Geometric designs for Safe Highways

Dr. Manoj M.
Asst. Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Delhi

WORKSHOP-CUM-TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ROAD SAFETY

17th – 21st September 2018
 Outline

 Introduction

 Cross section elements

 Horizontal Alignment

 Vertical Alignment

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Introduction

3
Introduction

4
 Introduction

 Deals with the dimensions and layout - alignment, sight distance

and intersection

 Objective is to provide optimum efficiency with maximum safety at

reasonable cost

 Main Design elements:

 Cross section elements
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Intersection elements

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 Introduction

 Maximize the comfort and economy of facilities

 Efficiency in traffic operation

 Safety at reasonable cost

 Environmental impacts

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 Design Controls and Criteria

 Design Speed

 Topography

 Traffic factors

 Design hour volume and capacity

 Environmental and other factors

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 Design Controls and Criteria

 Design Speed
o Most important factor
o Affected by topography & road type
o Influences all geometric elements of roads

 Topography
o Plain; Rolling; Mountainous; Steep terrains
o Speed and cross slope governs the design of elements

 Traffic Factors
o Vehicular and Human Characteristics
o Design vehicle – speed, dimension, weight and acceleration,
o Physical, mental and psychological characteristics – driver

 Design hourly volume and capacity

o Knowledge of Peak and off-peak hour volume

 Environmental and other factors

o Aesthetics, landscaping, pollution, etc.

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Terrain and Speed

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Pavement Surface Characteristics

o Friction
 Tyre and road surface – speed, acceleration, sight distance, curve design

o Pavement types – cement concrete, bituminous, WBM

o Roughness of pavement
o Condition of pavement – wet/dry, mud/oil spilled
o Tyre condition
o Speed of vehicles
o Load and tyre pressure
o Temperature, etc.

 Longitudinal friction 0.35-0.40; Transverse – 0.15

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Pavement Surface Characteristics

o Unevenness
 Influences operating speed – geometric standards
 Wear tear; accidents; operating cost;
 Low unevenness index – 150 – 250 cm/km (high speed highways)

o Light Reflecting Characteristics

 Night visibility – wet conditions
 Light coloured – night condition (rainy); strain and glare (day)

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Cross Slope / Camber

o Slope provided in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water

 Provided by raising the carriage way with respect to the edges

 Depends on – type of the pavement surface & amount of rainfall

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Width of Pavement or Carriageway

o Depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes

o Carriageway intended for one line of traffic movement is traffic lane
o Lane width = vehicle width (2.44m )+ side clearance (0.625)

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Traffic Separators / Medians

o To prevent head on collision between vehicles moving in opposite

directions on adjacent lanes
o Pavement markings, medians, dividing islands, etc.

o 5.0 m for rural highways (3.0 m land restriction)

o Long bridges – 1.2 to 1.5 m
o Transition 1 in 15 to 1 in 20

o Urban roads: (absolute min width 1.2 m; desirable 5.0 m)

o 1.2 m for pedestrian refuge
o 4.0 -7.5 m for protection of vehicles making right turn
o 9.0 to 12.0 m for protection of vehicles crossing at grade

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Kerb
o Indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder

 Barrier, Semi-barrier, and Mountable

o Barrier – Built-up areas adjacent to footpaths with considerable

pedestrian traffic

o Semi-barrier – periphery of the roadway where pedestrian traffic is

light and a barrier could tend to reduce traffic capacity

o Mountable – Within the roadway at channelization schemes,

medians, outer separators and raised medians on bridges

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 Cross Sectional Elements

 Kerb

Source: IRC 86-1983

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

o Road Margins

 Shoulders – Emergency lane / service lanes (min 2.5 m width)

 Parking lanes – for kerb parking (min 3.0 m width)

 Lay-byes – to stop and clear off the carriageway

 Busbays – 75m away from intersections

 Frontage roads – access to properties

 Driveways – connect commercial establishments

 Cycle tracks – min 2 m width; 1 m for additional lane

 Footpath – when vehicular and pedestrian volume is high (1.5 min )

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Highway Cross Sectional Elements

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements
o Width of roadway or formation – sum of width of carriageway;
separators (if provided) & shoulders

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Highway Cross Sectional Elements

 Right of Way

Source: IRC 86-1983

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 Sight Distance

 Sight Distance
o Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface
which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of
stationary or moving objects

o The length of road visible to the driver at any instance

 Should Satisfy:
o Length of road visible ahead to stop the vehicle
o Safely overtake at reasonable intervals
o Control vehicle and avoid collision at uncontrolled intersection

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 Sight Distance

 Stopping Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot

 Depends on:
o Features of the road ahead
o Height of the driver’s eye above the road surface (1.2 m)
o Height of the object above the road surface (0.15 m)

 Stopping depends on:

 Total reaction time of the driver
 Speed of vehicle
 Efficiency of brakes
 Frictional resistance between the road and tyres
 Gradient, if any

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 Sight Distance

 Total Reaction Time

o The time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant the
brakes are effectively applied
o Total reaction time = perception time + brake reaction time
o Total reaction time = 2.5 sec
 Speed of vehicle
o Higher the speed, longer the stopping sight distance

 Efficiency of brakes
o 100% braking efficiency – skidding
o Braking force should not exceed friction

 Frictional/skid Resistance
o Depends on road and tyre
o f = 0.35 to 0.40

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 Sight Distance

 Stopping Sight Distance

𝑉2
0.278𝑉𝑡 +
254(𝑓 ± 0.01𝐺)

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Sight Distance

 Overtaking Sight Distance

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake the slow moving vehicle with safety against the
traffic in opposite direction

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 Sight Distance

 Overtaking Sight Distance – Optimum condition is one in which the

overtaking driver can follow the vehicle ahead for a short time while
he assess his chances of overtaking

o Assumptions:

o The vehicle being overtaking is travelling at a uniform speed which

is 16kmph less than the design speed of the road
o The overtaking vehicle follows the vehicle ahead for a short while to
perceive the clear road ahead
o Overtaking is done by accelerating rapidly to the design speed and
is considered completed when the vehicle returns to its own side of
the road
o Overtaking once began is finished in the face of an oncoming
vehicle travelling at design speed in such a way that the latter
arrives alongside the former just at the completion of maneuver

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 Sight Distance

 Overtaking Sight Distance

o Overtaking maneuver – 8 to 14 seconds

o One third of the total time is spent following the vehicle to be
overtaken
o The opposing vehicle’s travel distance in 2/3 of the total time is
added.

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Sight Distance

 Intermediate Sight Distance

o Sections of roads where the customary overtaking sight distance

cannot be provided should be designed as far as possible for
intermediate sight distance.

o It is twice the normal safe stopping distance.

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Sight Distance

 Headlight Sight Distance

o In valley curves – roadway ahead is illuminated by vehicle

headlights to a sufficient length enabling the vehicle to break stop
(equal to SSD)

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 Horizontal Alignment

o Directional transition of the roadway in a horizontal plane

o Relationship between design speed and curvature and on their joint

relationships with superelevation (roadway banking) and side friction

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Superelevation

𝑉2
𝑒+𝑓 =
127𝑅

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Superelevation
o Plain and rolling terrain – 7%
o In snow bound areas – 7%
o In hilly areas not bound by snow – 10%

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Horizontal Alignment

o Radius of Horizontal Curve

𝑉2
𝑅=
127(𝑒 + 𝑓)

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Widening of Pavements on Horizontal Curve

o When curves are not of large radius

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Widening of Pavements on Horizontal Curve

o Extra Widening = Mechanical Widening + Psychological Widening

𝑛𝑙 2 𝑉
𝑊𝑒 = +
2𝑅 9.5 𝑅

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Horizontal Transition Curve

A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the
tangent point to that of the circular curve.

o Objectives:
o To introduce the centrifugal force gradually
o To steer the vehicle gradually and comfortably
o To allow for gradual introduction of superelevation and extra widening
o To improve aesthetic appearance

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Horizontal Transition Curve

o Spiral curve:
o Ideal transition
o Calculation and implementation are easy

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 Horizontal Alignment

o Length of Transition Curve

i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

0.0215𝑉 2 80
𝐿𝑠 = ;𝐶 =
𝐶𝑅 75 + 𝑉

ii. Rate of change of Superelevation

o For plain and rolling terrain
2.7𝑉 2
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑅
o For mountainous and steep terrain
𝑉2
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑅

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Horizontal Alignment

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Horizontal Alignment

 Setback distance
o Distance from the road center line within which the obstructions
should be cleared to ensure the needed visibility

𝑚 = 𝑅 − (𝑅 − 𝑛)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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 Vertical Alignment

o The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the center line of

the road – to accommodate changes in grades

o Consists of grades and vertical curves – vehicle speed, acceleration,

deceleration, SSD and comfort

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 Vertical Alignment

 Gradient – the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal (1 in x; n in 100)

o Gradient types
o Ruling gradient
o Limiting gradient
o Exceptional gradient
o Minimum gradient
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 Vertical Alignment

o Ruling Gradient – The maximum gradient within which the designer

attempts to design the vertical profile of the road (design gradient)

o Limiting gradient – where topography compels adopting steeper

gradients than ruling gradients

o Exceptional gradient – steeper than limiting; not exceeding100 m at

a stretch

o Minimum gradient – from drainage point of view; 1 in 500 in concrete

drains

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Vertical Alignment

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Vertical Alignment

 Grade Compensation

o At horizontal curves, the gradients should be eased by an amount

known as the grade compensation (reduction in gradient)

30+𝑅 75
o 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 % = ; 𝑚𝑎𝑥. =
𝑅 𝑅

o Not necessary for grades flatter than 4%

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 Vertical Alignment

 Vertical Curve

o At intersections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical

profile

 Summit curves/Crest curves – Convexity upwards

 Valley curves/Sag curves – Concavity upwards

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 Vertical Alignment

o Summit Curve

o Governing design factor – Sight Distance

o Circular / Parabolic curves

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 Vertical Alignment

o Length of Summit Curve for SSD

i. When L>SSD

𝑁𝑆 2 𝑁𝑆 2
𝐿= =
( 2𝐻 + 2ℎ)2 4.4

ii. When L<SSD

4.4
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁

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 Vertical Alignment

o Length of Summit Curve for OSD or ISD

i. When L>OSD/ISD

𝑁𝑆 2 𝑁𝑆 2
𝐿= =
8𝐻 9.6

ii. When L<OSD/ISD

8𝐻 9.6
𝐿 = 2𝑆 − = 2𝑆 −
𝑁 𝑁

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Vertical Alignment

IRC 73 - 1980

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 Vertical Alignment

 Valley Curve

o Governing design factor – comfort of passengers& availability of

stopping sight distance under headlights of vehicle

o Allowable rate of centrifugal acceleration influences the design

(transition curves)

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 Vertical Alignment

o Length of Valley Curve

i. For comfort condition

𝐿 = 0.38(𝑁𝑉 3 )1/2
ii. L > Headlight Sight Distance
𝑁𝑆 2
𝐿=
(1.5 + 0.035𝑆)
iii. L < Headlight Sight Distance
(1.5 + 0.035𝑆)
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁

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 References – IRC codes

1. IRC: 73-1980, geometric design standards for rural (non-urban)

highways

2. IRC: 86-1983, Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads and

Plains

3. IRC: 66-1976, Recommended Practice for Sight Distance on Rural

Highways

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Thank You

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