BOTANY During 18th Century

Chapter 1. Introduction Stephen Hales (1727)

Botane- grass, fodder, pasture ➢ Established plant physiology (vegetable statics)
➢ Developed techniques to measure area, mass, volume, temperature,
Pre 17th Century
pressure, gravity
Theophrastus- Father of Botany (Historia Plantarium)
Carolus Linnaeus (1758)
City of Alexandria- Botanical Illustration made from papyrus
➢ Father of Taxonomy
Pedanius Dioscorides- pharmaceutical bible (De Materia Medica) ➢ ID, nomenclature, description, classification of organism (species)

Early 17th Century Joseph Priestley (1774)

➢ Botany temporarily became stagnant ➢ Chemical analysis of plant metabolism

➢ Revival during renaissance period
During 19th Century
During 17th Century
1818- Chlorophyll was discovered
Johannes Van Helmont (1640)
1840- advanced study of plant disease
➢ Experiment with willow trees
1847- process of photosynthesis elucidated by Mayer
➢ Plant growth (water)
1859- Charles Darwin proposed the Theory of Evolution “survival of the
Robert Hooke (1665)
fittest”
➢ Coined the term cell (structure of cork)
1859- Gregor Mendel experimented on pea plants
➢ Micrographia
1862- explained the exact mechanism of photosynthesis
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
1865- Both parents should pass distinct physical features
➢ First to describe living cells
➢ R, P, S and Animalcules (protozoa, yeast, bacteria) 20th Century- Essential nutrients NPK
➢ Royal Society of London
Branches and Subdisciplines of Botany
John Ray (1686)
Agricultural Science- economic importance and production
➢ Contributed the important step toward modern taxonomy
Agronomy- crop production and soil management
Rudolf Camerarius (1694)
Agrostology- study of grasses
➢ Established plant sexuality
Archaeobotany- how plants are used by the people in the past
➢ De Sexu Plantarium Epistola
Bryology- study of bryophytes (mosses, hornworts, liverworts)
Ethnobotany- plants and their relationship with the humans Taxonomic Hierarchy
Horticulture- garden crops, fruits, vegetable, ornamental plants
Forensic botany- to investigate criminal and non-criminal cases
Phycology- study of algae
Plant systematics- evolutionary history of plants
Plants physiology- photosynthesis, flowering, hormones
Plant anatomy-relation of function to structure
Paleobotany- relationship of fossil plants and living plants
Plant ecology- environmental related and how human affects plants
extinction
Chapter 2. Origin of Plants
Plant genetics- genetics information from one generation to another.
Life on earth began 3.5 million years ago
Plant pathology-diseases
Prokaryotes- bacteria and archeans
Palynology- pollen grains and spores
Photosynthesis- 2.8 billion years ago
Phenology- timing of roots and shoot germination, flowering, fruiting
Number of organelles evolved followed by division of labor and
Plant tissue culture- micropropagation specialization.
Phytochemistry- plant compounds Eukaryotes- have nuclei (plants, algae, fungi, animals)
Pteridology- pteridophytes and ferns
Pomology- fruit and cultivation
Mitochondria- Animals, protozoan. Fungi Longest Leaf (52 ft) Raphia regalis
Largest Waterlily (4-6 ft) Victoria amazonica
Mitochondria/Chloroplast- Algae, plants
Reproductive Organs
3 Large group called domain
Ferns
a.) Bacteria b.) Archaea c.) eukarya
• Foliage leaves that produce sporangia
Over 297,00 species exist today
Conifers
Types of Adaptation
• Cone expands to let the seeds fall out (seed cones-female) (pollen cones-
a) There’s no single perfect adaptation
male)
b) Alternative adaptation
Angiosperms
Prokaryotes Similarities Eukaryotes
Small and simple Cell membrane Large and complex • Flower bearing plants
Unicellular Cytoplasm Uni or multicellular
No nucleus Ribosome Have nucleus Characteristics of Plants
0.1 to 5.0 micrometer DNA 10-100 micrometer
• Multicellular
• Autotroph
Characteristics of Life • Cell wall (fungi and bacterium)
• Photosynthesis
Cells-basic unit of life
• Tropistic/nastic movement
Homeostasis- stable internal environment 2.4. Classification of Plants
Reproduction- capability to produce an offspring Plant Classification
Metabolism- obtain and use energy • Based on their evolutionary and genetic relationship.
DNA- genetic material Plant Taxonomy
Growth- permanent or irreversible • A branch in science that keeps on changing because new species are
found each day.
Development- process
Vegetative organs- do not carry out sexual reproduction (stem, roots, leaves)
a) Stems- bear leaves attached at nodes (axillary buds-flower)
b) Roots- confined to one end of the stem
English Ivy (Hedera helix)
Golden Pothos (Epipremnum aureum)
a) Leaves- flattened green
Largest Leaf (6-10 ft high, 14 ft wide) Gunnera manicata
Non-vascular Angiosperms
Thallophyta ➢ Flower-bearing plants
➢ Seeds enclosed in a fruit
• Algae (green, red, brown) ➢ Largest and most diverse group within the kingdom plantae (80%)
• Having a thallus or undifferentiated body
Green Algae (Class Chlorophyceae)
➢ Ex. Desmids, spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, volvox, and euglena
Brown Algae (Class Phaeophyceae)
➢ Ex. Ectocarpus sp., Laminaria digitata, Sargassum sp.
Red Algae (Class Rhodophyceae)
➢ Porphyra sp., Polysiphonia sp., Gracilaria sp. ➢ Family: Cruciferae, Rosacae, Leguminosae, Compositae, Gramineae,
Umbilliferae
Environmental Problem
Life Cycle
➢ Anoxia
Bryophytes Annuals (1 year)

➢ (Amphibians) because they can live in damp and sandy habitat Sunflower Helianthus annuus
➢ Small terrestrial plants Corn Zea mays
Rice Oryza sativa
Division:

• Mosses: Bryophyta, Liverworts: Hepatophyta, Hornworts: Biennials (2 years)

Anthoceraphyta
Carrot Daucus carota
• Ex. Funaria, Riccia, Anthoceros, Marchantia
Onion Allium cepa
Vascular Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata

Pteridophytes Perennials (2 years and more)

➢ Oldest vascular plants
Gumamela Hibiscus rosasinesis
➢ Reproduced by spores (Ex. Horsetails, club mosses, whisk fern)
Lavender Lavandula angustifolia
Conifers (Gymnosperm) Strawberry Fragaria ananassa

➢ Seeds made inside the cones Habit

➢ Naked seeds: not covered by an ovary
➢ Ex. Firs, spruces, cedars, junipers, and yew ➢ Growth Habit or Plant Habit
➢ Growth and development in plant’s height, shape, and the kind of growth ➢ More advanced than creepers
it undergoes ➢ Can stand wit the use of external support

Herbs Bitter gourd Momordica charantia

English ivy Hedera helix
➢ Short sized plant with soft, green, delicate, stems without woody tissues
➢ 1 or 2 season life cycle The Three Sisters Companion
➢ Can be easily uprooted
• Practiced by the Iroquis since 1300s
Ginger Zingiber officinale • Corn, center, pole
Basil Ocimum basilicum • Beans, climber, adds nitrogen
Oregano Oreganum vulgare • Squash, ground, leaves cool soil and hinder weeds
Banana Musa paradisiaca
Chapter 3. The Plant Cell
- Largest perennial herb with leaf sheathes that from
trunk like pseudostems. Cell (Robert Hooke)

Shrubs • Functional unit of life

➢ Medium sized, taller than herbs shorter than tree Cell Theory (1989)
➢ Bushy, hard, woody stem
• Spontaneous Generation
Rose Rosa rubiginosa • Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Shwann
• “Omnis cellula e cellula” Rudolf Virchow (1855)
Trees
• Robert Remak, Joseph and John Goodsir charged plagiarism against
Virchow
➢ Thick, woody, hard stem
➢ Single main stem and can be branchless
3 Tenets of Cell Theory
Narra Pterocarpus indicus
1. All living organisms are composed of cells
Coconut Cocos nucifera
2. Cells are the structural and organizational unit of life
3. All cells came from pre-existing cells
Creepers
The Cell
➢ Creeps on the ground
➢ Fragile, long, thin stem
Eukaryote- eu (true) karyon (nut/kernel)
Waternelon Citrullus lanatus
• Have true nucleus and present in most living organisms
Squash Cucurbita maxima
• Fungi, plant, animal, protozoa
Climbers
3.2 Cell Structures and Functions • Allows small molecules and ions to freely pass
Nucleolus

• Produce and assemble cell’s ribosome

Nucleoplasm

• Suspension substance for the organelles inside the nucleus

Nuclear Lamina

• Meshwork of protein filaments (net-like); support the nuclear envelope

Protoplasm (Cytoplasm + Nucleus)
Chromosomes
• Living portion of the cell
• Found in the nucleus and it’s made of DNA
Organelles • Contains instruction for traits and characteristics
• Sub-cellular units that can’t live nor reproduced when removed from cell. • Ex. Human has 46 diploid, Rice has 34
• Trisonomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
Cell Wall
Cytoplasm
• Outermost structure that provides turgidity
• Found in plant cells and bacteria • Gel-like mixture, liquid portion of the cell
• Primary component is cellulose • Surrounded by cell membrane
• Plasmodesmata: allow cells to communicate • Site of anaerobic respiration
• Cytosol- fluid part of the cytoplasm
Cell Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Cisterna/e)
• Outer membrane of cells that controls mov’t
• Double layer, semi permeable membrane • Roads (delivery system inside)
• Primary component is phospholipid • Intracellular transport, storage, and protein synthesis
1. Rough ER- embedded ribosome (rough texture), protein synthesis,
Nucleus packaging, processing
2. Smooth ER- no ribosomes. Makes fats, lipids, and steroid hormones
• Governor of the cell
• Directs cell activities Ribosomes
• Contains genetic material (DNA)
• Each cell contains thousand, protein synthesis, and found in eukaryotic
Nuclear Membrane and prokaryotic cells.

• Surrounds nucleus and made up of 2 layers Two Types

• Opening allows material to enter and leave called nuclear pores a.) Free
Nuclear pores b.) Attached
Mitochondria • Light harvesting complex, electron transport chains used in
• Powerhouse of the cell photosynthesis like chlorophyll and cartenoid.
• Function: energy formation
Granum/Grana
• Site of aerobic respiration
• Breaks down food to create ATP • Densely layered stacks of thykaloid
• ATP- fuel for all cell that requires energy
Stroma
• Matrix- liquid portion of mitochondria
• Crista/e- infoldings inside • Homogenous matrix which contains grana
Vacuole Chlorophyll
• Depot for waste materials • Green photosynthetic pigment sitting on the surface of thykaloids that
• Help plants to maintain shape absorbs light energy.
• Contains water solution
Chromoplast
• Tonoplast- membrane covering vacuole
• An organelle that contains cartenoids such carotene, xantophyll, and
Plastids
lycopene which provides color to the plants
• Spherical, ovoid, lens-shaped or irregular shaped organelles involved in
Leucoplast
food manufacture and storage
• 3 kinds of Plastids: Chloroplast, Chromoplast, Leucoplast • Colorless plastid used in storing food reserves
Chloroplast 3 Types
• Traps energy from the sun to produce plant cells • Amyloplast- stores starch
• Contains green chlorophyll • Aleuroplast- stores protein
• Where photosynthesis takes place • Elaioplast- stores fats
Cytoplasmic Streaming Golgi Complex
• Flow of cytoplasm inside the cell • ‘The shippers’ Dictyosome
• Packages, modifies, and transport materials in and out of the cell
Plasmolysis
• Appearance looks like stack of pancakes
• Process in plants where the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell
Lysosome
wall due to the loss of water through osmosis
Chloroplast Cell Structure and Functions • Interior is acidic (ph: 5.0)
• Acts as form of digestive system of the cell
Thykaloid System • “Recycling center” of the cell, “suicidal bags”
• Where light energy is converted into chemical energy Microbody
• Small, flattened cytoplasmic organelle bounded by as single membrane, Walter Sutton
containing variety of enzymes. • Geneticist who provided information that there are chromosomes
• Peroxisome- oxidative process and lipid metabolism (plants and • Viewed in onion root tips
animals) • Coined from the term “khroma” dark, “soma” body, or dark stained body
• Spherosome- fat synthesis and lipid storage (plants and fungi)
Structure of a Chromosome Structure of DNA
• Glyoxysome- specialized peroxisomes, largest microbody, converts fatty
acids to carbohydrates (plants and fungi)
Microtubule

• Small elongated, slender, tubelike cytoplasmic organelle which performs

many function
• Facilitates: cell movements, nuclear division, conduction of materials
Crystals

• Excretory products of plants

Types of crystals based on composition
A. Calcium oxalate crystals
o Raphide- needle like
o Rosette- flower like
o Prismatic- diamond like • Deoxyribonucleic acid, double stranded chemical polymer, double helix
B. Calcium carbonate crystals structure
o Cystolith- bunch like • Purine- Adenine and Thymine [2 rings of carbon atom]
• Pyrimidine- Guanine and Cytosine [1 ring of carbon atom]
Cellular Processes • Chain of alternating ribose and phosphate molecules
Cell cycle- repeating series of events that includes growth, DNA Synthesis, • Watson and Crick (Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins)
and Cell division Rosalind Franklin
Cell Division- interaction by which the cells expand to create new cells.
• first clear photo of DNA (Photo 51- crystalized x-ray photography)
Why do cells need to divide?
Watson and Crick- credit grabbing case (won the noble prize)
• Growth, Replacement, Repair
Maurice Wilkins- gave the photo 51 to Watson and Crick without Rosalind’s
Two Types of Cell Division permission

Mitosis DNA Molecular Diagram

• Takes place in the meristem of the plants • Directionality of the DNA 5’ end 3’ start
• One cell divides into two identical sister cells • [‘] means prime
Cell Cycle • Form of eukaryotic, asexual cell division that produces daughter cells
with the same genetic component as the parent cell
• a repeating series of events that includes growth, DNA Synthesis, and
• Equational cell division
cell division.
➢ G1 Stage (growth phase)- cells increased in size 4 Mitotic Stage
➢ GO (gap/resting phase)- cells grow more
Note: there are cells that stops at resting phase and undergo cell aging Prophase (30-60 mins)
(Cellular Senescence) • Preparation for cell division
➢ S (synthesis phase)- DNA replication • Nuclear membrane disintegrates, and nucleolus disappears
➢ G2 (growth phase)- cells grow more and organelles and protein will • Chromosomes condense, mitotic spindles begin to form
develop in preparation for cell division
M Phase

• Mitosis followed by cytokinesis

• Formation of two identical daughter cells
Control of the checkpoint by cytokinesis

• G1 CP, DNA synthesis CP, Mitosis CP

Note: if there’s no regulatory protein guarding the checkpoint it will cause
tumor and cancer.
• Cell cycle control system Metaphase (2-10 minutes)

• Kinetochores attach chromosomes to the mitotic spindle and aligns them

along metaphase plate at the equator of the cell
Anaphase (2-3 minutes)

• Occurs rapidly
• Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by the
kinetochore fiber

Mitosis Telophase (3-12 minutes)

• Sister chromatids at opposite poles • Meiosis I and Meiosis II
• Spindle disassembles • Reductional cell division
• nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids • Original cell is diploid (2n)
• nucleolus reappears, nucleolus reappears • Four daughter cells are produced that are haploid (1n)
• chromosomes reappear as chromatin
Mitosis in a plant cell

Prophase I

• Early Prophase
Cytokinesis o Homologous pair
o Crossing over occurs
• division of the cytoplasm
• Late Prophase
• division of cell into two identical halves called daughter cells o Chromosomes condense
o Spindle forms
o Nuclear envelope fragments

Meiosis • Tetrads form in prophase I

 Meiosis II: Equational Division

Crossing-over

Prophase II

• Nuclear envelope fragments

• Spindle fiber forms
Metaphase II

• Chromosomes align along the equator of the cell

Anaphase II

• Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

Telophase

• Nuclear envelope assembles

• Chromosomes decondense
• Spindle fiber disappears and cytokinesis divides cell into two
Results of meiosis
➢ Gametes form four haploid cells with one copy of each chromosome
Metaphase I ➢ One allele of each gene
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes align along the equator of the cell ➢ Different combination of alleles for different genes along chromosomes

Anaphase I
• Homologs separate and move to opposite poles
• Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres
 o Active Transport- through protein channels (requires energy)

Passive Transport
Osmosis- high concentration of water molecule to a solution with lower
concentration
Diffusion- has limit, region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration
Facilitated Diffusion- involves the diffusion of solutes through transport
protein
Plasmolysis- shrinkage due to loss of water
Tonicity- withstand changes in osmotic pressure
Crenation- shriveling of cells due to dehydration in hypertonic solution

Types of Osmotic Solution

Isotonic solution- remains constant
Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Hypertonic solution- higher concentration causes crenation
1 set of chromosomes 2 sets of chromosomes Hypotonic solution- lower solute concentration
Process of meiosis undergo of mitosis
Used for sex cells All other cells beside sex cells Active Transport
Ex. Gametes (sperm and egg cells) Ex. Somatic cells (muscle cell, Endocytosis- outside to the inside of the cell (ingestion)
blood cells, epithelial cells) o Phagocytosis- engulfs the solid material; cell eating
o Pinocytosis- takes in fluid; cellular drinking
Exocytosis- releases its content, inside to outside pf the cell (discharge)

Sporophyte and Gametophyte Water movement between cells is affected by:

• Generations alternate in the life cycles of the plant • Osmotic pressure- as the water enters freely, the membrane obstructs
• Alternation of generations- haploid and diploid gen take turns producing passage of solutes giving rise to osmotic pressure
each other • Solute potential- exhibited by solution
• Diploid plant (sporophyte), produce by haploid spores by meiosis • Turgor pressure- pressure exerted by the protoplasm equally but opposite
• Spores divided by mitosis giving rise to multicellular male and female to the pressure exerted by the cell wall.
gametophytes, the haploid generation
• Mitosis in the gametophytes produces gametes
• Fertilization results in diploid by zygotes
Cellular Transport

• Water movement between the cells

o Passive Transport- transport of material straight to the membrane
(does not require energy)
Chapter 5 Plant Tissues • Apical meristem- occurs at the tips of the roots and shoots
• Root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem
Tissue
• Produces embryo leaves and buds
• Cells-Tissues-Tissue System

3 Types of Primary Meristem

a) Protoderm- gives rise to the outer, protective coating of the plant:
dermal tissue system
b) Ground Meristem- gives rise to the ground tissue system
c) Procambium- gives rise to the vascular tissue system

simple
tissue
Tissue
complex
tissue

Groups of Plant Tissues

A. Protective Tissue
• Covers the surface of leaves and the living cells of roots and stems • Lateral Meristem- responsible for the outward expansion of plants
• Epidermis- single layer of closely packed cells • Produce secondary tissues
• Periderm- replaces the epidermis in plants that undergo secondary
2 Types of Cambia
growth
B. Meristem Tissue
 a) Vascular cambium- gives rise to secondary vascular tissue and • In vascular plants, conducting tissues are xylem and phloem
produce wood Xylem
b) Cork cambium- a thin cylinder that runs the length of roots and stems ➢ conducts sap obtained by absorption of water and mineral by roots
• Intercalary meristem- occurs in monocots, found in grasses and related ➢ components: tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma, and xylem fiber
plants that do not have a vascular or cork cambium. Phloem
➢ sap containing water, amino acids, and sugars, especially sucrose,
Mechanical/Ground Tissue
obtained by photosynthesis.
• Synthesize organic compounds, supports and provide storage for the ➢ Components: sieve tube, companion cell, phloem parenchyma and
plants phloem fiber.
• It is mostly made up of parenchyma cells but can also include some Specialized Tissue
collenchyma cells as well.
➢ Stoma/Stomata- microscopic pore on the surface epidermis of land
Parenchyma ➢ Guard cells- pair of specialized epidermal cells, act like a turgor-driven
• Most abundant of all cell types and are found in almost all major parts of valve that open and close pores
higher plants ➢ Rhoeo spathacea (Banka-bankaan)
Trichomes
➢ cutinized epidermal appendages found in the leaf, stem, flower, fruit
➢ serve to protect and prevent evaporation of water

Collenchyma

• Relatively long, with mom-lignified primary walls which allows them to

stretch. Have unevenly thickened cell walls
Sclerenchyma

• Thick lignified cell walls, provide strength and support in parts that have
ceased elongating
o Fibers- have very thin lumens, support for the plant
o Sclereids- stone cells, for protection
Conducting Tissue