Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

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Energy Conversion and Management: X

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Recent advances and viability in biofuel production

Shweta J. Malode a, *, K. Keerthi Prabhu a, Ronald J. Mascarenhas b, Nagaraj P. Shetti a, *,
Tejraj M. Aminabhavi c
a
Center for Electrochemical Science & Materials, Department of Engineering Chemistry, K.L.E. Institute of Technology, Hubballi 580027, Karnataka, India
b
Electrochemical Research Group, Department of Chemistry, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Lalbagh Road, Bangalore 560027, Karnataka, India
c
Pharmaceutical Engineering, Sonia College of Pharmacy, Dharwad 580 002, Karnataka, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The fossil fuel issues due to toxic carbon dioxide emissions and climate change have a direct link with the
Biofuels particulate matter that has caused severe threat to the environment. The bio-based products such as biodiesel and
Production methods bio-compressed natural gas (Bio-CNG) can be less expensive and adaptable. Biofuels are increasingly being used
Bioenergy
in transportation, heat, and power development requiring the need for renewable sources of energy. This review
Extraction
highlights the use of dreck organic matters from aquatic environment and soil supplies for renewable energy
Anaerobic digestion
Thermoeconomic approach production for human requirements, sustaining a clean and healthy environment. Dreck can be harnessed to
manufacture bioenergy that would help to mitigate greenhouse gases and preserve the environment. Methane,
hydrogen, ethanol, bioelectricity, algal diesel, and butanol, or other forms of fuels provide a renewable supply of
bioenergy, which can be created by the biological systems. The waste-to-energy methodologies (thermal plus
biochemical) for energy production via agro-residues are covered. The key focus of this study is the recent ad­
vances in the area of ’synchronous waste mitigation with energy development’ techniques. This review addresses
the significance of organic substances for the production of clean and renewable energy, including alternate
solutions for non-renewable fuels. The needs for appropriate and renewable alternatives for fossil fuels are
discussed.

1. Introduction complementary power resources that are easily accessible, renewable,

and readily obtainable are necessary [5].
Biofuels are a kind of energy fuels derived from the organic sources Biofuels are developed as a substitute for petroleum because of their
(comprehensively depicted as biomass) created by the plants and living nontoxic, sulfur-free, biodegradable nature, originating from the
things, which can be grown and harvested over and over again. Biofuels renewable sources. Depending upon the feedstock, biofuels are catego­
used to replace non-renewable energy fuels are sourced chiefly from rized into four types: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th generation biofuels [6].
agricultural and vital harvesting, woodlands, and residue streams [1–3]. Biofuels of the 1st generation are created from oil-basis plants, sugar,
Biofuels are typical forms of either biodiesel (produced from vegetable and starch yields. Since their introduction in 1996–1997, the develop­
oils, re-used wax, or creature fats) or bioethanol (alcohol produced by ment of genetically transformed yields has continued to grow [7]. The
fermenting sugar and starch crops such as corn) or biogas. Petroleum oil 1st generation of biofuels contributes to the nutrition debate and fuel
is one of the world’s most important energy sources. The transport sector debate, whereas biofuel obtained from sustainable lignocellulosic
utilizes more than 70% of all petroleum fuel. As petroleum usage is biomass of 2nd generation minimizes food safety [5,8]. Biofuels of 2nd
rising significantly, it is estimated that by 2070–2080, the world will fall generation are non-food yields and are principally produced from agri­
short of petroleum oil [4]. Its overuse has given rise to concerns about cultural and woodland residues [9–11]. The 3rd generation biofuels
well-being and global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), produced by algae can be produced on a large scale, absorb CO2, and are
consisting of CO2 and other toxic gases such as methane, carbon mon­ relatively easy to refine, and have attracted a lot of recognition. The
oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. Greenhouse gases are predicted to rise fourth generation of biofuels uses engineered cyanobacterial develop­
to approximately 43 billion metric tonnes by 2040. Thus, ment, which is a new and rapidly evolving area [12,13].

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.J. Malode), [email protected] (N.P. Shetti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2020.100070
Received 26 September 2020; Accepted 8 December 2020
Available online 31 December 2020
2590-1745/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

The biomass of lignocellulose comprises forest residuals, farm debris, employing biodiesel is incredibly efficient and appealing, the increased
yields, and manufacturing unit scrap. The development of lignocellu­ price of raw material is the main barrier to becoming a profit-making
losic biofuels help to mitigate environmental and nutritional crises. business [45].
Lignocellulosic biomass production generally includes the combination The introduction of unwanted cooking oil towards the practicality of
of lignin (26–31%), hemicellulose (25–32%), and cellulose (41–46%). persistent trans-esterification, including the recovery of good quality
The pretreatment stage is important for the enzymatic hydrolysis, glycerol mostly as a biodiesel by-product, is crucial for reducing the
including fermentation to increase the target product’s volume. The price of biodiesel. As per literature, the bio-oil faces major obstacles
pretreatment method can be further divided into three types: synthetic, because it varies from crude oil composed of a higher purity hydrocar­
biological, and physical [14,15]. It would then be possible to use pre­ bon fuel-type composition [46,47]. However, bio-oil has significantly
treated biomass concerning enzymatic saccharification, accompanied by less CO2 / GHG neutral, is cleaner, and contributes less to pollution
microorganism fermentation to produce the expected outcome. Oleagi­ because it releases zero NOx and much lower amounts of SOx [48]. The
nous organisms turn carbohydrates to fatty acids or oil by a variety of possibility of replacing bio-oil replacing bio-oil with fossil, involving
biochemical processes through the fermentation method [16]. chemical feedstock, is mitigated owing to its higher viscosity, elevated
Microalgae biomass, a raw resource with diverse biochemical com­ ash and water content, minimal heating value, volatility, and maximum
ponents of carbohydrates, lipids, and enzymes can be transformed into corrosiveness [40]. Engineered science involves the designing and
biohydrogen, biodiesel, bio-oil, biomethane, oil of bio-crude, etc., construction of novel organic components, appliances, and re-planning
[15,17–19]. The adoption of broad biomass transformation method to of current standard natural frameworks. A photosynthetic or non-
localize microalgae growth development within the manufacturing unit photosynthetic structure, whether characteristic or otherwise engi­
facilities utilizing wastewater-rich exhaust gas and sewage water are the neered, is required to provide increased-PFCE Biofuels [26].
nutrient reservoirs to generate enough biomass to meet the rising needs The recent rise and fall of costs of fossil fuel, and complete shift
of power consumption. This will bring additional profits for both concerning green energies have contributed to an augmentation in the
emission regulation and sewage water treatment units [20]. Microalgae application of conversion techniques focused on biomass. The higher
comprise basic cell structure, and require light, water, carbon dioxide, obtainable biomass capacity represents a necessary improvement of the
and nutrients (the main nutrients are phosphorus and nitrogen) for their function of biomass in the worldwide energy blend, and the advance­
growth 21,22]. The key techniques for genetically modifying microalgae ment of effective conversion techniques enables the chemical transition
include increasing the incorporation of light into microalgae by limiting to energy and even fuels [45,47]. Techniques for transforming biomass
the size of specific chlorophyll antenna and pigment administration facilitate the transition of unrefined biomass to a diversity of solid,
[23–26]. Besides, microalgal metabolic technology may contribute to gaseous, or liquid fuels, together with the coetaneous generation of
considerable improvements within the content of lipids or carbohy­ power and heat towards the furnishing of energy services. Even so, along
drates. Maximizing lipids and carbohydrates is the most desirable with comparatively poor conversion efficacy, the current hefty invest­
consideration for it, increases the performance of microalgae biomass ment prices impede the accelerated spread of such technologies, which
yields [27,28]. inhibits further use of biomass for immediate combustion to conserve a
The primary supplements in microalgae are nitrogen and phosphorus beneficial process [28]. On the contrary, through efficient reformulating
which constitutes 10–20% of the biomass. Algae retain an extensive reformulation of the transformation path, using a number of sub-
array of tactics intended for arrangement, foodstuff organization, processes that improve overall performance, the disadvantages linked
photosynthetic tints, and regeneration [29,30]. Biofuels of the fourth with efficacy during the chemical transition of biomass, is perhaps
generation integrate feedstock of genetic engineering, genomically compensated for. In all manufacturing processes among raw materials
synthesized micro-organisms, such as cyanobacteria, and microalgae to and final products, a vast range of available choices generate many
produce bioenergy effectively. They were generated utilizing non-arable transformation chains that vary concerning conversion efficacy and the
lands equivalent to biofuels of the 3rd generation. Microalgae comprise overall process costs [46].
eukaryotes related to a Protista family, i.e., the membrane formation From literature search, one can understand about the systematic
around the nucleus, whereas Cyanobacteria comprise prokaryotes, i.e., detection, production and evaluation of appropriate pathways whereby
the incomplete membrane-binding organelles of the realm of bacteria biomass is efficiently transformed into various possible anaerobic
family classified in the sample as algae [31,32]. digestion-based products. This dynamic issue is discussed in a general­
In order to develop a massive-scale biofuel system for managing ized context that employs a method superstructure route to interpret
organic trash, a well-determined biomass trash collection and repository appropriate conversion trails and their combination from a collection of
system are important. Effective regulatory strategies must be imple­ emerging technologies that function as key components [49]. Using
mented to improve the system of waste assortment and repository MILP maximization formulation that can further aim to minimize the
[33–35]. Grants from the government to construct biofuel plants and gross capital plus processing costs, the optimal structure of evolving
rewards for application will help manage the biofuels obtained from the conversion frameworks are defined. Furthermore, process consolidation
trash [36,37]. By incorporating advanced techniques, one can add a factors are involved to ensure that the energy needs of every plant built
great value to the process of development [38–40]. However, to reduce are reduced and the process economics are further enhanced by the
non-renewable fuel utilization in global economies and accomplish successful construction of a super system of heat exchanger [48].
renewable energy stability in the future, advanced technologies are Emerging technologies can be effectively quantified for potential
crucial in the effective biofuel generation. Hence, it is imperative to economic efficiency, so it is possible to encourage choices upon its se­
achieve immediate progress to generate biofuel resources to suffice the lection with the most effective conversion route depending on the kind
world’s energy requirement. Therefore, an innovative approach is of raw biomass required and the anticipated product [50]. Hence, the
needed to alleviate the ongoing waste administration challenges, main objectives of this review are to reassess the various kinds of bio­
including expanded area and water utilization [41]. fuels, their generation, their advantages, pollution caused by non-
This review discusses the advances in the manufacturing of biofuels renewable fuel vehicles, thermoeconomic approach and the associated
from organic trash utilizing the novel technologies. Biodiesel is the top social as well as environmental issues. This review focus on such recent
renewable energy fuel that can act as a superior fuel in the transit sector developments in biofuels. The production of biofuels is shown in Fig. 1
[42–44]. Biodiesel will decrease brown haze by 40% and significantly [14,17]
lower the CO percentage. The mixing of biodiesel with mineral diesel,
while combustion reduces emission levels of particulate matter, CO, and
hydrocarbons to a certain level, with just a minor loss of power. Since

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Fig. 1. Biofuel production efficiency. Reproduced with permission from [14], Copyright 2019, Elsevier and [17], copyright 2020, Elsevier.

2. Methods of extraction and basic knowledge on biofuels 2.2. Main techniques to manufacture biofuels

2.1. Organic trash feedstock capacity for the manufacture of biofuels Major characteristics of the developed biofuels derived from organic
waste are greater productivity and reduced ability to pollute, although
A comprehensive spectrum of organic trash may be utilized during most specialized biofuel techniques are still under demonstration
efficient biofuel manufacturing that provides large prospects to varied [39,40]. Modern technology for biofuels continues to evolve, improving
manufacturing methods and biofuel potentialities. Organic trash covers the quality of output and decreasing power use and CO2 pollution. The
food, farming, forestry, lignocellulosic trash, livestock, animals, waste major popular techniques include fermentation of compounds from
paper, wastewater, and corporate garbage, comprising mostly chemical- sugar or starch towards ethanol with trans-esterification of components
free trash. Feedstock composed of organic corporate waste fragments is of waste kitchen oil or fat of an animal to produce biodiesel. There is
inexpensive and easy to access in city regions. In contrast, agrarian, continuous innovation in the manufacture of fluid biofuels compared to
rustic crop materials, and other leafy trash, are proper to rural biofuel the manufacture of solid biofuels or gaseous biofuels. Fluid biofuel
generation. In areas where timber-based products are widespread due to manufacturing methods reveal a capacity for greater transformations,
ease of access, and fair price, forestry, and other lignocellulose remnants lower waste production, and usage of low area and water compared with
are unified alternatives. Including the price of feedstock, is thus a key gas-based biofuel manufacturing methods. Essential criteria, including
component in the manufacture of biofuels across the globe [38,40,41]. feedstock rates, manufacturing infrastructure, quality of the commodity,
Fig. 2 [18] shows a comparison between crude oil and biofuel formation, and market demand, decide the commercial sustainability of the growth
usage, and their effects on the nature, while Fig. 3 [19] shows numerous of biofuels. While the use of organic trash feedstocks shows promise in
systems worldwide for the generation of biofuels utilizing the chemical- biofuel generation, an efficient approach must be followed to maintain a
free natural trash [38–43]. A few of the main manufacturing services for substantial supply of natural deposit for uninterrupted growth
organic waste biofuels manufacturing are summarized in Table 1 [19]. [19,40,44–46].
First-generation biofuels are produced primarily from barley, wheat,

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

Fig. 2. Comparative study between the biofuels and crude oil generation, usage, and their influence on environment. Reproduced with permission from [18],
copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Table 1
Details of major biofuel production facilities using organic wastes from various
companies. Reproduced with permission from [19], copyright 2018, Elsevier.
Company Country Biofuel types Installed Capacity
(million liters per
year)

High plains bioenergy United Biodiesel from 114

LLC [42] States animal fats [45]
UrbanX renewables Renewable diesel Information
group[42] from waste frying unavailable
oil
DuPont Danisco [42] Cellulosic ethanol 0.95
from waste biomass
[45]
Abengoa [42] 95
Fiberight LLC [42] Information
unavailable
Aemetis [45] 208
Iogen corporation Canada Information
[46] unavailable
GranBio/GraalBio Brazil 82
[46]
Fig. 3. The capacity of different nations for the production of biofuels utilizing Gushan China Biodiesel from Information
chemical-free organic trash. Reproduced with permission from [19], copyright environmental recycled cooking oil unavailable
2018, Elsevier. energy[42] [42]
Fujian Zhongde Biodiesel from
energy co. limited waste vegetable oil
maize, potatoes, sugarcane, oilseed, while biodiesel is manufactured
[42] [42]
from sunflower and soybean. Ethanol was developed by fermentation of Nextgeneration Singapore Biodiesel from
both sugarcane and natural corn with the assistance of fungal mycelia. biomass to liquid residual animal fat
Starch digesting microbes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and diesel [12]
Biogasol [42] Denmark Cellulosic ethanol 5 million
Rhizopus sp. are used to generate ethanol by the fermentation of natural
from wheat straw
corn [6,21]. The primary enzymatic hydrolysis process at the industrial [42]
development process involves conversion of starch and sucrose to bio­ Abengoa [42] Spain Cellulosic ethanol 19 million
ethanol for broad range development of first-era Biofuels [18]. from waste biomass
Biofuels of the second generation are termed as bioethanol devel­ [42]
Weyland [44] Norway 0.2 million
opment from woodland deposits, unwanted wood remnants, easily
Ethtec [42] Australia Cellulosic ethanol Information
obtainable crops, including green waste substances [17]. Biofuels from from woody unavailable
the third generation rely on the development of biodiesel via microalgae residues [42].
and cellulolytic bacterial species metabolism and microbes because of
the accelerated growth rate and even the capability of CO2 fixation. Post

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genome technologies employed by the metabolic engineering on solutions to minimize emissions of greenhouse gases. Investments
microalgae helps in the processing of fourth era biofuel. Many tech­ should be focused on crops with the highest favourable greenhouse gas
nologies are employed to generate biofuels of the first, second, third and balances for the lowest social and environmental costs for climate
fourth generations [3]. change [56]. However, scientific research has shown that various bio­
The manufacturing techniques of bio-diesel production and bio- fuels differ massively in the greenhouse gas balance when compared
ethanol are: For bio-diesel production: Steps involved in the extraction with petrol despite the potential advantages. Based on the techniques
of bio-diesel involve, a) Single and two-stage trans-esterification of tri­ used for processing the fuel and production of the feedstock, certain
glycerides. The centrifugation process isolates the glycerine obtained crops may also emit more greenhouse gases than fossil fuels do [52,53].
after the process of trans-esterification. b) Qualitative testing of glycerol.
Further obtained products can be investigated by FTIR analysis to study 3.2. Social and environmental issues of biofuels
the chemical bonds of the product [33].
For bio-ethanol production, there are three mains steps involved in The social outcome of utilizing the first-generation biofuels is to re-
bio-ethanol production: (a) pretreatment: the chemical reaction through direct valuable assets from where they are most needed; for example,
which the transformation of complicated polysaccharides achieves maize is an amazing food to generate biofuels. The demand for biofuel
simple sugars. The pretreatment process can be divided into three cat­ increases the global market price of maize, and the quantities directly
egories chemical, biological and physical pretreatment. The bio­ produced as a food crop grow limited. Some investigations have referred
mass configuration is divided to form fermentable sugars in this stage. to precedents in the US when 26% of the country’s maize was utilized to
(b) Fermentation: Fermentation stage during which a variety of generate ethanol, and in 2009, this triggered a 21% increase in the price
chemical and enzymatic processes turn sugar into ethanol. (c) Distilla­ of maize [57,58]. The significant association attempted minimize the
tion: Distillation processes wherein the absolute ethanol is isolated from poverties and contends that sustenance costs have increased in recent
the concoction by a distiller that heats the concoction and evaporates the years because of the tremendous amount of sustenance crops currently
mixture to get condense at the tip of the equipment to develop ethanol being utilized for biofuel generation. Even then there are some positive
[35]. social and financial effects of creating biofuels. Analysts suggest that
developing, nurturing, and using vitality crops generates employment in
2.3. Techniques for biofuel generation developed nations and eases the destitution [59,60].
Since the generation of biofuels needs inexpensive and high-
Solid, fluid as well as gas fuels can be categorized as biofuels. efficiency technologies to satisfy the global demands, an equivalent
Biomass feedstocks are used to manufacture certain biofuels, and they focus is also imperative to resolve the social problems regarding biofuel
can substitute traditional fuel sources and cut carbon emissions. The 1st development and applications. This primarily concerns the health haz­
generation biofuels shall be called traditional biofuels, and maybe the ards as well as necessaries land, water, employment, and equality
2nd and 3rd generation biofuels shall be called modern biofuels standards. The European Commission has defined specific obligatory
dependent on feedstock forms and fluctuations in manufacturing regulations for renewable energies like biomass, bioliquids, and biofuels
methods. Traditional fluid biofuels involve biodiesel derived from oil [61,62]. They nevertheless, establish any specific requirements towards
yields as well as bioethanol from starch and sugar yields. These are sustainable social development, but prior to public acceptance of bio­
currently manufactured economically. Modern biofuels are much more fuels on a wide scale, the social repercussions of biofuels needs to be
sustainable than traditional biofuels and can cut environmental pollu­ properly analyzed. The debate over the food against fuel is often
tion by reducing carbon emissions. Advanced renewable energy sources immensely complex [63]. It is therefore, important to cautiously
can be produced from agricultural and woodland lignocellulosic investigate the biofuels production from food and farm commodities.
biomass as well as from algal feedstock. The liquid biofuels generated After the global food demand crisis of 2007–08, which propelled
progressively are human-made paraffin fuels or hydrocarbons by catal­ consistently elevated food prices for more than a decade when food
ysis of plant sugars chemically or biotechnologically [19,44,47]. processing, and supplies were used with biofuel growth, particularly in
developing nations, most of which are net food traders, this matter
2.4. Primary variables behind biofuels received great attention. Consequently, elevated food costs would also
add to the expense of biofuel engineering. It is still challenging to satisfy
The primary variables make use of biofuels development by incor­ increasing food requirements for an expanding population and is diffi­
porating the requirement to set our daily needs and to decrease our faith cult to achieve biofuel requirements [64,65].
in non-renewable energy sources. Due to primary variables, ozone- It is a commonly accepted fact that the processing of lignocellulose
depleting substances and greenhouse gas (GHG) outflows [51]. The biomass for biofuels is derived from the agricultural dreck or surplus
way biofuels can be obtained and distributed regionally is outstanding materials. Conversely, the ground officially described as insignificant or
and preferable for nations looking to increase their energy security [52]. degenerated land can still fulfil the subsistence, fuel, and food neces­
By about 2050, the International Energy Agency (IEA) proposes that sities of impoverished rural people. In addition, biofuel-producing
biofuels may constitute 27% of the entire global carrier fuel use even as companies will target ground that is indeed available for farming,
nearly 2Gt (around 108–109 tons) of carbon dioxide is discharged each forestry, and irrigation including high agricultural yield land [66].
year [53]. Acquiring lands is still a big obstacle in nations with poor social
administration due to the disparities between multinational corpora­
3. Applications of biofuels tions and local citizens [67]. It is of serious concern how the environ­
mental area has been comprehensively exploited for crops to produce
3.1. The potential effects of utilizing biofuels biofuels. Often deforestation undertaken to generate sufficient biomass
desired for biofuel. Deforestation will pressure local citizens to relocate
The roles of various biofuels in decreasing fossil-fuel consumption and diminish the land needed for livelihoods, feed, fodder, and fibre
differs greatly since fossil energy is used as an input in their production [68].
[54]. The fossil energy balance of a biofuel relies on several factors such Local-level (rural) bioenergy initiatives can be economically ad­
as feedstock properties, agricultural practices, location of production, vantageous can generate occupations that might provide a means of
and the energy source used for the transformation process. As for their income to rural families. Inside the biofuel sector, the native people
contributions to lowering greenhouse gas emissions, various biofuels inequalities are particularly critical concerning the funds paid for one‘s
often react very differently [55]. Biofuels are one part of a set of allocated tasks, and variations in social status [69]. It is a matter of

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priority that such technology must ensure that all involved have equal Operations administration is another technological approach to the
access to benefits [70,71]. It is important to remember that the imple­ physical capital needed for manufacturing for a commodity product that
mentation of such technologies should not lead to degradation of social has been processed [85,86]. The effective supervision of this capital and
amenities or contravene traditional consumer’s prerogatives. Above all, systems is elemental in comparison to the massive number of citizens
no significant relocation of local families should take place. Contrast­ employed. Human beings are also a part of the bionetwork; thereby, all
ingly, in connection with the employment prospects, local citizens’ their actions must also be taken into account. The latest indices are
participation must be prioritized. These methods would certainly make useful for assessing procedures for summarizing human endeavours with
biofuels a “social fuel” which will lead to regional and worldwide respect to their effect on peoples life on the atmosphere and social-
community growth [72]. economic system for incorporating thermoeconomic and econo­
The ecological impact is another significant component to consider physical optimization methods with a focus on reducing the environ­
when passing recommendations for the evaluation of influences on mental impact and improving human well-being. Biophysical and
biofuel. It covers all aspects, such as the standards and resources of biochemical pathways are common in species and cells can be studied to
water; wildlife, flora, biodiversity, landforms, fauna, soil features and develop thermodynamic examination of the life [87,88]. A technological
resources, and also land management. Due to growing environmental thermodynamic method has been established and then by employing the
concerns and the cost-effectiveness of biofuel industries, the biofuel entropy generating precept, certain generic considerations have lately
sector is rising at an admirable pace in the developing nations [73,74]. A been acquired. This precept is a universal approach that enables us to
significant amount of by-products are currently generated by 30 Mha of acquire the stationary states with a clear irreversible method. A ther­
land, adding lesser than 1% of the overall biofuels. African states modynamic empirical model is generated to achieve distinct conditions
contribute to ecological and societal effects of the change in land utili­ of the development of entropy and even its implementation to photo­
zation. The intemperate harnessing of fossil fuels is accountable for synthesis [89].
challenges to soil, water, wildlife, renewable resources, and GHG One can split exergy into four components: kinetic, thermo-
outpouring [75,76]. mechanical, chemical, and potential. The physical exergy or thermo­
It is thus necessary to shift to more renewable practices by reducing dynamics is described as the maximal work achieved whenever the
the use of fossil fuel energy in the foodstuff industry and the agriculture amount of material is drawn from its initial condition (P along with T) to
sector. The production of bioenergy presents both prospects and obsta­ achieve the equilibrium condition with regard to pressure and temper­
cles for the economy as well as the atmosphere. The effects on the ature (T0 plus P0) in reversible processes [90]. The exergy impact on
ecological system rely upon its bio-climatic necessities of the fields parts of a plant is often superior to that of the exergy outcome for actual
harnessed. Agronomists have acknowledged that the basics of harmony processes, when no exterior force i.e., work is added. This absence of
and cooperation among air–soil-plant for productive financial, societal, equilibrium is because of irreversibilities inherent in the system. The
and ecological policies need to be esteemed [77–79]. theoretical disparity among these two casualties is attributed to irre­
versibilities [91]. Exergy replenishment costs have lately been intro­
3.3. Thermoeconomic approach duced as a novel index leading to increasingly advanced policies to limit
the use of scarce materials via greater replenishment costs. Nevertheless,
The work done by any system can be measured by the application of it is possible to carry out the estimation of technical level of
energy in thermodynamics. To achieve economic prosperity, in­ manufacturing techniques by implementing several other indicators.
vestigations of irreversibility are essential in the design of engineering Evidently, each organization includes various manufacturing techniques
and the advancement of efficient processes. Lately, an improvement in with various impacts on the environment (including carbon emissions);
usage has been accomplished in the thermodynamic examination of its as a result the procedure is more significant from a sustainability point of
socio-economic framework [80]. As a result, loss of energy is associated view than that of the commodity received. The approaches discovered in
with the cost to sustain efficient processes. By adopting biomass and natural surroundings have a certain extent of irreversibility [80,83,88].
bacteria for biofuel production, the primary resource quality can be There are three essential characteristics that will define the most
considered an indicator to endorse the economic concerns. Furthermore, irreversible systems: 1) continual energy dissipation during the tech­
technical considerations may also be originated by harnessing the in­ nique, 2), it takes place impulsively and is a one-way event and 3) in­
efficiency of energy [81]. clusion of energy is essential to prevail in the invert direction. Recent
There is a need of a method capable of linking the economy with indicators, defined here as a series of quantitative measurements to
thermodynamics because energy is the thermodynamic domain of determine the effect of the populace on to its ecosystem, are therefore
research field. This can be beneficial for all intricate and multidisci­ necessary for the study of such environmental consequences and the
plinary subjects, particularly biofuels, because of its wide range of topics proficiency of nations [92].
and information [82]. For heat engines, electric power may be another The qualities of such indicators have been suggested by Sciubba
technology for land-based transportation, but there is no empirical shown as:
alternate machine in the anticipatable future for shipping and air travel.
As a result, great attention is paid to the commercial production of liquid 1) Material throughput analysis (MTA) or material storage assessment:
biofuels. In this pursuit, things need to be carefully considered with Its foundation is the estimation of a community’s lifestyle by
respect to biofuels including ethical principles such as biofuels should be worldwide equivalent resource flow used in the manufacture of
generated without any decrease in the supply of crops to humans; corresponding goods. Based on a thorough understanding of
technologies such as biofuels should be generated using technological manufacturing processes, the method utilizes disarticulated ac­
methods without increase in pollution and economics such as biofuels counting of substance inputs or outputs [93]. This does not include
should be capable of generating employment. the second thermodynamics law;
The relationship between engineering and technology epitomizes the 2) Embodied energy (EE): This helps to gain a precise measurement of
foundation for every progress in society. Business ventures play a vital effect on the ecosystem. It assesses the energy required to produce a
role in managing every stage of the manufacturing and value generation, commodity concerning capital and the work carried out. Neverthe­
and subsequently influence the utilization of capital and the natural less, it does not include any evaluation of the attributes of the flow of
habitat [83]. Besides, business operations represent an effective tool to energy.
attain sustainability. Concerning the usage of resources, activities con­ 3) Transformity: In energy research, the underlying presumption is that
trol has been added regarding the annular sustainability and financial solar radiation is the sole source of energy, wherein all the other
system [84]. flows become connected to solar power. Such an assessment is

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generated by way of specific collection of parameters known as rainforests, and grasslands. This is a major issue in countries such as
transformities. Nonetheless, it accepts no measures of varying effi­ Brazil, USA, Argentina, and Indonesia [103–105].
ciency of the energy flows [94]. Specific raw materials such as oil of algae extracts, animal fats, vegan
oils, and microbial oil supplies, may be used to generate biodiesel
Exergy is indeed a thermodynamic measure such that it becomes though composition and the quality of biodiesel derived from different
intriguing to obtain knowledge on valuable work. However, studying sources may differ [106]. The choice of feedstock is an important
the effect of irreversibility with reference to economic growth is essen­ element throughout the processing of biodiesel, involving various fac­
tial for the technical development of productive procedures. Their tors such as price, output, composition, and the quality of biodiesel
function is in the thermodynamic examination of such socio-economic generated. A selection of raw resources for the generation of biodiesel
contexture is intriguing [90]. Consequently, originating from those often depends on the area. Soya oil, for instance, is one of America’s
outcomes achieved in thermodynamics of bioengineering, we intend to significant biodiesel resources, whereas rapeseed oil, and palm oil, is
relate the dissipated exergy, including the exergy costs of the efficacious significant sources of biodiesel in Europe and tropical countries (Fig. 4).
processes. Therefore, we encourage using the latest thermoeconomic A detailed overview of different biodiesel generation resources is given
indicator, so the work-hour corresponds to the dissipated primary in Table 2 [21], including oil content percentile for each. Experts
resource quality. This can be used for the thermoeconomic assessment of examined edible as well as non-edible oils like algal oil, and animal fats
the generation of biofuels from both cyanobacteria as well as algae employed for the generation of biodiesel. For the generation of bio­
[91,93]. diesel, edible oils like rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and soybean oil act as a
substrate [107–110]. This may have negative consequences for food
4. Production of biofuels and biodiesel via biomass and its uses market compared to the biodiesel cost .
As the demand for fuels extracted from a feedstock of edible oil in­
4.1. Generation of biofuels and biodiesel through biomass creases, non-edible oils such as neem oil, castor, and jatropha oils are
taken up for the generation of biodiesel [108,109]. Certain precursors to
Biomass alludes to the natural material obtained from living or dead the generation of biodiesel involve microalgae, edible and non-edible oil
forms utilized as feedstock to fabricate biofuels. Most of the biomass [111]. When petroleum prices increase and the greenhouse effect is felt
utilized today is from three primary categories: forestry, cultivation, and worldwide because of the burning of non-renewable resources, micro­
trash. This includes traditional cutting of trees into natural wood, algae are becoming an appealing eco-friendly choice. As a consequence,
sawmill deposits of wood, and some timber handling businesses, rural a variety of organizations are engaged in algal fuel generation. The
vitality crops, rural build-ups, and waste [95,96]. A diesel engine needs capital expenditure for turning algae into biofuels is now the most sig­
larger chain hydrocarbons (than petrol) with low autoignition temper­ nificant constraint. Some other obstacles involve oil resource extraction,
ature and a high flash point compared to the petrol engine (the reason fuel handling, waste handling, and algal oil creation out of a single algal
for this difference is the absence of spark plugs) [97]. Biofuels made organism, as blended algae plots were shown to produce extra oil [112].
from fats and oils are similar to diesel in their chain length and other fuel Herb oils like soya bean [113], sunflower [114], rapeseed oil [115],
characteristics and are termed biodiesel [98]. The only possible biofuel olive oil [116], peanut oil [117], palm oil [118], canola oil [119],
for a petrol engine is ethanol. These extraordinary biofuels are extracted mustard, and coconut oil [118,120] combined with diesel are employed
from sustainable sources and proved by a Swiss study. The ozone- as biofuel. For generating bioethanol, fermented cereals, including sugar
depleting substance discharge from bio-fuels is less than from petro­ beets, are used [121]. Biodiesel, one of several biofuel sources, is pro­
leum oils [99]. duced through green crops as a replacement to petroleum diesel
The fundamental issue is that these biofuels require a lot of harvest as [116,120,121]. Vegan oil can be extracted edible as well as non-edible
raw material, which results in a huge amount of land being utilized to oil sources. The widely utilized non-edible oils in commercial applica­
develop crops for energy fuel rather than for nourishment. An oft- tions are derived from linseed [118], jatropha oil [122], castor oil [123]
utilized measurement states that it takes the same amount of grain to (Ricinus communis), and oilseeds of trees like neem (Azadirachta ind­
create enough biofuel to fill a UK family’s vehicle once as it does to ica) [111], stillingia oil (Chinese tallow seed oil) [118,124], Karanja
nourish a youngster for almost seven months [74,96]. Further, since it is (Pongamia pinnata) [125], rubber seed oil [122], Silybummarianum oil
increasingly worthwhile for ranchers to pitch their harvests to biofuel [123], utilized as blending material for non-renewable sources like
organizations than to sustenance makers, this ’green fuel’ pushes up the diesel. Trash and other feedstocks such as broiler chicken waste [126],
expenses of grain [100]. Insubstantial biofuel-delivering nations such as mutton fat [127], algae oil [128], microbial oils [129], discardable
in Brazil, it is normal for enormous swaths of rainforest to be chopped cooking oil [130], pine and kapok oil [131], microalgae [132], and
down to make space for farms explicitly to produce biofuel [79,100]. waste fish oil [133], can be utilized as sources and kinds of biomass
Despite the debate encompassing biofuels, they represent under 2% materials to undergo bioconversion into bioenergy.
of the worldwide fluid fuel supply–yet we shouldn’t discount them.
Scientists guarantee that as much as 30% of the world’s transportation 4.2. Pretreatment of biomass and its uses
energies could emerge out of ’second-gen’ biofuels for which the Eu­
ropean Parliament vote permitted a 2.5% focus [101]. So the most During the burning of biomass, first it loses the dampness, after
pressing concern about biofuels is whether they are an ideal choice. which hazardous gases (for example, CH4, CO) are discharged
Stakeholders will concur that the guideline for biofuels – that is, inex­ [131,133], which contribute up to 70% in the heating process of
haustible, green fuel and urgently required [102]. Current fuels can be biomass. Eventually, the singe oxidizes while the fiery debris persists.
replaced with biofuels, but there are significant challenges in doing so, The quality of biomass depends on the kind of raw sources used and the
the greatest of which is that biofuels have a lower energy density ratio procedure of pretreatment preceding ignition [134]. Bio-energy trans­
than petroleum. This is an issue as a greater supply of biofuel crops is formation via microalgal and lignocellulosic biomass has gained sig­
needed to produce energy equivalent to petroleum fuel. As a result, in nificant recognition over the last decade. The main obstacle faced during
many developed or developing nations, the amount of crops required to the bioconversion of biomass is that the complex structure and features
supply energy for biofuel at a greater cost than the value of the biofuel of the cell walls components in the biomass must be pretreated before
consumed. Petroleum is a fossil fuel that damages the environment, and the bioconversion process. The pretreatment process is conducted to
this is perhaps the single greatest reason we may look to develop biofuel enhance for broad spectrum of applications, particularly in the valori­
programs. However, it is also important to note that since we require zation of biomass. Pretreatment is an essential process for transforming
more supply of biofuel crops, we are also reducing the forests, biomass to biofuels and fermentable sugars [135]. The process of

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

Fig. 4. Sources and kinds of biomass materials for change into bioenergy. Reproduced with permission from [21], copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Table 2
Sources and kinds of biomass materials to convert into bioenergy. Reproduced with permission from [20], copyright 2018, Elsevier.
Edible oils Oil content (%) Non-edible oils Oil content (%) Animal Fat & other sources Oil content (%)

Sunflower oil [89] 25–35 Jatropha oil [99] 30–40 Mutton Fat [104] –
Soybean oil [90] 15–20 Chinese tallow seed oil (stillingia oil) [90] 44.15 Broiler chicken waste [103] –
Rapeseed oil [91] 38–46 Karanja(Pongamia pinnata oil) [102] 27–39 Algae oil [105] –
Peanut oil[93] 45–55 Neem oil [87] 20–30 Waste cooking oil [107] –
Olive oil [92] 45–70 – – Microbial oils [106] –
Canola oil [94] 40–45 Castor oil [100] 45–50 Waste fish oil [109] –
Palm oil [90] 30–60 Sylbummarianum oil [98] – Microalgae [87] 30–70
Coconut oil [90] 63–65 Rubber seed oil [97] 53.74–68.75 Pine and kapok oil [108] –
Mustard oil[90] – – – – –
Linseed oil[90] 40–44 – – – –

on the nature of biomass, methods, and solvents used the requirements

Table 3
of each pretreatment process vary. Pretreatment is connected to
The standard construction of biogas. Reproduced with permission from [27]
bringing down transportation costs and lessening the need for costly
copyright 2011, Elsevier.
ignition innovation [137]. Several pretreatment alternatives incorporate
Compound Compound chemical formula Percentage drying utilizing energy. Sometimes wood can dry out for a few weeks
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 0 to 3% before it is chipped and processed at a combustion plant [138].
Nitrogen N2 0 to 5% Co-terminating coal biomass with regular coal terminals is yet
Oxygen O2 0 to 2%
another important choice for various reasons. One reason for co-
Methane CH4 50 to 85%
Hydrogen H2 0 to 1% terminating is that it can empower the stations to accomplish net de­
Carbon dioxide CO2 5 to 50% creases in GHG outflows [139]. Additionally, biomass-inferred powders
contain more sulfur content, which is less than carbon, and in this
manner, co-terminating positively affects SOx discharges. Ultimately,
biomass pretreatment before bioconversion is vital for boosting the the total production rates for biomass use are much more than in
effectiveness of bioconversion for the development of biofuels. dedicated biomass plants by simultaneous use in existing power stations
As described earlier, several lignocellulosic/bioenergy substances [138,139]. This enables scale efficiencies because co-terminating is
offer the most economical biomass to generate biofuels. To fractionate as typically accomplished in large plants costing less per ton of items. In
well as to assist in the recovery of the components and transformation, this manner, it is possible to manage costs. As far as hardware alteration
every biomass material needs various kinds of pretreatment. Depending goes, co-terminating 5–10% biomass requires just minor changes in

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

Table 4 and small amounts of CO2, so that syngas can be transformed into a
Biogas purifying techniques. mixture of alcohol by the chemical process at 300 ◦ C. From the mixture,
Process Advantages Disadvantages ethanol is isolated through the distillation process [147,148]. By uti­
lizing some of the microorganisms such as Clostridium ljungdahlii,
Scrubbing of gas: Through • The mechanism of • Equipment corrosion
scrubbing fluids (like water, absorption is affected by H2S.• Zymomonasmobilis, or even Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ethanol can be
polyethylene glycerol, completely physical in Involves plenty of produced by syngas processing [149–151].
amines) CO2 as well as H2S terms of water water also with For breaking down hemicellulose and cellulose into monomeric
are removed [30]. scrubbing.• It is regeneration.• sugars, enzymes such as cellulose or acids have been added in the hy­
possible to reuse Discarding of waste
carbon dioxide.• No water.
drolysis process [152]. Enzymatic hydrolysis has benefits over acids,
need of any specific including low energy consumption due to mild process conditions,
chemicals (apart from increased sugar yields, and no undesirable waste. Substrate character­
comparatively istics including porosity influence enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis, de­
inexpensive
gree of polymerization, the crystallinity of the cellulose fiber,
polyethylene
glycerol). hemicellulose, lignin content, optimum blending, the concentration of
Chemical absorption: Isolation • Capability to • Need for the method the substrate, end product, the activity of the enzyme, and reaction
of CO2 can be done by perform at low to process waste parameters like temperature and pH [152,153].
chemical retention. Chemical pressure.• Highly chemicals.• Necessary During fermentation, yeast or bacteria convert sugars to ethanol in a
reaction success amongst the efficient as well as chemical inputs are
absorbed materials and the reaction rates in required.
liquid or solid-state. The economy is greatly improved if sugars of both
solvent [36]. contrast with the C5 and C6 are used. However, fermentation efficiency of C5 sugars is
water scrubbing.• poor. Besides, the yeasts do not tolerate low pH, high concentrations of
Complete elimination ethanol, and the by-products. Isolation of clear ethanol is generated
of H2S
through the distillation process [7,145]. Biochemical transformation
Cryogenic separation: It is • Elevated purity of • Increased capital
possible to isolate CO2, H2S advanced biogas with maintenance generally includes four processes, i.e., fermentation, hydrolysis, distil­
along with other biogas (methane purity expenses related to lation, dehydration, and pre-treatment [23,101,150]. Fig. 6 [23] shows
pollutants from methane 99%).• Huge masses other costs. the production of bioethanol from biomass (Fig. 7).
since each pollutant liquefies can be processed
at the various effectively.
5. Primitive information, preparation, and cleansing techniques
temperature–pressure
discipline [171]. of biogas
Membrane process: The solvent • Simple operation.• • Comparatively poor
dissolves CO2 as well as H2S Small in size and light yield of CH4 as well as 5.1. Biogas
whereas the methane (that weighted. high price of
mostly retains a gas) is stored membranes.
to be used. The operational Biogas is one of several viable biofuels that can alleviate growing
pressure ranges from 25 to 40 concerns regarding non-renewable energy sources, as well as electricity
bars [27]. and weather differences to some point [150,151]. Pure CH4 is employed
for the methanol liquefaction, production power, heat, and car oil
compression, and this CH4 is cleansed from the composition of carbon
procedures and gear. In Brazil, as a consequence of its PROALCOOL
dioxide and methane [153]. Biomass leads to the generation of biogas.
policy, more than half the cars can run on hydrous (92.4 wt%) ethanol.
Among various biomasses, the contribution of microalgae to the pro­
The PROALCOOL policy was initiated in the 1970 s, and it has taken a
duction of biogas has increased since the 1950 s. Biogas development
long time for the underlying stock of capital infrastructure to accom­
through lignocellulosic substrates provides a possibility of converting
modate changes such as massive biofuels production [137–140].
large biomass supplies to renewable energy. Although lignocellulosic
4.3 Protocol to transform biomass
biomass does have a high methane capacity, it’s not been appropriately
Biomass of algae, together with the proteins, vitamins, and pigments
employed by anaerobic digestion (AD) processes for biogas development
that join over an array of quality-added substances, is becoming an
[37].
unpredicted resource for biofuels of the 3rd generation. The biomass
An important step for the production of biogas is AD, which is an
containing stored solar energy is transformed via biochemical and
established biochemical method. Through AD, the unique and powerful
thermochemical methods (Fig. 5) into a chain of the basis of hydrocar­
activity of different bacteria and archaeans in oxygen-free environments
bon fuels, such as bio-oil, biodiesel, and biogas [22,59,100,140,141].
enables biomass to biodegrade to biogas. Biogas generated following AD
There are three essential methods for changing the biomass specif­
consists mainly of methane (55% − 75%), carbon dioxide (30% − 45%)
ically into microalgal fuels. These are: chemical method, which involves
and tiny amounts of hydrogen sulfide (around 50 to 2000 ppm), O2,
lipid trans-esterification to biodiesel [29]; thermochemical method,
H2O, and a few hydrocarbon traces residues of organic and few traces
which involves algal biomass undergoing thermal decomposition for the
nitrogen [154]. The AD technique of producing biogas is carried out by
formation of fluid with gaseous fuels [30,31] and biochemical method
microalgae and has some unique qualities and benefits for generating
by which bioethanol and biohydrogen are generated when carbohy­
biofuels like utilizing sewage water and even ocean water, access to re-
drates undergo fermentation, and biogas is produced by the anaerobic
used nutrients, the limited output of sludge, increased use of biomass,
digestion process [22,32–34,142].
decreased operating cost, renewable biogas development, and lowest
4.4 Biomass to bioethanol transformation
power usage [155]. The standard construction of biogas was given in
Biomass leads to bioethanol generation in two distinct ways viz.,
Table 3.
thermochemical and biochemical transformations [23,143]. These lead
5.2 Creation of biogas by anaerobic digestion process
to the breakdown of lignocellulose in residues of hemicellulose, lignin,
The accompanying classifications arrange anaerobic assimilation or
and cellulose. Sugars are produced by the hydrolysis of polysaccharides
digestion method during the biogas creation viz.,
and transformed into bioethanol consecutively [144,145]. Such trans­
formation techniques are not identical. According to Mu et al. [146],
i) The working temperature of the digester:
feedstock gasifying at 800 ◦ C and catalytic process are involved in the
thermochemical pathway. Such a technique needs a huge amount of
(a) Mesophilic (25–45 ◦ C) or (b) Thermophilic (50–60 ◦ C)
heat, contributing to the synthetic process to produce gases like H2, CO,

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

Fig. 5. Various methods for changing the biomass specifically into microalgal fuels. Reproduced with permission from [22], copyright 2019, Elsevier.

humidity (or dryness) of the AD system is also a fundamental element.

While dry modification operations for AD will be less expensive because
there is less wastewater, there are greater maintenance costs per unit of
raw material [155,158]. Wet model AD lowers the setup costs, but dry
form AD has lower working expenses than wet form AD. The digesters of
biogas can also be used in a group or nonstop mode. Generally, there are
specialized legitimizations to using the AD form in each mode, for
example, the pressure to overcome gas generator pinnacles or troughs,
which are used in parallel by operating different cluster digesters
[134,159,160].
Anaerobic absorption is a natural process coordinated in 3 phases.
The main stage is the disintegration of the natural particles into less
complex atoms, unstable unsaturated fats (VFAs), NH3, CO2, and H2S
[161]. The less complex particles are then additionally processed to
Fig. 6. Production of bioethanol from biomass. Reproduced with permission
from [23], copyright 2016, Elsevier. deliver more CO2, hydrogen, and acidic corrosives. The last stage in­
cludes the further breakdown of the unsaturated fats into CH4, CO2, and
water. Every one of these 3 phases uses microscopic organisms that work
ii) The method of activity: Continuous or group process
at various conditions. In a solitary stage digester, every one of the mi­
croorganisms required for the procedure work at a trade-off because
(a) Single or (b) multi-stage digesters
individually, none of them works in the best way possible. The 3 phases
of the AD process can be strengthened in a multi-stage digester to ach­
iii) The condition of the natural issue in the digester
ieve higher gas yields per feedstuff system. In any event, multiple-stage
digesters become more costly to produce and more difficult to control
Thermophilic frameworks are known to produce a much higher
[162–164].
biogas generation speed than mesophilic frameworks per unit of raw
During the creation of energy in biogas, AD also generates digestate,
material and a cubic meter of digester [156,157]. The degree of
which can be processed and employed in renewable fertilizer that

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

Fig. 7. Schematic presentation of dry method of anaerobic digestion. Reproduced with permission from [24] copyright 2011, Elsevier.

contains essential nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The produce sulphurous acid and then H2SO4. Processes of adsorption, bio­
nutrient composition relies on the feedstock, including phosphorous, logical and chemical scrubbing by employing biotrickling filters is
and nitrogen, and digestate may comprise heavy metals along with some included in the H2S elimination by the gas treatments. A major widely
other stable organic compounds that may be hard and expensive to implemented H2S elimination system is iron sponge adsorption, wherein
eliminate for subsequent use [141,159,160]. alternate iron oxide adsorbent materials such as Sulfa-Bind, SulfaTreat,
5.3 Structure of biogas for anaerobic digesters and Sulfur-Rite, are utilized [161,163–165].
The arrangement of biogas differs as indicated by the origin of the The siloxanes that are found inside the anaerobic digesters with the
feedstock utilized in the AD procedure. Dimensions of siloxanes, CH4, raw material can be volatilized, becoming a biogas. Siloxanes can be
CO2, H2S, O2, dampness, and numerous pollutants are impacted by processed to silicon dioxide as the biogas is progressively ignited in an IC
biogas produced from different sources [143]. For example, biogas machine, turbine, and incorporated internally into the unit with rising
cultivation–biogas switched over from ranch squander–for the most temperature [166–168]. Even though there should be little to zero si­
part, has higher concentrations of H2S, microorganisms, and hints of loxanes in kitchen waste slurry, they are frequently found in biogas by
additional contaminants, for example, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. co-digestion along with wastewater effluent. The main technique pres­
Ranch gas additionally has high NH3 content [136]. Wastewater biogas ently available to extract siloxanes from biogas is activated carbon
obtained from the sewage plants through sewage muck includes silox­ adsorption. For the ultimate output of granulated activated carbon ab­
anes as well as other natural substances. sorbers, i.e., GAC, upstream elimination of H2S, and moisture, are
CH4 and CO2 are the essential components produced by aerobic necessary. Silica gels having rapid removal levels can be employed as an
digestion for biogas. Nevertheless, several trace gases are included in the alternate to GAC and are approved to remove siloxanes [169–171].
biogas and particulate matter, moisture and toxins like volatile organic
substances, siloxanes, sulphur compounds, including ammonia [161].
Owing to the variations in feed composition including operational pa­ 5.2. Preparing biogas with anaerobic digestion method
rameters of the anaerobic digesters, each biogas structure can also be
variable in several plant species and distinct in a particular plant. With Anaerobic digester biogas can be treated as a biomethane or as a
the pretreatment, the elimination of such trace compounds is achieved durable fuel with a higher content of CH4 [161,162]. The number of
[162]. The important components processed in the pretreatment of harmful pollutants removed from the biogas depends on the end-use of
biogas are moisture, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), siloxanes, CO2, and fuel [172]. Before the gas is packed and used as vehicle fuel, it is
ammonia. Anaerobic conditions produce hazardous substances such essential to remove water vapour and ensure that H2S and CO2 are
hydrogen sulfide through sulphates and organic sulphur components in discharged [24,163,165]. It must meet the standards enforced by gas
the feedstock. Through ignition, hydrogen sulfide undergoes a chemical quality regulations within a specific region before being introduced into
reaction with O2 to the generation of SO2 and H2O, respectively, later the gas grid [61,164]. Handling and transporting biogas should be done
with care because of the harmful qualities of H2S, different microscopic

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

organisms (through microbial-instigated erosion), and the water vapour H2S expulsion is required to maintain a strategic distance from
in the gas [139]. Consequently, several biogas purification procedures consumption issues in channeling, waders, gas stockpiling tanks, and
are used, including methods by which the untreated biogas stream is motors. H2S is incredibly responsive with almost all metals, and due to
scrubbed or absorbed to eliminate the pollutants, leaving up to 98% the presence of higher temperatures, pressures, and densities, reactivity
methane per gas stream unit volume [117,166]. is upgraded. To produce water and iron sulfide, it responds to iron hy­
droxide or iron oxide. So iron oxide can be recovered using oxygen
[170,174].
5.3. Biogas purifying techniques
5.3.2. Removal of CO2
5.3.1. Water vapour evacuation
The CO2 emissions are important to increase the future biogas esti­
Water vapor should be removed to comply with tube quality guide­
mation. With the removal of CO2, the total weight of the fuel decreases,
lines or designs of CNG vehicles. The water vapour evacuation tech­
and heat value increases–the Wobbe scale is increasing. Three main
niques are based on the physical separation of dense water and/or dry
strategies are utilized for the expulsion of CO2 from biogas [167].
matter [102,167,173].
5.5.2 Physical partition
5.3.3. Absorption of CO2 by physical method
Refrigeration is the easiest method for eliminating water vapor. By
Isolation of CO2 from methane can be achieved by scrubbing raw gas
using a demister, where the liquid is isolated utilizing microscopic pores,
using water. capitalized on the reality compared to methane, since CO2
or by using cyclone separators, the water droplets are isolated using
is soluble in water [169]. By this method, at a pressure of 1000–2000
centrifugal forces, condensed to capture and isolate them [96,168].
kPa, the raw gas is transferred to the bottom of the vertical column. Then
5.5.3 Adsorption drying
water is supplied to the top of the column, assembled with random
The chemical gas drying process involves increasing the gas pressure,
packing to have the required surface area allowing mass transfer be­
then feeding it via a column comprising of a component of an adsorbent
tween liquid and gas. The CO2 concentration reduces as the gas moves
like silica. It is a repeated cyclic method where the bed is thermally
up the column and becomes rich in methane [175]. The processed biogas
regenerated so that every few hours, discharge of water occurs as water
then exits the column at the top. To isolate CH4 from water, depres­
vapor [67,169].
surization of water is done, which exits at the bottom of the column into
5.5.4 Removal of H2S

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of absorption of CO2; A) Physical absorption system. B) Cryogenic separation process. Reproduced with permission from [27]
copyright 2011, Elsevier.

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S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

a flash tank. This discharges the methane-rich gas that is recycled along of hydrocarbons, including CO, and considerably lower amounts of
with the untreated biogas. Water is revived using the desorption column, particulates [68,179].
and then combined with steam or air to release the CO2 from it. An
outline of the procedure is shown in Fig. 8 [27]. 7. An outlook of the utilization of biogas
5.5.7 Chemical absorption
Isolation of CO2 can be done by chemical retention, which uses an In the United Kingdom, waste from sewage works is the primary
amine under negligible pressure that traps CO2 in biogas [96]. It is supplier of biogas [66]. Owing to the availability of cash incentives for
similar to water or glycol scrubbing in favour of biogas-liquid precept of the production of low carbon or green electricity, viz., the Renewables
mass transfer, in spite of that chemical reaction proceeds within the Obligation (RO) as well as the Feed-in Tariffs (FITs) program, most of
absorbed materials and the solvent [30]. It is also performed as a these biogases generated are used to produce electricity [100]. In August
counter-current flowing system of water scrubbing, and H2S needs to be 2011, anaerobic digester (AD) plants were used in an array of technol­
processed for amine intoxication before chemical scrubbing [176]. ogies that could qualify for the FIT program, with tariffs charged on a
Regeneration of amine usually done using heat or steam and according plant ability basis [96].
to the report 93% purity of CO2 is obtained in operation and is isolated From the energy production viewpoint, the Renewable Heat Incen­
and recuperated [35]. Even though its major CO2 reduction efficacy, tive (RHI) has increased biomethane use for energy generation
energy utilization is comparatively elevated (excessive heat produc­ [52,112,180]. Since the start of the RHI period in November 2011,
tion), salt precipitation, including foaming, is likely to occur in associ­ sustainable warmth operation owners have received a money-back
ation with O2 intoxication of amine and many other chemical substances endowment during the first twenty years of use as of July 2009
[27]. This is an accelerated energy method contrasted with different [55,162]. It offers AD plant holders an enticing reward and assures a
strategies for engrossing CO2 [160,177]. high profit for the introductory venture. A new scheme is generated, i.e.,
the Green Gas Certification Scheme (GGCS), to track the records of the
5.3.4. Cryogenic separation contractual flow of green gas (biomethane) or the industrial transactions
The CO2 bubbles at − 78 ◦ C while CH4 has a melting point of − 161 via the supply chain [24,76,181]. The scheme is available to everyone
◦
C, which implies that from the biogas, CO2 can be isolated as fluid on associated with the biomethane supply chain right from manufacturers
cooling down this gas mixture with increased pressure [78].CH4 can be to stakeholders as they have pumped into the grid, to distributors and
extracted as either a liquid or vapour, depending on the design of the other vendors who have registered for gas sale agreements
device. It is also an accelerated energy method. Detailed biogas purify­ [25,141,182]. When finally the end-user purchases the gas, the
ing techniques were given in Table 4. Renewable Gas Guarantees of Origin (RGGOs) is included in the cus­
tomer’s certificate that serves as a marker to every kWh of gas bought
6. Advantages and disadvantages associated with biofuels [78,166]. This marker contains details about how, when, and where the
gas was generated, enhancing the appeal of employing green gas for
Some advantages of biofuels are a cleaner environment and a major consumers, e.g., supermarkets and other large organizations
healthier population, reduced emission of nontoxic materials, which [22,183,184].
reduces the risk of cancer and respiratory problems, zero-emission of 8 Conclusions
hazardous gases, e.g., carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur oxide (SO), and Biofuels have gained a great deal of interest because of their
reduced risk of global warming. Biofuels are environment-friendly, non- environmentally-friendly and nontoxic nature. Biofuels are an intriguing
toxic, biodegradable, have no sulfur or aromatics and have high oxygen subject and incorporate financial matters, nature, agronomy, ecological
content for efficient combustion [66,67]. Biofuels will reduce green­ sciences, microbiology, chemical engineering, science, mechanical, and
house gas effluences by close to 50%. Governmental incentives to lower plant science. Original biofuels are presently economically accessible,
fuel prices and satisfy the expectations of factories, automobiles, and the and crops that are not currently generally utilized for biofuel creation or
agricultural field, will encourage biofuels from crop remnants [84]. are not monetarily developed, can become appealing feedstocks for
Owing to accelerated urban development and industrial enterprise, original fuels.
an escalation in the human population poses the greatest challenges With regard to the third-age biofuels, they are still in the beginning
likewise rising energy claims, huge dreck generation and ecosystem phase of advancement. The financial attainability of these cycles will be
degeneration [45,50]. Environmental conservation requirements esca­ sought out after an objective. Commercialization requires propelling
lating energy needs, and the scarcity of traditional energy supplies, lab-scale cycles to improve yields and productivities. Specific biomass
preceded by environmental degeneration due to drastic climate varia­ feedstocks and techniques are used to generate biofuels. Biofuel pro­
tions, have redirected scientists’ focus to finding alternative reserves of duction uses human foodstuffs such as maize, peanuts, sugarcane, soya,
renewable and cleaner energy for sustainable growth. Bioenergy is and is increasingly criticized for creating competition between crops as
indeed an ultimate solution even though it can be implemented using food and as raw material for biofuels. The present study covers all as­
sufficient transformation procedures to various energy conditions [63]. pects of biofuel production, and the different types of feedstock
The disadvantages of biofuels are labor costs, huge space required for employed the benefits and drawbacks.
storage, growing biomass increasing the demand for agricultural land, Further techniques are also systematically assessed as are the feed­
large requirements water, especially in dry climates, and interruption to stocks of various generations, their future performance, and the related
the life cycle. Another disadvantage is that since the biofuel’s viscous greenhouse gas release. The increasing need for non-renewable energy
nature can affect the efficient performance of engines, vegetable oils are prompted scientists and analysts worldwide to take biofuel into account,
converted into methyl esters to decrease their viscosity. In doing so, for it is a potential renewable energy alternative. It is environmentally
methyl alcohol is treated with vegetable oil in the presence of a catalyst. friendly and less polluting, rendering it a more appealing power source.
In addition to lower viscosity, the biodiesel’s cetane number is These findings are based on biofuel development studies, different
maximum, i.e., 58, which is an indicator of fuel ignition efficiency outlets, new manufacturing techniques, and a wide variety of feedstocks
[178]. Certain other methyl ester fatty acids’ physical properties are like used during biofuel manufacturing.
pour point and cloud point, which are significantly greater than diesel
fuel, preventing their utilization as an alternative fuel for diesel. How­ CRediT authorship contribution statement
ever, the proportions of methyl esters about 30 vol% in diesel fuel do not
alter the fuel’s cold-flow characteristics. Researchers have shown that Shweta J. Malode: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal anal­
engines operating with methyl esters release marginally lower quantities ysis, Resources, Writting - original draft. K. Keerthi Prabhu:

13
S.J. Malode et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 10 (2021) 100070

Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Resources, Writting- [20] Ambat I, Srivastava V, Sillanpää M. Recent advancement in biodiesel production
methodologies using various feedstock: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
original draft. Ronald J. Mascarenhas: Formal analysis, Resources,
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Software, Validation, Writting - review & editing. Nagaraj P. Shetti: [21] Srivastava RK. Bio-energy production by contribution of effective and suitable
Formal analysis, Resources, Software, Validation, Supervision, Writting microbial system. Mater Sci Energy Technol 2019;2:308–18. https://doi.org/
- review & editing. Tejraj M. Aminabhavi: Resources, Validation, Su­ 10.1016/j.mset.2018.12.007.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbt.2016.07.006.
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial continuous anaerobic digestion of food waste in the mesophilic and thermophilic
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence modes: new aspects of sustainable management and energy recovery in South
the work reported in this paper. Korea. Energy Convers Manage 2017;135:445–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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