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Practical-1: Study about Wired and wireless networks.

Wired Networks:
 Definition:
As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical medium made up of cables. Copper
wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network employs
wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or
desktop PCs.
 Working:
1. Connection: Devices (like computers or printers) are connected using
cables.
2. Components:
a. Network Cards: Each device has a card that connects to the
network.
b. Cables: Ethernet cables carry the data.
c. Switches: These act like traffic managers, directing data to the right
device.
d. Routers: These connect your local network to the internet or other
network.
3. Sending Data:
a. Electrical Signals: Data travels as electrical signals through the
cables.
b. Addresses: Each device has a unique address to ensure data goes to
the right place.
4. Data Management:
a. Switches: Direct data to the specific device.
b. Routers: Direct data between different networks (like from your
home network to the internet).
5. Network Setup:
a. Star Topology: Devices are all connected to a central hub or switch.
This is common and easy to manage.
 Advantages:
1) Speed and Reliability:

 Higher Speeds: Wired connections, especially with fibre optics,

can offer higher data transfer rates than wireless networks.

 Stable Connection: Less prone to interference, providing a

consistent and stable connection.
2) Security:

 More Secure: Harder to intercept compared to wireless

signals, providing better security against unauthorized access.
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3) Latency:

 Lower Latency: Offers lower latency compared to wireless

networks, making them suitable for real-time applications such
as gaming and video conferencing.

4) Bandwidth:

 Dedicated Bandwidth: Each device connected via a wired

network can have a dedicated bandwidth, reducing the chances
of network congestion.

5) Less Interference:

 Minimal Interference: Not affected by other electronic devices

or physical obstructions, unlike wireless networks.

 Disadvantages:
1). Mobility:
 Limited Mobility: Devices are physically tethered to the
network, reducing flexibility and mobility.
2). Installation and Maintenance:
 Complex Installation: Requires running cables through walls,
ceilings, and floors, which can be time-consuming and costly.
 Maintenance: Troubleshooting and maintaining a wired
network can be more challenging due to the physical nature of
the connections.
3). Cost:
 Higher Initial Cost: The cost of cables, switches, and other
hardware components can be higher compared to setting up a
wireless network.
4). Scalability:
 Limited Scalability: Adding new devices or expanding the
network may require additional cabling and infrastructure
changes.
5). Aesthetics and Space:
 Clutter and Space: Visible cables can be unsightly and take up
physical space, which can be a concern in smaller or more
aesthetic-conscious environments.

 Applications:
1. Home Networks

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o Example: A home office setup includes a wired
Ethernet connection from the router to a desktop
computer. This provides a stable and fast internet
connection for remote work, including video
conferencing and accessing corporate VPNs securely
2. Educational Institutions
o Example: A university campus with multiple
buildings, including lecture halls, libraries, and labs,
uses a wired network to provide stable internet
connections. The network allows students and
faculty to access online resources, conduct research,
and submit assignments securely and efficiently.

Wireless Networks:
 Definition:
“Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves
(EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas of sensors will be present on all
wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc
receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all examples of wireless devices. For
data of voice communications, a wireless network uses radiofrequency waves
rather than wires.
 Working:
1. Transmission Medium: Wireless networks use radio waves or
infrared signals to transmit data between devices.

2. Access Point (AP): Central devices like routers or base stations act
as access points, providing connectivity to the network.

3. Devices: Devices like smartphones, laptops, and tablets connect to

the network by communicating with the access point.

4. Data Transfer: The access point receives data from connected

devices and transmits it to other devices on the network or the
internet. It also manages network traffic to ensure efficient data
flow.

5. Security: Wireless networks often use encryption (like WPA2) to

protect data from unauthorized access.

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 Advantages:
1. Mobility: Users can access the network from almost any location
within the coverage area, providing flexibility and convenience.
2. Ease of Installation: Wireless networks eliminate the need for
physical cables, making setup quicker and easier, especially in
older buildings or hard-to-reach places.
3. Scalability: It is easier to add or remove devices in a wireless
network compared to a wired network.
4. Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for extensive wiring and
maintenance, potentially lowering installation and infrastructure
costs.
5. Flexibility: Supports a wide range of devices, including
smartphones, tablets, and laptops, enabling a more versatile
network environment.
 Disadvantages:
1. Security: Wireless networks are more susceptible to security
breaches, such as hacking or unauthorized access, compared to
wired networks. Proper encryption and security measures are
essential.
2. Interference: Radio signals can be affected by physical obstacles,
other electronic devices, and even weather conditions, which can
lead to connectivity issues and reduced performance.
3. Speed: Generally, wireless networks offer slower data transfer
rates compared to wired networks, which can impact activities
requiring high bandwidth.
4. Limited Range: The effective range of wireless networks is
limited, and signal strength diminishes with distance from the
access point. Additional equipment like repeaters or additional
access points may be needed for larger areas.
5. Reliability: Wireless connections can be less stable than wired
connections, leading to potential disruptions in service

 Applications:
1. Public Wi-Fi
Example: Airports, cafes, hotels, and other public places provide
free or paid Wi-Fi access to customers, allowing them to stay
connected while on the go.
2. Mobile Networks
Example: Cellular networks (3G, 4G, 5G) enable mobile devices to
access the internet and make calls without a wired connection,
providing wide-area coverage.

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Practical-2: Study about different types of network

connectivity
Network:
 Definition:A network is a group of two or more computers or other electronic
devices that are interconnected for the purpose of exchanging data and sharing
resources.

Figure 1-Type of Network

1. PAN (Personal Area Network):

 Definition: Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects
computers/devices within the range of an individual person.As PAN provides a
network range within a person’s range typically within a range of 10 meters(33
feet) it is called a Personal Area Network.
 Description:
o A Personal Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet,
printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other
entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles, etc.
o Thomas Zimmerman and other researchers at M.I.T.’s Media Lab first
developed the concept of PAN. It is very useful in the home, offices, and
small network areas due to its high performance in terms of flexibility and
efficiency.
o Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) :
Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection
i.e., Wireless PAN, and Wired PAN.
These are explained as following below.
o Wireless PAN:

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 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through
signals such as infrared, Zigbee , Blutooth and ultrawideband, etc.

Figure 2-Wireless PAN

o Wired PAN :
 Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firewire
or USB.

Figure 3-Wired PAN

 Application:
o Body Area Network:

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 It is a mobile network that moves with a persona range for
example when a person connects his smartphone to the Bluetooth
headphone and moves in the market that refers to a body area
network.
o Home Office:
 In Home Office set up a separate smaller network is set up for work
purposes which is separate from the network used by other home
appliances. This network works as a separate body with multiple
other devices connected for office work purposes.
 Advantages:
o PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network
ranges.
o It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
o It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
o It is easy and portable.
o Needs fewer technical skills to use.
 Disadvantages:
o Low network coverage area/range.
o Limited to relatively low data rates.
o Devices are not compatible with each other.
o Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

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2. LAN:
 Definition: LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way
that personal computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs.
 Description:
o The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch,
or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the
TCP/IP protocol.
o Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local
network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to
the larger WAN.
o Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is
limited.
o The connections must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive hardware
(Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables).
o LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few
kilometres) and are privately owned.
o Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range.
o Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

Figure 4-LAN

 Application:
o LAN is used for school environment, offices, hospitals etc as it allows
sharing of resources like sharing data, scanners, printing and internet.
o LAN serves users at home to access internet.
o LAN’s are widely used in manufacturing industries where a central server
coordinates the activities of other machines.
o High speed LANs are typically used to connect many slower networks
together.

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 Advantages:
o Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
o Easy to set up and manage.
o Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
o Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.

 Disadvantages:
o Limited geographical coverage.
o Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
o May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.

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3. MAN:
 Definition: A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that
connects computers within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large
city, multiple cities and towns, or any given large area with multiple buildings.
 Description:
o MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered
by a LAN and a smaller area as compared to WAN.
o MAN has a range of 5-50km.
o It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same
or different cities.
o It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider).
o MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity.
o Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps.
o It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

Figure 5-MAN

 Applications:
o Corporate Connectivity: Large organizations with multiple offices in a
city use MANs to connect these locations, facilitating communication, data
transfer, and resource sharing. This allows for centralized management
and streamlined operations.
o Educational Institutions: Universities and large educational campuses
use MANs to connect multiple buildings and campuses, providing
seamless access to academic resources, administrative services, and high-
speed internet.
o Government and Public Services: City governments use MANs to
connect various departments, such as police, fire, and public utilities,
enhancing coordination and information sharing. It can also support
emergency response systems and smart city infrastructure.
 Advantages:
o Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than
LAN.

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o Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
o Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.

 Disadvantages:
o Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
o May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
o May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

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4. WAN:
 Definition: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that
extends over a large geographical area, often spanning cities, countries, or even
continents. Unlike Local Area Networks (LANs), which are limited to a small area
such as a building or campus, WANs can cover vast distances and connect
multiple LANs.

 Description:
o WAN has a range of above 50 km.
o A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via
telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public.
o The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
o There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN.
o WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves
increased distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc.
o The speed of WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to
megabits per second (Mbps).
o Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here.
o Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires,
Microwaves, and Satellites.
o An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home
computer to the Internet.

Figure 6-WAN

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 Applications:
o Global Business Operations:
 Corporate Networks: Multinational companies use WANs to
connect their offices, branches, and data centers across different
countries. This facilitates communication, resource sharing, and
centralized management.
 Supply Chain Management: WANs enable real-time tracking and
management of supply chain processes, including inventory,
logistics, and order processing.
o Cloud Computing and Data Services:
 Cloud Services: WANs enable access to cloud-based applications,
storage, and services from anywhere in the world, allowing
businesses to use Software as a Service (SaaS), Infrastructure as a
Service (IaaS), and other cloud offerings.
 Data Backup and Disaster Recovery: WANs facilitate offsite data
backup and disaster recovery solutions, ensuring data integrity
and business continuity.

 Advantages:
o Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
o Provides connectivity to the internet.
o Offers remote access to resources and applications.
o Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.

 Disadvantages:
o Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
o Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
o May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to
longer distances and multiple network hops.
o May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

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Practical-3: Study About Different Network Devices

1. Repeater:
i. Description:
 A repeater operates at the physical layer.
 A repeater is a network device used to extend the range of a network by
amplifying or regenerating signals. It is typically used in long-distance
communication where signals weaken over distance.
 Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
 When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at
its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength.
 It is a 2-port device.

ii. Image:

Figure 7-Repeater

iii. Types:
 Analog Repeater: Amplifies the analog signals. Used in older
telecommunications systems.
 Digital Repeater: Regenerates the digital signals, typically used in
modern networks.
 Fiber Optic Repeater: Specifically used for extending the range of fiber
optic communication.
 Wireless Repeater: Used in wireless networks to extend the coverage
area by receiving the wireless signal and retransmitting it.

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iv. Advantages:
 Extends Network Range: By regenerating signals, repeaters extend the
physical range of a network, allowing devices to connect over greater
distances.
 Improves Signal Quality: Repeaters clean up the signal by removing
noise and distortions, improving overall data transmission quality.
 Simple Installation: Repeaters are generally easy to set up and require
minimal configuration.
 Supports Various Media: Can be used with different types of network
media, such as copper cables, fiber optics, and wireless signals.

v. Disadvantages:
 Limited Functionality: Repeaters simply regenerate signals without any
intelligent filtering or routing, which can lead to unnecessary traffic.
 Can Amplify Noise: If the input signal is already noisy, the repeater may
amplify the noise along with the signal.
 Requires Power: Repeaters need a power source, which can be a
limitation in some environments.
 Limited to Same Protocol: Repeaters work within the same protocol,
meaning they cannot connect different types of networks.

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2. Hub:
i. Description:
 A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a
network, allowing them to communicate with each other.
 It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and broadcasts
incoming data to all connected devices.
 A hub is a basically multi-port repeater.
 A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
 Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one.
 Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

ii. Image:

Figure 8-Hub

iii. Types:
 Active Hub: - These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as
a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the
maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: - These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and
power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend
the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub: - It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network

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devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

iv. Advantages:
 Low Cost: Hubs are generally inexpensive and offer a simple solution for
small networks.
 Ease of Use: Plug-and-play devices that require little to no configuration,
making them easy to install and use.
 Basic Network Expansion: Provides a straightforward way to connect
multiple devices within a LAN.

v. Disadvantages:
 Network Congestion: Since hubs broadcast data to all connected devices,
they can easily become congested, leading to collisions and reduced
network performance.
 No Traffic Management: Hubs cannot differentiate between devices or
direct data to specific ports, leading to inefficient use of bandwidth.
 Limited Scalability: Not suitable for large or complex networks, as they
can introduce significant bottlenecks

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3. Bridge:
i. Description:
 A bridge is a network device that connects and filters traffic between two
or more network segments, operating at the data link layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model.
 It can segment a network into smaller, more manageable pieces.
 A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by
reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination.
 It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol.
 It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

ii. Image:

Figure 9-Bridge

iii. Types:
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge
is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is
performed by the source station and the frame specifies which route to
follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special frame called
the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all
possible paths to the destination.

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iv. Advantages:
 Reduces Network Traffic: By filtering and forwarding data only to the
necessary segments, bridges can significantly reduce unnecessary traffic
on a network.
 Enhances Security: By segmenting a network, bridges can help isolate
different parts of the network, providing an additional layer of security.
 Improves Network Performance: Segmenting the network with bridges
reduces the likelihood of collisions and increases overall network
performance.
 Versatile Connectivity: Bridges can connect different types of network
segments, making them versatile tools for building complex networks.

v. Disadvantages:
 Limited to Layer 2: Bridges operate only at the data link layer, so they
cannot route data between different networks or perform more complex
network functions.
 Potential for Latency: The process of filtering and forwarding data can
introduce some delay, particularly in large networks with many segments.
 Cost and Complexity: While bridges offer more features than hubs, they
are also more expensive and complex to set up and manage.
 Limited Scalability: As networks grow, the use of bridges can become
less effective, and other devices like switches or routers may be needed.

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4. Switch:
i. Description:
 A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices within a
network and uses MAC addresses to forward data only to the specific
device that needs it, operating at the data link layer (Layer 2) or network
layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
 A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
 A switch is a data link layer device.
 The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and
forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.
 In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but
the broadcast domain remains the same.

ii. Image:

Figure 10-Switch

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iii. Types:
 Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play
design and do not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable
for small networks or for use as an expansion to a larger network.
 Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options
such as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger,
more complex networks and allow for centralized management.
 Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed
switches but are typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable
for small- to medium-sized networks.
 Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the
OSI model and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on
the same network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI
model and can route data between different network segments. They are
more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more
complex networks.
 PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities,
which allows them to supply power to network devices over the same
cable that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which
are faster than traditional Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in
a server rack and are suitable for use in data centers or other large
networks.
 Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or
in a small office environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-
mounted switches.
 Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows
for easy expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks
and data canters.

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iv. Advantages:
 Efficient Data Transmission: Switches forward data only to the specific
device it is intended for, reducing unnecessary network traffic and
collisions.
 High Performance: Capable of handling large amounts of data at high
speeds, making them ideal for modern, high-performance networks.
 Advanced Features: Managed switches offer a wide range of features that
enhance network management, security, and performance.
 Scalability: Switches can easily be integrated into larger networks,
supporting a growing number of devices and traffic.

v. Disadvantages:
 Cost: Switches, especially managed and Layer 3 switches, are more
expensive than hubs and other basic networking devices.
 Complexity: Managed switches require configuration and ongoing
management, which can be complex and require skilled personnel.
 Potential for Bottlenecks: If a switch becomes overloaded, it can become
a bottleneck, reducing network performance.
 Security Risks: Without proper configuration, switches can be vulnerable
to certain types of network attacks, such as MAC flooding.

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5. Router:
i. Description:
 A router is a network device that routes data between different networks
or subnets, operating at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
 It determines the best path for data packets to travel across networks.
 A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.
 The router is mainly a Network Layer device.
 Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the
data packets.
 The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

ii. Image:

Figure 11-Router

iii. Types:
 Wired Router: Connects devices through Ethernet cables and typically
provides high-speed, reliable connections.
 Wireless Router: Provides Wi-Fi connectivity, allowing wireless devices
to connect to the network. Commonly used in homes and small offices.
 Core Router: Used in large enterprise networks or by ISPs (Internet
Service Providers) to route data within the backbone of the network.

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 Edge Router: Positioned at the edge of the network, connecting the
internal network to external networks like the internet.
 Virtual Router: A software-based router that performs the same
functions as a hardware router, often used in virtualized environments.

iv. Advantages:
 Efficient Data Routing: Routers direct data efficiently between different
networks, ensuring that data takes the optimal path to its destination.
 Enhanced Security: Many routers include built-in firewall and VPN
features, providing additional layers of security for the network.
 Supports Multiple Networks: Routers can connect multiple networks
and manage traffic between them, making them essential for large and
complex network architectures.
 Advanced Features: Modern routers offer a range of advanced features,
such as Quality of Service (QoS), parental controls, and guest networks.

v. Disadvantages:
 Cost: Routers, especially high-performance or enterprise-grade models,
can be expensive.
 Complexity: Configuring and managing a router, particularly in a complex
network, can be challenging and may require specialized knowledge.
 Potential Latency: If not properly configured or if overloaded, routers
can introduce latency into the network, slowing down data transmission.
 Limited to Network Layer: Routers operate at Layer 3, so they do not
provide the data link layer features offered by switches.

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6. Gateway:
i. Description:
 A gateway is a network device that serves as an entrance to another
network, often translating different protocols to allow communication
between networks with different architectures.
 Gateways operate at various layers of the OSI model depending on their
functionality, often at Layer 3 or higher.
 A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
that may work upon different networking models.
 They work as messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret
it, and transfer it to another system.
 Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any
network layer.
 Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.

ii. Image:

Figure 12-Gateway

iii. Types:
 Protocol Gateway: Converts data from one communication protocol to
another, allowing different networks to communicate. For example,
translating between TCP/IP and IPX/SPX.
 Default Gateway: The device that routes traffic from a local network to
external networks, typically used to connect a LAN to the internet.
 Application Gateway: Controls data at the application layer, often used in
firewalls or proxies to filter traffic based on specific applications.
 Media Gateway: Converts data between different types of media, such as
converting voice data between a VoIP network and a traditional telephone
network.

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iv. Advantages:
 Inter-Network Communication: Gateways enable communication
between networks with different protocols, architectures, or media types.
 Enhanced Security: By controlling the data that passes between
networks, gateways can provide significant security benefits, often acting
as a firewall or proxy server.
 Versatility: Gateways can be configured to perform a wide range of tasks,
from simple protocol translation to complex traffic management and
filtering.
 Scalability: Gateways can be used to connect small networks to larger
networks, such as connecting a home or office network to the internet.

v. Disadvantages:
 Complexity: Gateways are often complex devices that require specialized
knowledge to configure and manage, particularly in enterprise
environments.
 Cost: The advanced functionality of gateways typically comes at a higher
cost than simpler network devices.
 Latency: The process of translating data between different protocols or
media can introduce latency, potentially affecting network performance.
 Maintenance: Gateways require ongoing maintenance and updates to
ensure they continue to function correctly and securely.

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Practical-4: Study about different type of network cables

1. Twisted pair cable
 Description:
 It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
 Twisted pair cables have two conductors that are generally made up of
copper and each conductor has insulation.
 These two conductors are twisted together, thus giving the name twisted
pair cables.
 One of the conductors is used to carry the signal and the other is used as a
ground reference only.
 Twisted pair cables are a type of wiring in which two conductors of a
single circuit are twisted together to improve electromagnetic
compatibility.
 The range can vary depending on the category, with standard unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) cables supporting up to 100 meters for data
transmission.
 Twisted Pair Cables are further of two types:
o Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)
o Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)

 Design:

Figure 13-Twisted pair cable

 Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.

 The twisting reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk
between adjacent pairs.
 Available in shielded (STP) and unshielded (UTP) variants.

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Figure 14-Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)

Figure 15-Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)

 Application:
 Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice
channels.
 The DSL lines make use of these cables.
 Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
 They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
 RJ-45 is a very common application of twisted pair cables.

 advantages:
 Cost-effective and widely available.
 Easy to install and flexible.
 Provides adequate performance for most LAN applications.

 disadvantages:
 Susceptible to electromagnetic interference, especially in unshielded
variants.
 Limited bandwidth and data transmission speed compared to other cable
types.
 Shorter maximum transmission range without signal boosting.

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2. coaxial cable
 Description:
 Coaxial Cable is made of Plastics, and copper wires which transmit the
signal in electrical form rather than light form.
 Coaxial cable is also known as coax.
 The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the
insulator is used to provide insulation to the copper conductor the
insulator is surrounded by a braided metal conductor which helps to
prevent the interference of electrical signals and prevent cross talk.
 This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic layer to
provide extra safety to the cable.
 The range can vary, with traditional coaxial cables used for television and
internet applications supporting up to a few kilometers.
 Types of Coaxial cables:
o Hardline coaxial cable
o Flexible coaxial cable
o Semi-rigid coaxial cable
o Formable coaxial cable
o Etc…

 Design:
 Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The
conductor is the point at which data is transmitted.
 Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. it is
used to maintain the spacing between the centre conductor and shield.
 Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield
from electromagnetic interference, The braid provides a barrier against
EMI moving into and out of the coaxial cable.
 Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic
coating. It is used to protect internal layers from damage.

Figure 16-coaxial cable

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 Application:
 Television: Coaxial cable used for television would be 75 Ohm and RG-6
coaxial cable.
 Internet: Coaxial cables are also used for carrying internet signals, RG-6
cables are used for this.
 CCTV: The coaxial cables are also used in CCTV systems and both RG-59
AND RG-6 cables can be used.
 Video: The coaxial cables are also used in video Transmission the RG-6 is
used for better digital signals and RG-59 for lossless transmission of video
signals.
 HDTV: The HDTV uses RG-11 as it provides more space for signals to
transfer.

 advantages:
 Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.
 It is easy to install coaxial cables.
 Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more
reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

 disadvantages:
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by
hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

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3. Fiber Optics Cables
 Description:
 Fiber optics refers to the technology and method of transmitting data as
light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber.
 Fiber optic cables are used for long-distance and high-performance data
networking.
 They are capable of transmitting data over longer distances and at higher
bandwidths (data rates) than electrical cables, making them a critical
component in modern telecommunications, internet, and computer
networking.
 The range can extend from a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers
without significant signal loss, depending on the type of fiber and the
application.
 Fiber optic cables use light to transmit data, offering a much higher
bandwidth and longer range than electrical cables.

 Design:
 Core: It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically transparent
dielectric medium and carries the light transmitter to receiver and the
core diameter may vary from about 5um to 100 um.
 Cladding: It is an outer optical material surrounding the core having a
reflecting index lower than the core and cladding helps to keep the light
within the core throughout the phenomena of total internal reflection.
 Buffer Coating: It is a plastic coating that protects the fiber made of
silicon rubber. The typical diameter of the fiber after the coating is 250-
300 um.

Figure 17-Fiber Optics Cables

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 Application:
 Fiber Optics can be used in Computer Broadcasting and Networking
 Fiber Optics are used on the Internet. They are also used in Television
Cable.
 Fiber Optics are widely used in Military Activities. They are also used in
Medical Purposes like for precise illumination.
 They can also be used in Underwater environments as they don’t require
to be replaced frequently.

 advantages:
 Fiber Optics supports bandwidth with higher capacities.
 Electromagnetic Interference is very little with Fiber Optics.
 Fiber Optics are stronger and lighter than copper cables.
 Very little Maintenance is required in Optical Fiber.

 disadvantages:
 Fiber Optics is more costly than Copper Wire.
 Huge manual work is required to install new cables.
 Some optical fibers like glass fiber require more protection.
 Fiber Optics are more fragile i.e., can be easily broken, or signals can be
lost easily.

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Practical-5: Study about different LAN topologies and

implement it using Simulator
1. Bus topology:
 Description
o Bus topology carries transmitted data through the cable because data
reaches each node, the node checks the destination address (MAC/IP
address) to determine if it matches their address.
o If the address does not match with the node, the node does nothing
more.
o But if the addresses of nodes match to addresses contained within the
data then they process knowledge.
o In the bus, communication between nodes is done through a foremost
network cable.
o Key Features of Bus Topology
 An efficient bus architecture is established, and each station is
connected by a single backbone cable.
 There are two requirements: Initially, the nodes are connected
to the backbone cable directly, or they use a drop cable to help
them connect.
 The well-known access method for bus topologies is
called CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

 Image

Figure 18-Bus Topology

 Application
o Local Area Networks (LANs): Bus topology was traditionally utilized
in Ethernet LANs, mainly in older implementations wherein coaxial
cables have been daisy-chained to connect computer systems.
o Industrial Control Systems: In industrial control system, bus
topology is frequently used for connecting sensors, actuators, and
different devices in distributed manipulate systems.

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o Instrumentation Networks: Bus topology is appropriate for
connecting devices, meters, and records acquisition gadgets in
laboratory or commercial environments.
o Building Automation Systems: Bus topology is employed in building
automation and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
structures to attach sensors, thermostats, actuators, and other manage
devices.
o Telecommunications Networks: Bus topology has traditionally been
utilized in telephone networks and early records transmission
systems. However, it has largely been changed by using more superior
topologies like mesh or ring for telecommunications applications
because of higher fault tolerance and scalability.

 Advantages
o It is the easiest network topology for linearly connecting peripherals
or computers.
o It works very efficiently well when there is a small network.
o The length of cable required is less than a star topology.
o It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without
affecting any other device.
o Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology i.e. mesh
and star
o It is easy to understand topology.
o Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.

 Disadvantages
o Bus topology is not good for large networks.
o Identification of problems becomes difficult if the whole network goes
down.
o Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard.
o Need terminators are required at both ends of the main cable.
o Additional devices slow the network down.
o If the main cable is damaged, the whole network fails or splits into
two.
o Packet loss is high.
o This network topology is very slow as compared to other topologies.

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2. Star topology:
 Description
o In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through
a cable.
o This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node.
o The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub.
o Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are
used to connect the computers.
o In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
 Image

Figure 19-Star topology

 Application
o Corporate Networks: Commonly used in corporate environments
where centralized management and control are essential.
o Home Networks: Widely used in home networking setups where a
router acts as the central hub.
o Wireless Networks: Often used in wireless networks (Wi-Fi) where
all devices connect to a central access point.
o Commonly used in home and office networks where centralized
control is preferred.
 Advantages
o If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
o Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore
the total number of ports required is N.
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o It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than
that.
o Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
o Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

 Disadvantages
o If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
o The cost of installation is high.
o Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

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3. Ring topology:
 Description
o In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices.
o A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number
of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node
in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
o Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be
made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
o In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the
workstations to transmit the data.
 Image

Figure 20-Ring Topology

 Application
o Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): Used in MANs to connect
different locations within a city.
o Telecommunications Networks: Employed in the backbone of
telecommunications networks to ensure data is delivered reliably.
o Token Ring Networks: Historically used in IBM’s Token Ring
networks for office environments.

 Advantages
o The data transmission is high-speed.
o The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
o Cheap to install and expand.
o It is less costly than a star topology.

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 Disadvantages
o The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire
network to fail.
o Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
o The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can
disturb the whole topology.
o Less secure.

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4. Mesh topology:
 Description
o In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel.
o In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
o In mesh, all the computers are interconnected to every other during a
network.
o Each computer not only sends its own signals but also relays data from
other computers.
o The nodes are connected to every other completely via a dedicated
link during which information is travel from nodes to nodes and there
are N(N-1)/2 links in mesh if there are N nodes.
o Every node features a point-to-point connection to the opposite node.
The connections within the mesh are often wired or wireless.
o There are two types of Mesh topologies –
 Fully-connected Mesh Topology
 Partially-connected Mesh Topology

 Image

Figure 21-mesh topology

 Application
o Military Communication Networks: Used in military networks where
reliability and redundancy are critical.
o Smart Grids: Deployed in smart grid technologies to ensure
uninterrupted communication between devices.
o Wireless Mesh Networks: Used in modern wireless mesh networks for
urban and rural broadband connectivity.

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 Advantages
o Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
o There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links
for every computer.
o Fault identification is straightforward.
o This topology provides multiple paths to succeed in the destination
and tons of redundancy.
o It provides high privacy and security.
o Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t disrupt
its processes.
o Adding new devices won’t disrupt data transmissions.
o This topology has robust features to beat any situation.
o A mesh doesn’t have a centralized authority.

 Disadvantages
o It’s costly as compared to the opposite network topologies i.e. star,
bus, point to point topology.
o Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
o Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain
active all the time and share the load.
o Complex process.
o The cost to implement mesh is above other selections.
o There is a high risk of redundant connections.
o Each node requires a further utility cost to think about.
o Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh.

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5. Tree topology:
 Description
o Tree Topology is a topology which is having a tree structure in which
all the computers are connected like the branches which are
connected with the tree.
o In Computer Network, tree topology is called a combination of a Bus
and Star network topology.
o The main advantages of this topology are that is very flexible and also
has better scalability.
o Tree network topology is considered to be the simplest topology in all
the topologies which is having only one route between any two nodes
on the network.
o The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all branches
spring from one root hence (Tree Topology).
o Tree topology is one of the most popular among the six network
topologies.
 Image

Figure 22-tree topology

 Application
o Campus Networks: Commonly used in large campus networks where
different buildings or sections are interconnected hierarchically.
o Wide Area Networks (WANs): Used in WANs to connect various
branch offices or locations in a hierarchical manner.
o Telecommunications Networks: Suitable for organizing complex
telecommunications networks into a structured hierarchy.

 Advantages
o This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
o This topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data
arrangement of the nodes.

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o As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain,
this topology provides high scalability.
o The other nodes in a network are not affected if one of their nodes gets
damaged or does not work.
o Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification
can be done.
o A callable topology. Leaf nodes can hold more nodes.
o Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
o Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
o Tree Topology is highly secure.
o It is used in WAN.
o Tree Topology is reliable.

 Disadvantages
o This network is very difficult to configure as compared to the other
network topologies.
o The length of a segment is limited & the limit of the segment depends
on the type of cabling used.
o Due to the presence of a large number of nodes, the network
performance of tree topology becomes a bit slow.
o If the computer on the first level is erroneous, the next-level computer
will also go under problems.
o Requires a large number of cables compared to star and ring topology.
o As the data needs to travel from the central cable this creates dense
network traffic.
o The Backbone appears as the failure point of the entire segment of the
network.
o Treatment of the topology is pretty complex.
o The establishment cost increases as well.
o If the bulk of nodes is added to this network, then the maintenance
will become complicated.

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6. Hybrid topology:
 Description
o This topological technology is the combination of all the various types
of topologies we have studied above.
o Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
o It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can
be a combination of various types of topologies seen above.
o Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.
o Types of Hybrid Topology
 Star-Ring Hybrid Topology
 Star-Bus Hybrid Topology
 Hierarchical Network Topology

 Image

Figure 23-hybrid topology

 Application
o Data Centers: Often used in data centers where different departments
or services require different types of connectivity.
o Large Enterprises: Ideal for large enterprises with diverse
networking needs across different departments.
o Industrial Networks: Used in industrial networks where a mix of
wired and wireless technologies might be integrated.
o Hybrid Topology helps in keeping the full diversity of the computer
network.
o Hybrid Topology is helpful when we require more than one topology
in the system.

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o Hybrid Topology helps in reducing the cost of the overall system.
o Hybrid Topology helps in easily running the system.
o Hybrid Topology is widely used in educational institutes, research
organizations, finance sectors, etc.

 Advantages
o This type of topology combines the benefits of different types of
topologies in one topology.
o Can be modified as per requirement.
o It is extremely flexible.
o It is very reliable.
o It is easily scalable as Hybrid networks are built in a fashion which
enables easy integration of new hardware components.
o Error detecting and troubleshooting are easy.
o Handles a large volume of traffic.
o It is used to create large networks.
o The speed of the topology becomes fast when two topologies are put
together.

 Disadvantages
o It is a type of network expensive.
o The design of a hybrid network is very complex.
o There is a change in the hardware to connect one topology with
another topology.
o Usually, hybrid architectures are larger in scale so they require a lot of
cables in the installation process.
o Hubs which are used to connect two distinct networks are very costly.
And hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent
enough to work with different architectures.
o Installation is a difficult process.

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Practical-6: Study of basic network command and Network

configuration commands.
1. whoami :
 The whoami command is a simple yet useful command-line utility available in
many operating systems, including unix, Linux, and Windows. Here’s a brief
description of its purpose and functionality
 Description of whoami:
o Purpose: The whoami command is used to display the username of
the currently logged-in user in the command line or terminal session.
It outputs the effective user ID related to the environment in which the
command is run.
o Functionality: When you execute whoami, the command retrieves the
username associated with the active session. This is particularly
helpful for verifying which user account you are operating under,
especially in environments where multiple users or different privilege
levels are involved.

2. hostname :
 The hostname command is a simple yet powerful tool for managing the
identification of computers in a network environment, facilitating easier
administration and networking tasks.
 Changes made using the hostname command may not persist after a
reboot unless configured in the system's network configuration files (such
as /etc/hostname on many Linux distributions).
 The hostname is important for network communication, making it easier
to reference and reach devices within a network.

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3. ipconfig :
 The ipconfig command is a command-line utility in Microsoft Windows that
allows users to view and manage network configuration settings for their
devices. Here’s an overview of how to use the ipconfig command and its
various options:
 Diagnosing Network Issues: The ipconfig command helps troubleshoot
problems related to IP addressing, conflicts, and network connectivity.
 Reconfiguring Network Settings: Use the release and renew options to reset
your IP address, especially useful in environments with DHCP.

4. ipconfig/all :
 The ipconfig /all command is a command-line utility in Windows operating
systems that provides detailed information about the network configurations
of all network interfaces on the system. When you run this command in the
Command Prompt, it displays a comprehensive list of network settings for
each active and inactive network adapter.
 Here are some of the key pieces of information you can expect to see when
you run ipconfig /all:
 Host Name: The name of the computer on the network.
 Primary DNS Suffix: The domain name suffix associated with the hostname. If
the computer is part of a domain, this will typically reflect that.
 Node Type: Defines how the system resolves names (e.g., Broadcast, Peer-
Peer, Mixed).
 IP Routing Enabled: Indicates whether IP routing is enabled on the computer
(usually shows "No").

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 WINS Proxy Enabled: Status of the Windows Internet Name Service (WINS)
proxy (usually shows "No").
 Network Adapter Information: For each network adapter, you'll typically find:
 Description: The name of the network adapter.
 Physical (MAC) Address: The hardware address of the adapter.
 DHCP Enabled: Indicates if the system is using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol to obtain an IP address.
 Autoconfiguration Enabled: Indicates if automatic configuration for IP
addressing is enabled.
 IPv4 Address: The IP address assigned to the adapter (e.g., 192.168.1.10).
 Subnet Mask: The subnet mask associated with the IPv4 address (e.g.,
255.255.255.0).
 Default Gateway: The IP address of the gateway used for routing traffic
outside the local network.
 DHCP Server: The IP address of the DHCP server that assigned the IP address.
 DNS Servers: The IP addresses of the DNS servers used for name resolution.
 IPv6 Address: Any assigned IPv6 address for the adapter, if applicable.
 Media State: Indicates whether the network adapter is connected or
disconnected.

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5. ping <hostname or ip add> :
 The command ping <hostname or IP address> is a network utility used to test
the reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. It helps to
determine whether a specific IP address is accessible and how long it takes
for data to travel to that address and back.
 Success: If you receive responses from the target, it indicates the host is
reachable.
 Failure: If there is 100% packet loss or timeout, it may indicate the host is
unreachable, network configuration issues, or firewall restrictions.

6. ping –t :
 The ping command is a network utility used to test the reachability of a host
on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. It calculates the round-trip time for
messages sent from the originating host to a destination computer and back,
helping to diagnose network connectivity issues.
 In many operating systems, you can use the -t option with the ping command
to continuously send ping requests to a specified host until the command is
manually stopped. This is particularly useful for monitoring network stability
over time.
 Using ping -t is a straightforward way to monitor the stability and
responsiveness of a network connection over time. Make sure to use it
thoughtfully, especially in environments where continuous network traffic
might be a concern.

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7. netstat –a :
 netstat is a command-line tool available on various operating systems
(including Windows, Linux, and macOS) that provides network-related
information about the system. The -a (or --all) option is used to display all
active connections and listening ports.

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 Network Troubleshooting: Identifying which ports are open and what
services are listening on them can help diagnose connectivity issues.
 Security: Monitoring active connections can help detect unauthorized access.
 Performance Monitoring: Understanding connection states can help
troubleshoot performance bottlenecks in networking.

8. netstat –r :
 The netstat -r command is a network utility that is used to display the routing
table of a computer. The routing table shows the paths (routes) that network
packets take to reach their destination, and it contains information about how
data is routed within a network and across different networks.
 While netstat is still used, many modern Linux distributions have started to
favor the ip route show command from the iproute2 suite as a more versatile
and powerful alternative to netstat.

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 In summary, netstat -r provides valuable insights into how a system routes

network traffic, making it an important tool for network administrators and
troubleshooting tasks.

9. nslookup :
 nslookup is the name of a program that lets users enter a host name and find
out the corresponding IP address or domain name system (DNS) record.
Users can also enter a command in nslookup to do a reverse DNS lookup and
find the host name for a specified IP address.

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10. tracert:
 Description: Traces the path that packets take to reach a network host.
 Function: Identifies the route taken by packets across an IP network and
helps diagnose routing issues.
 Example: tracert microsoft.com shows the path packets take to reach
Microsoft’s server.

11. arp:
 Description: Displays and modifies the IP-to-Physical address translation
tables used by the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
 Function: Useful for viewing and managing the ARP cache, which maps IP
addresses to MAC addresses.
 Example: arp -a shows the ARP table entries.

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12. route:
 Description: Displays and modifies the IP routing table.
 Function: Helps manage and troubleshoot routing issues by viewing and
modifying the routing table.
 Example: route print displays the current routing table.

13. getmac:
 Description: Displays the MAC address for network adapters on a system.

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 Function: Useful for identifying the physical address of network interfaces.
 Example: getmac lists the MAC addresses of all network adapters.

14. pathping:
 Description: Combines the functionality of ping and tracert to identify
network latency and packet loss.
 Function: Provides detailed information about network performance and
helps diagnose network issues.
 Example: pathping example.com shows the path and performance metrics to
the destination.

15. ftp:
 Description: Transfers files to and from a remote network.
 Function: Used for uploading and downloading files between a client and a
server.
 Example: ftp example.com starts an FTP session with the specified server.

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Practical-7: Study about network tool : Wireshark

 Wireshark:
Wireshark is a widely-used open-source network protocol analyzer. It allows
you to capture and interactively browse traffic running on a computer network.
Wireshark is often used for network troubleshooting, performance analysis, software
and protocol development, and security auditing. It’s considered a valuable tool for
anyone working in the fields of networking or cybersecurity.

 Description:
Wireshark captures data packets flowing through a network interface (such as
Ethernet or Wi-Fi) in real-time, displaying them in a readable format. The captured
data is organized according to different network protocols, allowing you to dissect and
analyze the packet flow, troubleshoot issues, and understand how data travels across a
network.

 Functions of Wireshark:
1. Packet Capture: Wireshark collects live data from a network and displays
it in real-time. It supports various interfaces (Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
etc.) and allows packet capture in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks.

2. Deep Packet Inspection: Wireshark allows you to inspect the contents of

each packet in detail, breaking them down by protocol layers (physical,
network, transport, and application layers). You can analyze headers,
payloads, and more.

3. Packet Filtering: With Wireshark, you can use display filters to search for
specific types of traffic or packets of interest (e.g., HTTP, DNS, TCP, etc.).
This makes it easier to isolate specific communications.

4. Protocol Analysis: It supports hundreds of protocols and displays

captured data in a format that is specific to the protocol being used,
helping you to understand how a particular protocol operates in detail.

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5. Data Export and Reporting: Wireshark allows exporting captured data to
various formats (PCAP, XML, CSV) for further analysis or sharing with
others.

6. Traffic Decryption: It can decrypt various protocols (such as SSL/TLS) if

the necessary keys are available, allowing deeper analysis of encrypted
traffic.

 Features of Wireshark:
1. Cross-Platform Support: Wireshark runs on various operating systems,
including Windows, macOS, and Linux, making it accessible to a wide
range of users.

2. Color Coding: Wireshark provides customizable color rules for packets,

allowing users to differentiate between different protocols or packet
types more easily.

3. Detailed Graphs and Statistics: Wireshark can create visualizations like

flow graphs, conversation lists, and protocol hierarchies, which provide
insight into network behavior and performance.

4. Capture Filters: While packet capture filters allow you to control which
packets are captured (for example, capturing only HTTP traffic),
Wireshark also provides capture filters for more efficient data collection.

5. Live and Offline Analysis: Wireshark can capture live traffic or analyze
previously saved packet captures. This is useful for diagnosing network
issues in real-time or reviewing historical traffic data.

6. VoIP Analysis: It includes built-in tools to analyze VoIP calls, including

protocols like SIP and RTP, making it ideal for troubleshooting issues in
voice communication over IP networks.

7. Extensive Protocol Support: Wireshark supports hundreds of protocols,

ranging from popular ones like HTTP, TCP, and DNS, to lesser-known and
proprietary protocols. It is constantly updated with support for new
protocols.

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8. Customizable Workspaces: Wireshark’s interface allows customization
of filters, layouts, and views to tailor the analysis experience based on the
user’s needs.

 Use Cases of Wireshark:

o Network Troubleshooting: Identify and diagnose problems in a network, such
as slow speeds, packet loss, or unexpected behavior.
o Security Auditing: Monitor network traffic for signs of security breaches,
suspicious activity, or vulnerabilities.
o Protocol Development: Developers can analyze how new or experimental
protocols behave within a network environment.
o Performance Monitoring: Analyze network traffic patterns to optimize
performance, detect bottlenecks, or determine areas for improvement.
o Learning and Education: Wireshark is a fantastic tool for students and
professionals to learn more about networking protocols by observing real-
world network traffic.

Image:

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Practical-8: Study about network tool : Cisco Packet Tracer.

 Cisco Packet Tracer:
Cisco Packet Tracer is a powerful network simulation and visualization
tool developed by Cisco Systems. It allows users to create network topologies and
simulate the behavior of network devices without the need for physical hardware.
Packet Tracer is widely used in educational environments and for training
purposes, particularly in Cisco's Networking Academy courses.

 Description:
Cisco Packet Tracer provides a graphical user interface (GUI) where users
can drag and drop devices such as routers, switches, and end devices (PCs, servers,
etc.) to create a virtual network environment. Users can configure these devices
using command-line interface (CLI) commands, simulating real-world networking
scenarios. The tool helps users learn and practice networking concepts, making it
an essential resource for students and aspiring network professionals.

 Functions of Cisco Packet Tracer:

1. Network Design and Simulation: Users can design complex network
topologies using a variety of devices and simulate their interactions. This
allows for testing different configurations and scenarios without physical
equipment.

2. Device Configuration: Packet Tracer allows users to configure network

devices via CLI or GUI. Users can set up routing protocols, access control
lists, VLANs, and other configurations just as they would on actual devices.

3. Traffic Simulation: Users can generate traffic to test the performance and
behavior of the network under different conditions, helping to identify
potential issues and optimize configurations.

4. Multi-user Collaboration: Cisco Packet Tracer supports a collaborative

environment where multiple users can work on a single project
simultaneously, allowing for group learning and collaboration.

5. Visual Representation: The tool offers visual aids, such as network

diagrams and device statuses, to help users understand how data flows
through the network and how devices are connected.

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 Features of Cisco Packet Tracer:
1. Device Library: Packet Tracer includes a vast library of network devices,
including routers, switches, firewalls, and various end devices, enabling
users to create diverse network configurations.

2. Simulation Modes: It has different modes, including Real-time and

Simulation mode. In Real-time mode, users interact with devices as they
would in a live network, while Simulation mode allows step-by-step packet
analysis and troubleshooting.

3. Integrated Learning Activities: Cisco Packet Tracer includes built-in

tutorials and activities, providing guided learning experiences and
practical exercises for users to enhance their networking skills.

4. Support for Multiple Protocols: Users can simulate a variety of

networking protocols, including routing protocols (RIP, OSPF, EIGRP),
switching protocols (STP, VTP), and more.

5. Comprehensive Reports and Feedback: After completing tasks, users

can generate reports to evaluate their performance and get feedback on
their configurations and troubleshooting efforts.

6. IoT Simulation: The latest versions of Packet Tracer support Internet of

Things (IoT) simulations, allowing users to create and configure IoT
devices and explore their interactions within a network.

7. Cross-Platform Compatibility: Cisco Packet Tracer is available for various

operating systems, including Windows, macOS, and Linux, making it
accessible to a wide audience.

 Use Cases of Cisco Packet Tracer:

o Networking Education: Widely used in Cisco Networking Academy programs,
Packet Tracer is a valuable tool for students learning networking concepts and
preparing for certification exams like CCNA.
o Training and Certification: IT professionals can use Packet Tracer to practice
for Cisco certification exams, honing their skills in a simulated environment.
o Network Design and Planning: Network engineers and architects can use the
tool to design and plan networks, testing configurations before deploying them
in real-world scenarios.
o Troubleshooting Practice: Users can simulate common networking issues and
practice troubleshooting techniques, preparing them for real-life challenges.

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 Image:

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