4/13/2021

Environmental Engineering-I
Course instructor
Engr. Zohaib Hassan Khan
Lecturer
Civil Engineering Department
UET Peshawar

Lecture 2 4/13/2021 1

Water Availability

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Water Availability

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Water Availability

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Water Availability

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Design of water supply scheme

• Sources of raw water.
• Quantity of water required.
• Quality of water.
• Site survey data.
• Plane or map of city.

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Factors affecting design of water

supply scheme
• Useful life of various components of water supply
scheme.
• Larger design period has to be adopted if there is
difficulties in future expansion.
• Availability of funds directly related.
• Rate of interest on loans inverse relation.
• Increase in population inverse relation.
• Quantity of water available.

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Sources of water
The water available for water supply are
classified as:

 Surface Sources

 underground sources

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Surface Sources
Ponds and Lakes:
A natural or artificial large sizes depression formed within the
surface of the earth, when gets filled with water is pond or
Lake. When the depression is small is pond, while large size is
lake. The source of water is the catchment area to which the
streams or drains contribute.

Sometimes the underground water through springs enters into

it. The quantity of water from such sources depends on
catchment area, rainfall and geological formation.

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Surface Sources
Ponds and Lakes:
Such source of water is useful for small community like villages
or towns. The Quality of such source is generally good and
does not need proper purification.

Natural purification of water due to sedimentation of

suspended matter, removal of bacteria and bleaching of
color further purify water. The problem of algae, weed and
vegetable growth take place, imparting bad smells, taste and
colors to their waters.

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Surface Sources
Reservoirs:
A water supply scheme using river or stream water directly
may not satisfy the consumer demand during low flow, while a
high flows it is difficult to withdraw water due to flood situation.
A barrier therefore be constructed across the river so as to
form a pool of water on the upstream side of the barrier.

This pool is known as storage reservoir.

The stored water can not be used only for water supply but
also for other purposes as well. The quality of such reservoirs is
like a lake.

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Surface Sources
Streams and Rivers:
Small streams channels feed the water to lakes and rivers.
Such source of water is not reliable for water supply as of less
quantity and sometimes dry. They are useful for small
community. Larger and perennial streams may however be
used as a sources of water supply.

Rivers are the important source of water supply schemes.

Perennial rivers can be used as sources for public supplies by
providing storage on the upstream of the intake works. On non
perennial rivers dams has to be constructed.

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Surface Sources
Streams and Rivers:
The water quality of rivers is not reliable as it contains large amount of
silt, sand and other suspended matters. The disposal of untreated
sewage further contaminate water. The river water must therefore be
properly analyzed and well treated before supplying to the
community.

Surface water supplies are classified as to whether they come from a

lake, reservoir or river. Generally a river has the lowest water quality
and a reservoir the highest.

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Sub-Surface or Underground Sources

The water which store in the ground water reservoir through
infiltration is under ground water. This water is generally
uncontaminated but may contain aesthetically or
economically undesirable impurities. Such water are rich in
dissolved salts, minerals and various gasses.

Deep Wells:
Deep wells water are usually have high concentration of iron,
calcium, magnesium, manganese, carbonate and other
minerals.

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Sub-Surface or Underground Sources

Shallow Wells:
Shallow wells are recharged by a nearby surface water
sources. It may have qualities similar to the deep wells or of
the characteristics of Surface water. Strata of sub soil act as
filter and remove the suspended impurities as water infiltrated
into the soil.

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Selection of Source of Water:

Quantity:
The quantity of water available at the source must be sufficient
to meet the demands during the entire design period of
scheme.
Quality :
The available water must not be toxic or other injurious to
health. The impurity present in water must be as less as possible
and should be easily removable by treatment.
Distance of source supply:
The source of water must be situated as near the city as
possible. It reduces the cost of pipe lines as well as other
appurtenances required for distribution of water for
consumption.

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Selection of Source of Water:

Topography of the area:

The area between the source and the city should not have
more depressions and elevation. In such uneven topographies,
the cost for conveyance of water by pipes or constructing of
tunnels increase the cost of water supply schemes.

Elevation of source of supply:

The source of water must be on high contour, so as to flow

water by gravity. When the water is available at low elevation
than the city level, pumping has to be used, which involves
huge expenditure and possible breakdown.

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Selection of Source of Water:

General characteristics of ground water and surface
water

Ground water Surface water

Constant composition Varying composition
High mineralization Low mineralization
Little turbidity High Turbidity
Bacterial safe Microorganisms present
No dissolved oxygen Dissolved oxygen
High hardness low hardness

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Water Supply System

In general, a water supply system comprises the following
processes:

 Raw water extraction and transport,

 Water treatment and storage,
 Clear water transport and distribution.

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Transport & Distribution

Transport and distribution are technically the same
processes in which the water is conveyed through a
network of pipes, stored intermittently and pumped
where necessary, in order to meet the demands and
pressures in the system;

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Transport & Distribution

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Water Distribution System

Water distribution systems consist of a network of
smaller pipes with numerous connections that supply
water directly to the users. The flow variations in such
systems are much wider than in cases of water transport
systems.

In order to achieve optimal operation, different types of

reservoirs, pumping stations, water towers, as well as
various appurtenances (valves, hydrants, measuring
equipment, etc.) can be installed in the system.

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Objective of Water Distribution

System
The objective of distribution system is to deliver water to
consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure.

Distribution system is used to describe collectively the

facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of
usage.

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Requirements of Water Distribution

System
• Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution
pipes.
• It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended
places with sufficient pressure head.
• It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of
water during firefighting.
• The layout should be such that no consumer would be without
water supply, during the repair of any section of the system.
• All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter
away or above the sewer lines.
• It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage
to the minimum.

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Water Distribution System

Piping is a part of transport and distribution systems that
demands major investments. The main components
comprise pipes, joints, fittings, valves and service
connections. According to the purpose they serve, the
pipes can be classified as follows:

Trunk main: Trunk main is a pipe for the transport of

potable water from treatment plant to the distribution
area. Depending on the maximum capacity i.e. demand
of the distribution area, the common range of pipe sizes is
very wide; trunk mains can have diameters of between a
few 100 milli-metres and a few meters, in extreme cases.
Some branching of the pipes is possible but consumer
connections are rare.

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Water Distribution System

Secondary mains: Secondary mains are pipes that form the
basic skeleton of the distribution system.

This skeleton normally links the main components, sources,

reservoirs and pumping stations, and should enable the
smooth distribution of bulk flows towards the areas of higher
demand.

It also supports the system operation under irregular

conditions (fire, a major pipe burst or maintenance, etc.).

A number of service connections can be provided from these

pipes, especially for large consumers. Typical diameters are
150–400 mm.
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Water Distribution System

Distribution mains: Distribution mains convey water from
the secondary mains towards various consumers. These
pipes are laid alongside roads and streets with numerous
service connections and valves connected to guarantee the
required level of supply. In principle, common diameters are
between 80–200 mm.

Service Pipes: Service Pipes receives water from the

distribution mains, numerous service pipes bring directly to
the consumers. In the case of domestic supplies, the service
pipes are generally around 25 mm (1 inch) but other
consumers may require a larger size.
The end of the service pipe is the end point of the
distribution system. From that point on, two options are
possible:

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Water Distribution System

Public Connections: Public connection; the service pipe
terminates in one or more outlets and the water is consumed
directly. This can be any type of public tap, fountain, etc.

Private Connections: Private connection; the service pipe

terminates at a stopcock of a private installation within a
dwelling. This is the point where the responsibility of the
water supply company usually stops. These can be different
types of house or garden connections, as well as connections
for non-domestic use.

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Water Distribution System

Storage: Clear water storage facilities are a part of any sizable
water supply system. They can be located at source (i.e. the
treatment plant), at the end of the transport system or at any
other favourable place in the distribution system, usually at
higher elevations.
Reservoirs (or tanks) serve the following general purposes:
 meeting variable supply to the network with constant water
production,
 meeting variable demand in the network with its constant
supply,
 providing a supply in emergency situations,
 maintaining stable pressure (if sufficiently elevated).

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Water Distribution System

The reservoirs can be constructed either:
• underground,
• ground level or
• elevated (water towers or over head tank).

Underground reservoirs are usually constructed in areas

where safety or aesthetical issues are in question. In tropical
climates, preserving the water temperature i.e. water quality
could also be considered when choosing such a construction.

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Types of Tanks

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Types of Tanks

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Types of Tanks

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Types of Tanks

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Types of Tanks

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Types of Tanks

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Water Distribution System

Pumping:
Pumps add energy to water.
• Centrifugal flow pumps:
• commonly used in water distribution
• low maintenance costs, high reliability, a long lifetime and
simple construction
• Connecting pumps in a parallel arrangement enables a
wider range of flows to be covered by the pumping
schedule
• Pumps connected in serial arrangement can bring water to
extremely high elevations

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Water Distribution System

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Types of Water Distribution Scheme

Gravity scheme: it makes use of the existing topography.
The source is, in this case, located at a higher elevation than
the distribution area itself.

The water distribution can take place without pumping

and nevertheless
under acceptable pressure. The advantages of this scheme
are:
• no energy costs,
• simple operation (fewer mechanical components, no
power supply needed),
• low maintenance costs,
• slower pressure changes,
• a buffer capacity for irregular situations.
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Types of Water Distribution Scheme

• Due to the fixed pressure range, the gravity systems are
less flexible or extensions
• Require larger pipe diameters in order to minimise
pressure losses
• Capacity reduction can be caused by air entrainment
Direct Pumping scheme:
• system operates without storage provision for demand
balancing
• pumping schedule has to follow variations in water
demand, the proper selection of units is important in
order to optimise the energy consumption
• Reserve pumping capacity for irregular situations should
also be planned

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Types of Water Distribution Scheme

• With good design and operation, any pressure in the
system can be reached
• complicated operation and maintenance
• dependent on a reliable power supply
• alternative source of power supply, automatic mode of
pump operation, stock of spare parts, etc. are necessary
Combined scheme:
• an operation with pumping stations and demand
balancing reservoirs
• Part of the distribution area may be supplied by the direct
pumping and the other part by gravity
• Considerable storage volume is needed in this case but the
pumping capacities will be below those in the direct
pumping scheme.
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Types of Water Distribution Scheme

Pressure zones:
The prevailing topography can lead to the use of pressure
zones. By establishing different pressure zones, savings can
be obtained in supplying water to the various elevations at
lower pumping costs and in the use of lower-class piping
due to the lower pressure.

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration (Layout)
Serial network: A network without branches or loops.
• It has one source, one end and a couple of intermediate
nodes (demand points). Each intermediate node connects
two pipes: supply i.e. an upstream pipe and distribution
i.e. a downstream pipe. The flow direction is fixed from the
source to the end of the system.
• Extremely low reliability and quality problems caused by
water stagnation at the end of the system
• Large diameters and lengths of the pipes cause a drastic
increase in the construction costs
• Where reliability of supply is of greater concern than the
construction cost, parallel lines are laid

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration
Serial network

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration
Branched network:
combination of serial networks. It usually consists of one
supply point and several ends. The intermediate nodes in
the system connect one upstream pipe with one or several
downstream pipes.
Fixed flow direction is generated by the distribution from
the source to the ends of the system.
• low reliability,
• potential danger of contamination caused by large parts
of the network being without water during irregular
situations

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration
• accumulation of sediments due to stagnation of the water
at the system ends (‘dead’ ends), occasionally resulting in
taste and odour problems,
• a fluctuating water demand producing rather high
pressure oscillations.

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration
Grid systems:
Consist of nodes that can receive water from more than one
side.
• the water in the system flows in more than one direction
and a long
• lasting stagnation does not occur,
• during the system maintenance, the area concerned
continues to be supplied by water flowing from other
directions; in the case of pumped systems, a pressure
increase caused by a restricted supply may even promote
this,
• water demand fluctuations produce less effect on
pressure fluctuations
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Water Distribution Network

Configuration
• more expensive both in investment and costs of
operation.
• appropriate solutions for those distribution areas that
require a high reliability of supply.

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration
Combined network:

Combined network is the most common type of network in

large urban areas. The looped structure makes the central
part of the system while the supply on the outskirts of the
area is provided through a number of extended lines.

All the advantages and disadvantages of combined systems

relating to both branched and looped systems have already
been discussed.

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Water Distribution Network

Configuration

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