ME 6.2.

3G Auxiliary Equipment (Air Compressors)

ME 6.2.7 Change over main and standby compressor to normal running mode.

1 Introduction - Air Compressors and Compressed Air System on board

On board a ship, compressed air is used for a many purposes, such as: starting of main and
auxiliary engines, operation of the ship's whistle and for control equipment and
instrumentation. Other uses of compressed air is for cleaning components, operating some
of the lifting gear, impact wrenches, drilling machines, and hand grinders.

Air in its natural state cannot do any of the above mentioned tasks. However, in a
compressed state it has pressure energy that can be used do the desired work. When work
is done on air to compress it, the pressure increases and the volume decreases.

A machine called the "Air Compressor" operated by an electric motor does the work of
adding energy to the air.

A compressor is a thermal machine used for repeated compression of gasses. The air
compressor is used to compress the atmospheric air.

Ships are fitted with at least two air compressors and the compressed air is stored in vessels
called the "Air Bottles"

Depending upon the type of requirements on board, you may find more than one type of
compressor.

1.1 Compressed Air System on Board

Diagram below represents a typical system on board a motor ships.

1.2 Thermo-dynamic and dynamic of compression

Main constituents of air being near perfect gases, a mixture of them behaves like a near
perfect gas in accordance with Boyle's Law and Charle's Law for gases. When air is
compressed, its volume reduces while its temperature and pressure increases.

Recalling what you have studied in Applied Heat: -

A) An Isothermal Compression is compression at constant temperature. That is if air was
to be compressed in a cylinder; all the heat generated should be absorbed by the piston,
cylinder and the cooling water.

This follows that P1 * V1 = P2 * V2 = Constant

or Initial Absolute pressure x Volume = Terminal absolute press. * Vol.
or P1 / P2 = V2 / V1
or As Pressure Decreases Volume Increases
or As Pressure Increases Volume Decreases

B) An Adiabatic Compression is a compression under constant entropy conditions, that is

no heat is given or taken from the cylinder walls or the piston or the cooling water and all
the work done in compressing the air is stored within it. The law follows

P * Vn = Constant
where n = Specific heat at constant pressure
Specific heat at constant volume

Referring again to the figure of P-V diagram given above we see that the work done is
much more but from the energy gained point of view, this compression is ideal. But once
again this is not practical.

Therefore what we actually practice is: Polytropic Compression

C. Polytropic Compression

Since, during compression, the piston and the cylinder and the cooling water absorb
some of the heat generated, the compression is neither Isothermal nor Adiabatic. It is in
between and is known as the Polytropic Compression.

Composition of air being 23% Oxygen and 77% Nitrogen by mass, it behaves as a
perfect gas and the general law that is used for perfect gases is applicable, that is as a
combination of Charle's Law and Boyle's Law:
P1 * V1 = P2 * V2 = Constant
T1 T2

D Summarising the above for air compressors:

If isothermal compression could be obtained in a single-stage compressor, it would be

ideal from a thermodynamic point of view, but this is not practically possible. During the
compression stroke, as the volume decreases the temperature rises and some of the
heat is lost to the cylinder components thus the ideal cannot be obtained.

An adiabatic compression on the other hand, requires more power for the same output
therefore is not practical as well.

Therefore what we actually get in a real situation is a Polytropic compression, which is

neither an isothermal, nor an adiabatic compression.
2 Various Aspects of Air Compressors

If the air has to be compressed to higher pressure, the temperature will rise as the pressure
increases. It will be impractical to construct parts that can withstand high temperatures and
achieve the required compression in just one stage.

With inter-cooling, after the air is compressed to a certain pressure in the first stage it is
passed through a cooler for cooling. Due to cooling, water vapour condenses, and it needs
to be drained away.

The air then passes to the second stage at nearly its original temperature, and is
compressed again and goes out to the cooler.

An infinite number of stages can be arranged with coolers in between two stages. For
shipboard requirements, two stage or three stage compression is sufficient.

You can see from the diagram on the left that in order to obtain conditions near to the ideal
isothermal compression for the best efficiency, compressors have to be multi stage type with
inter-cooling.

2.2 Change in condition when air is compressed

"Every gas has a certain moisture holding capacity, and this varies inversely as its
absolute pressure."

Since atmospheric air contains moisture, when it is compressed this moisture along with the
oil vapour travels with the heated air and condenses when cooled in the inter cooler and
collects in the space. The condensed vapour should be drained from the intercoolers and
and after-cooler from time to time.
2.3 The importance of' draining

The following example will clearly show why it is imperative to drain the compressed air after
each stage and at regular intervals: -

Considering, the compressor takes in 30 m3 of air, at a relative humidity of 75%, at a

temperature of 20o C, and pressure increases to 10 Bar in one Minute. Then, the water that
will be condensed every minute will be equal to 1/2 Litre.

2.4 After-cooling

After-coolers are fitted so as to reduce the volume or air after it has been compressed to the
final pressure, so that a greater amount of air could be stored in the air bottle. (Since higher
temperature will give greater volume but lesser weight or mass.)

Advantages of Multi Staging and Inter-cooling and after cooling:

a. Compression work is reduced.

b. Volumetric efficiency and hence compressor capacity is increased.
c. It approximates isothermal compression.
d. The volume of air delivered is reduced, requiring reduced sizes of cylinder, piston and
delivery pipes.
e. The temperature of air delivered is reduced, which gives less thermal loading onto
material and better lubrication of piston and cylinder.
f. Due to less temperature, suction and delivery valves remain cleaner without being
fouled with carbonised oil.
g. Moisture separation is easier through intercooler drains.
h. Use of after cooler allows smaller receivers.

2.5 Clearance Volume:

To provide for thermal expansion and for machining tolerances, a small clearance, called,
'Bump Clearance', is left between cylinder head and the piston. This clearance must be as
small as possible to keep the volumetric efficiency to the maximum, and hence capacity of
the compressor.

2.6 Volumetric Efficiency:

Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume of air drawn in each suction stroke to
the stroke volume.

2.6.1 Factors Affecting Volumetric Efficiency:

a. Excessive bump clearance adversely affects volumetric efficiency.

High-pressure air remaining in the cylinder after compression and delivery will expand
on the return stroke of the piston. This expanding air must fall to a pressure below that
in the suction manifold before a fresh air charge can be drawn in. Hence, part of the
return or suction stroke of the piston is non-effective. This non-effective part of the
suction stroke must be kept as small as possible in order to keep capacity to a
maximum.

b. Sluggish opening and closing of valves.

c. Leakage past piston rings.
d. Insufficient cooling.
e. Cooling water temperature high.
f. Air inlet temperature high.
g. Throttling of air intake. (Due to dirty intake filter, insufficient or excess suction valve lift,
suction valve spring too strong)

3 Air Compressor Requirements for Ships with Diesel Engine Propulsion

a. Two starting compressors must be fitted of sufficient total capacity to meet the engine
requirements.

b. Each compressor must be able to press up the air receiver from 15 bar to 25 bar in thirty
minutes.

c. Two air receivers must to be provided. Total capacity of air receiver to be sufficient for
twelve (12) starts of reversible engines and six (6) starts for non-reversible engines.

d. Additionally, one diesel driven or hand operated (or if possible both) emergency air
compressor must be fitted to start auxiliary engines of a "Dead Ship".

e. Safety valves or preferably bursting discs must be fitted on the cooling water casing to
give ample relief of pressure should a tube of the air cooler bursts.

f. Each compressor must have a safety valve designed so that the accumulated pressure,
with the outlet valve closed will not exceed 10% of the maximum working pressure.

g. The air compressor cylinders, covers, intercoolers and after-coolers are to be tested by
hydraulic pressure to twice their working pressure.

h. The casing of the intercooler and after cooler is hydraulic- tested to 1.5 times the cooling
water pressure. Thus for 4 bar cooling water pressure, the casing will be tested to with
stand a pressure of 6 bar.

i. A water separator or drain should be fitted on the air side of each intercooler. The drain
cock should be used at regular intervals to prevent water from one stage being carried
into the next stage.

4 Classification of Air Compressors

Compressors can be classified according to principle of compression as mentioned below:

4.1 Positive Displacement Compressors:

They increase the pressure of gas by decreasing its volume. These can be further
subdivided into:

a) Piston Compressors, in which the gas volume changes due to the action of one or two
reciprocating pistons moving axially in cylinders as it happens in a reciprocating air
compressor.

b) Rotary Compressors, in which the gas volume changes due to rotation in the cylinder
of rotary vanes of an eccentrically placed rotor.
c) Membrane Compressor, in which the volume variations are effected by deflection of
an elastic partition.

4.2 Reciprocating Air Compressors:

For moderately high pressures such as starting air of 25 to 40 bar, reciprocating type
compressors are most commonly used due to their ability for positive sealing. To limit the
temperature of moving parts and to maintain lubricating oil film between the piston rings and
liners a compression ratio of 7:1 in one stage is preferred. Thus 35 bar gauge pressure of
starting air can be easily attained with a two-stage compressor.

5 Two-Stage Air Compressor

The following figures show a common type of two-stage air compressor.

The pressures and temperatures at the various points would be approximately as follows:

Tanabe Air Compressor

5.1 Description Of Components

5.1.1 Filters

Air Filter of the Viscous Impingement Type

The most widely used type of filter is the dry type filter. The filtering media is usually woven
cooper wire or nylon stands, which can be easily cleaned or replaced

Air contains suspended foreign matter, much of which is abrasive. If this is allowed to enter
the compressor it will combine with the lubricating oil to form an abrasive-like paste that
causes wear on piston rings, liners and valves. It can adhere to the valves and prevent them
from closing properly, which in turn can lead to higher discharge temperatures and the
formation of deposit on the valves. These deposits can become extremely hot if the valve is
not closing properly. Such hot spots could act as a source of ignition for air-oil vapour
mixtures, leading to possible explosions in the compressor space.

Hence, proper functioning of air filters is extremely important. Air filters must be regularly
cleaned and where necessary renewed. The compressor must never be run without the air
intake filter.

Dirty filter causes pressure drop in air intake and causing loss of efficiency.
5.1.2 Compressor Valves

All modern marine compressors use automatic valves that operate on low-pressure
differential.

Materials used in the construction are generally:

Valve seat: 0.4% carbon steel hardened and polished

working surfaces.

Valve: Nickel steel, chrome vanadium steel or stainless

steel, hardened, and ground, then finally polished to a
mirror finish.

Spring: Hardened steel. (N.B. all hardened steel would

be tempered)

Hoerbiger Type Compressor Valve

Hoerbiger type designed especially for medium and

high speed air compressors.

The suction and delivery valves are usually of the same type, the only differences being in
the spring load and the lift. It is therefore necessary, during cleaning, that valves be treated
as units, the various parts assembled exactly as they were dismantled. The spares should
be clearly marked as "SUCTION" and "DELIVERY" and used only for that purpose.

5.1.3 Safety Devices

Safety valves are fitted in various stages and set to lift at pressure 10% more than stage
pressure.

a) One safety valve is fitted on the delivery pipe.

b) On delivery pipe, a fusible plug also is fitted which melts at 121°C. This ensures
safety against temperature rise.

c) Bursting Discs are also fitted to jacket intercooler and after-cooler.

d) A relief valve is fitted in oil system to relieve pressure if it is more than 25% of
normal working pressure, especially for the protection of the oil pump from getting
overloaded during cold start up.

5.1.4 Unloader

Unloaders are used so that the compressor motor will not be subjected to a very high
starting load till it gains the normal operating speed. There are many methods of unloading
compressor cylinders and the following list gives commonly used methods for unloading
marine compressors.
a) Depressors to hold suction valve plates on their seats;
b) By-pass discharge to suction;
c) Keep the drains at the coolers open when starting and shutting down the compressor
(manually or automatically)

Depressing the suction valve plates gives slightly less power consumption when running
unloaded than the other methods.

Suction Valve Unloader Modular Unloader

5.1.5 Lubrication of Air Compressors

Depending upon the size of the

compressor, splash, pressure
circulation or forced lubrication is
used in reciprocating type of air
compressors.

Selection of' Oil: Certain factors

govern the choice of lubricant for the
cylinders on an air compressor, these
are:
Correct Lubrication: It means that
amount and grade of oil is correct and is
applied effectively. If lubrication is
correct, wear will be normal, liner will "feel" oily, two lower piston rings will be just wet while
upper rings will be almost dry.
Over lubrication will be indicated by wetness of liner and piston and oil floating on drained off
water. Though the liner wear will be normal, but (compressor and cooler efficiency will be
lowered and valves will have deposits of carbonised oil).

Under lubrication will be indicated by clean and dry valves with excessive liner and piston
ring wear down.

6 Operating Procedures

Procedures for Starting & Stopping Air Compressors

Checks before starting
1. Check lube oil level in the compressor crankcase is normal
2. Check that the filling valve for the air bottle is open.
3. Check that the compressor air discharge valve is open.
4. Check that the compressor cooling water inlet and outlet valves are open and the
drain valve shut.
5. Check that the L.P and H.P. drain valves leading to the unloader are open.
6. Bar the compressor by hand and ensure that the compressor is turning freely.
7. Switch on the power for the compressor.

Start / Stop on AUTO

1. Once the power supply is turned “On”, the air compressor enters the automatic start /
stop operation mode.
2. When the air pressure in the air bottle drops to 21kg/sq.cm, the pressure switch operates
to start the compressor.
3. When the pressure in the air bottle reaches 30kg/sq.cm, the pressure switch operates
again to stop the compressor and discharge the drain in each stage from the unloader.
(magnetic valve)

Start / Stop on Manual

1. In case of malfunction of the unloader, the compressor may be operated manually.
2. Disconnect the drainpipes for the L.P. and H.P. stage of the compressor leading to
the unloader after the drain valves.
3. Open the L.P. stage and H.P. stage drain valves.
4. Press the compressor start button.
5. After the compressor starts, shut the drain valve for the L.P. stage first and then shut
the drain valve for the H.P. stage. Now the compressor is on load and discharging air to
the air bottle.
6. When the air bottle is filled, unload the compressor by first opening the drain valve for
the H.P. stage first and then the drain valve for the L.P. stage.
7. Stop the compressor by pressing the stop switch.

Checks during running

1. Ensure that the lube oil level is between the “h” and “l” mark on the level gauge.
2. Check the L.P. and H.P. stage pressure gauges for correct pressure.
3. Check that the lube oil pressure is correct and in limits.
4. Check the compressor and motor for any noise / vibrations.
5. Check that the compressor is drawing normal amps.
6. Check that the unloader operates for draining as per the timer setting.
7. Check for water and air leaks
8. Check that the temp for cooling water and discharge air are normal.
NOTE: IMMEDIATELY AFTER OVERHAUL, DO NOT RUN THE COMPRESSOR
RUNNING UNATTENDED UNTIL NORMAL OPERATIONS IS ASSURED.
7 Operating Problems

Some of the important operating problems and their causes are listed below:

7.1 Compressor Pressure (or capacity) falls

a. Air inlet strainer is chocked. f. Leaky drains.

b. Compressor valves are leaking or g. Leaky safety valves.
sticking. h. Leaky pressure gauge fittings.
c. Too much L.P. 'bump' clearance. i. Leaky coolers.
d. Leaky piston rings. j. Faulty capacity control.
e. Leaky cover. k. Worn crank pin or journal bearings.

7.2 Valves Leaking

Valves can leak and finally fail. Valves may fail due to wear and fatigue, wrong selection,
insufficient or over lubrication, presence of foreign particles, oil decomposition and excess
valve lift.

Effects of valves leaking

a) First stage suction: Reduced air delivery, increased running time and reduced pressure
in the suction to the second stage. If the suction valve leaks badly it may completely
unload the compressor.

b) First stage delivery: With high-pressure air leaking back into the cylinder less air will be
drawn in. There will be loss of efficiency and rise in discharge temperature.

c) Second stage suction: High pressure and temperature in the second stage suction line,
reduced delivery and increased running time.

d) Second stage delivery: Increased suction pressure in second stage, reduced air suction
and delivery in second stage. Delivery pressure from first stage increased.

7.3 Leaky Piston Rings

Usually a fall of pressure at any of the different stages indicates leaky rings or leaky valves.
Leaky suction and delivery valves also produce fluctuations of the stage pressures, and the
fault can generally be located by observation or by applying a test.

Leaky piston rings can be detected by taking out the H.P. valve and introducing air within the
space above the piston. A sound air scaping through the piston rings will indicate the
condition of piston rings.

7.4 Breakdown of Compressor Coolers

a) Oil deposit on tubes (excessive lubrication).
b) Thinning of tubes due to erosion (water friction).
c) Bursting of tubes due to explosion of air and oil vapour at high temperature (caused by
excessive lubrication).
d) Scale deposits on tubes when seawater is used for cooling.
7.5 Leaky Cooler Tubes
This fault would be indicated by a falling air pressure, and rise in the circulating water
pressure of the intercoolers. If the tubes actually burst a serious explosion may occur in the
intercooler casing serious damage to casing.

A bursting disc is provided within the cooling water space to protect the casing against such
a situation.

7.6 Seizure
Seizure of one or more of the working parts may take place in the event of failure of
lubrication. In pressure lubrication system, failure may occur due to shortage of oil, choked
strainer, a broken oil pipe or excessive bearing clearance apart from actual mechanical
failure.

In the simple splash system, shortage of oil and debris in crankcase are the likely causes.
The pistons could seize in liners due to increased temperature caused due to lubrication
failure, high operating pressures, insufficient cooling or a broken valve.

Seizure of bearings can occur if the drive is misaligned or there is end thrust. In case of
expected seizure, stop the compressor immediately. In case of a minor seizure, parts can be
restored by skillfull grinding the roughened surfaces.

Before restarting the compressor, check crankshaft for distortion and renew connecting rod
bolts.

7.7 Failure of Connecting Rod Bolts

Connecting rod bolts can fail due to over tightened or under tightened, bottom end bearing
clearance being excessive or due to excessive speed or fatigue. In case of a knocking sound
from the crankcase, the compressor should be stopped immediately and cause investigated.

7.8 Fire and Explosion

Though improbable in well designed compressors, it can still occur due to insufficient
lubrication, unsuitable oil, and accumulation of heavy deposits of carbon in the delivery
passages. Low flash point of oil and poor conductivity of carbon are the reasons for fire.

Though totally undesirable, a small fire may not very dangerous. But an explosion can be
occur and will cause serious damage and injuries.

Lack of maintenance, over lubrication, carelessness are some of the common causes of fires
and explosions.

Regular maintenance, temperature monitoring, alarms, shut down devices and fusible plugs
are precautionary measures against fire and explosion.

8 Trouble Shooting

Since perfection is never achieved, even the best maintenance cannot always guarantee
trouble free operation. Careful check of the operating parameters and comparing them with
the standard set of parameters will indicate symptoms of a malfunction. The cause can be
identified with help of the information given in the previous heading.

The best source of information is the operation and maintenance manual provided by the
manufacturer.

9 Air Bottles or Air Receivers

Compressed air is stored in cylindrical bottles or receivers as shown in the diagram

appearing later. The capacity of the bottle depends upon the size of the engine.

On board ships there are two air bottles for the main air and one bottle for the emergency air
compressor.

The air bottles are cylindrical vessels made of good quality mild steel, [low carbon steel e.g.
steel having a maximum of 6.2% carbon; up to 0.35% silicon; 0.1% Magnesium (max);
0.05% Sulphur (max); 0.05% Phosphorus (max) and with U.T.S. of 460 MN/m2 ] having one
longitudinal welded seam. The ends of the cylinder are hemispherical with one of ends
having an opening for an elliptical man hole door.

The longitudinal seam is machine welded with full penetration welds and the circumferential
welds are either machine or hand welded. The welding details are governed by the pressure
of air that is to be stored in conjunction with the regulations of the classification societies. All
welded air receivers have to be stress relieved or annealed at a temperature of about 600°C
and the welding is to be radio-graphed for safety purposes.

9.1 Mountings on an Air Bottle:

As shown in the figure, the mountings fitted to an air bottle are as follows: -

a) Main air inlet stop valve. (Air from compressor to bottle.)

b) Main engine air outlet stop valve. (Discharge / Starting air to the Main Engine).
c) Auxiliary engine air outlet stop valve. (Discharge / Starting air to Auxiliary Engines).
d) Air whistle valve. (Air to ships whistle.)
e) Service air valve. (Air to workshop and various points in the engine room).
f) Control air valve. (Air for control and instrumentation purposes.)
g) Drain valves -2 Nos.
h) Valve for air pressure gauge.
i) Safety / relief valve.
j) Fusible plug.
k) Atmospheric air release valve. (To relieve pressure incase of Engine Room fire requiring
flooding of the engine room with C02).

Note: To avoid rapid pressure increases which could result in an explosion in the
pipeline, all valves should be opened slowly – crack open first and then open more
gradually.

Drain valves are usually two in numbers, one at each end at the bottom. They are provided
for clearing the condensed moisture. Air bottles should be drained at regular intervals
especially before opening any of the outlet valves.

9.2 Safety features of an Air Bottle:

Explosion of, and damage to the air bottle is prevented by means of the following:

1. Safety/Relief Valve.
2. Fusible Plug. and/or
3. Atmospheric air release valve.

9.2.1 Relief Valve:

This is usually of the ordinary spring loaded type capable of relieving the pressure beyond a
preset value. If the maximum working pressure of the air bottle is 30 Bars then the relief
valve will be set to lift at 32 Bars.

9.2.2 Fusible Plug:

The composition of the metal plug is such

that it would melt at about 150°C. In case
of a fire in the engine room the plug would
melt and release the air thereby
preventing a possibility of an explosion.
The air released is led outside the engine
room.

9.2.3 Atmospheric Air Release Valve:

This valve is fitted sometimes in addition to the fusible plug so that in case of an engine
room fire when CO2 flooding is required, this valve can be opened release the air to the
atmosphere outside.

Note: You must never tamper with the settings of any of the safety devices. Incase of
doubt consult Second Engineer or Chief Engineer.