is emitted or absorbed
in steps of discrete units or quanta of light. A quantum of light was named by him as a photon.
The energy associated with each photon is equal to h ν where ν the frequency of light is and h is
Planck’s constant.

When photon falls on the metal surface, the electron completely absorbs the photon energy. This
is used in two purposes
1) A part of photon energy is used in librating the electron from metal surface which is equal to
work function of the(ϕ0 )
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2) The rest of energy of photon appear as maximum kinetic energy of emitted electron
Therefore h ν = ϕ 0+K.E
K.E=h ν−ϕ 0
ϕ 0=h υ0 where υ 0 is threshold frequency
12
Therefore mV max=h ν−h υ 0−−−−(1)
2
All experimental observation can be explained on the bases of follows
1) if υ=υ 0 then from equation (1) K.E=0,That is, photoemission is just possible.
When frequency of photon is equal to threshold frequency, the electron just comes out from
the metal surface but K.E=0
The maximum K.E of electron increases as the frequency incident radiation increases.
2. the maximum K.E increases with frequency of incident radiation.
If υ >υ 0, then from equation (1) => K.E is positive,
That is, photoemission is possible.
When frequency of photon is greater than the threshold frequency, the electron comes out
from metal with some K.E above threshold frequency, the maximum K.E increases as the
frequency of incident radiation increases.
3. Ifυ <υ 0, then from equation (1) => K.E is negative.
But K.E never be negative. When frequency photon is less than the threshold frequency, the
electron does not comes out of the metal surface.
4. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
Note:
 One photon interacts with only one electron. As intensity of incident radiation increases,
number of photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence current increases
 Photoelectric equation is accordance with law of conservation of energy
c c
 Max K.E=h( υ−υ 0 ) =h( λ − λ )
0

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT-THE PHOTON

Einstein explain the photoelectric effect suggest the light is not emitted continuously as a wave;
instead it is emitted as packet of energy called photon. Since the photon has energy as wall as
momentum it behaves as particle. The particle nature of light was confirmed by experimentally
A.H Compton on scattering of X ray from electron
Characteristics of photon (particle nature of light)
1.In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called
photons.
hc
2.Each photon has energy E = h v = and where h is Planck’s constant, v is the frequency and
λ
λ is the wavelength of the radiation and c is the velocity of light.
hv h
3.momentum photon is p = =
c λ
4.The photon energy and momentum depend only on frequency of the radiation. It is
independent of intensity of the radiation.
5.Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
6.All photons emitted from a source travel with same velocity through space.
7.When photon collides with particle, the total energy and total momentum are conserved..

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8.The rest mass of a photon is zero.

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
Light exhibits the phenomenon like reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization. These phenomena can be explained satisfactorily by treating light as waves. Light
also exhibits phenomena such as photoelectric effect and Compton effect. These phenomena can
be explained by treating light as particles in the form of quanta or photons. Thus, light exhibits
dual nature, sometimes behaving as waves and sometimes behaving like particles.
With the recognition of dual nature of light, a question arose: If radiation has dual nature,
will not particles of nature (electrons, protons etc) also exhibit wave – like character? In 1924, the
French physicist louis de Broglie proposed the bold hypothesis that moving particles of should
display wave – like properties under suitable conditions.
The wave nature associated with matter particles is called matter wave or de Broglie
wave. In arriving at this idea, de two basic physical entities of nature are matter and energy. If
energy radiation exhibits dual nature, matter also must exhibit dual nature.

De Broglie wavelength:
A photon of frequency v and wavelength λ always travels with a velocity equal to the velocity of
light c.
The energy of the poton is E = hν−−−(1) where h is planck’s constant.
From the theory of relativity, E = mc2−−−−(2)
Equating (1) and (2) hν = mc2
hv
m= 2
c
hv h
The momentum of the photon p = mc = =
c λ
h
The wavelength of the photon is λ =
p
h h
Hence its wavelength is λ= = −−−−(3)
p mv
This is called de Broglic wavelength.
1
The kinetic energy of the partice is K = mv2.
2
Multiply m on both side
mv = √ 2 mK
then equation (3) becomes
h
∴ λ=
√2 mK
When a charged particle of charge q is accelerated by a potential difference V, the kinetic energy
1
gained is K = mv2 = Vq.
2
h
Hence λ=
√2 mVq
h 12.27 0
For electron q = e ∴ λ= = A
√2 mVe √ V
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
According to the principle, it is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of
electron (or any other practicle) at same time exactly.
According to de-Broglie, wavelength of matter (electron) wave is given by,

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h
λ=
p
According to uncertainty principle, wavelength of matter (electron) wave is given by,
Δ P=0
∴ Δ λ=0
That is, the single wave has a spread all over the space. But this is not possible. To overcome this
situation, the concept of wave packet is introduced.
Wave packet is the resultant wave of large amplitude, extending over some finite region, formed
due to the superposition of large number of waves.
According to Born’s probability interpretation, the probability of finding a particle in the region of
large amplitude of the wave packet is maximum and there is no probability of finding the particle
in the region of zero amplitude of the wave packet.
DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified by C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer
in 1927 and independently by G.P. Thomson in 1928

The experimental arrangement used by Davisson and Germer is as shown in F is a filament

heated by a low voltage power supply (L.T). Electrons emitted by the filament are accelerated to a
desired velocity by applying a suitable high voltage V between filament F and anode A by a high
voltage power supply (H.T.) The anode A is in the form of a cylinder with a fine hole along its
axis. The electrons passing through the hole of the anode form a fine collimated beam. This beam
of electrons fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The electrons are scattered by the atoms of the
crystal. The intensity of the electrons scattered in a given direction is measured by the electron
detector. The electron detector can be moved on a circular scale and it is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer. The be moved on a circular scale and it is connected to a sensitive galvanometer.
The deflection of the galvanometer is enclosed in an evacuated chamber. By moving the detector
on the circular scale, the intensity I of scattered electrons is measured for different angle of
scattering θ (angle between incident and scattered beam of electrons). The variation of intensity i
with scattering angle θ was obtained for different values of accelerating voltage V.

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The experiment was performed by varying the accelerating voltage V from 44V to 68V. It
was noticed that a strong peak appeared in the intensity 1 of the scattered electron for an
accelerating voltage of 54V at a scattering angle θ = 500.
The appearance of the peak in a particular direction ( θ=500) is due to constructive
interference of electrons scattered from different layers of atoms of the crystal. According to
Bragg’s law for X – ray diffraction by crystals,
2d sin∅ = n λ−−−(1)
Where ∅ is glancing angle, d is the inter – planar spacing in the crystal and λ is the wavelength.
For nickel crystal,
d = 0.91 A. for scattering angle θ = 500,
180−θ 180−50
the glancing angle is ∅ = = =650.
2 2
For first order n = 1.
Than equation (1) becomes
2 X 0.91 X sin 650 = 1 X λ or λ = 1.65 A0.
According to de Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength of the wave associated with electrons
accelerated by a voltage V = 54 Volt is.
0 0
12.27 A 12.27 A
λ= = =1.66A0
√V √ 54
This shows that there is a close agreement between experimental value determined by Davisson
and Germer, and the theoretical value using de- Broglie’s hypothesis. This proves the existence of
wave nature of electrons.

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