Transistors

Devises which can produce higher power output signal than input signal are called active
devices. Transistor is one of the most popular active devises, which perform this process by
transferring a signal form low resistance to high resistance. Then the name transistor is derived
from transfer resistor.

The two basic families of transistors

1. Unipolar transistor of Field Effect transistors (FET).

Only majority carriers are current carriers in this type of transistor.
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Both majority carriers and minority carriers are current carriers in this type of transistor.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The bipolar junction transistor is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated
by two p - n junctions. These three regions are called as emitter, base, collector. These three
regions are formed by sandwiching either p type or n type semiconductor between a pair of
opposite types. Accordingly there are two types of transistors.

Fabrication of BJT

A conventional bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is made up from a triple sandwich of alternating
p-type and n-type layers, which can be arranged in either p-n-p or n-p-n order, and there are
electrical connections to each layer. It is a current controlled device, with the collector or emitter
current as output, normally controlled by the base current, or sometimes the emitter current.

Four types are most popular

Ms. U.S/ Prof. P.R. 1 Electronics

 (i) Alloy junction
(ii) The grown – junction
(iii) Diffused – mesa
(iv) Planer transistor

The Alloy Junction Transistors

These created a pnp (or npn) junction in a single wafer of
one type of doped semiconductor by allowing a small
pellet of doping material, such as Indium which dopes to
p-type, to alloy with the semiconductor wafer on each side
of it. As the Indium atoms diffused in to the
semiconductor, they created a region of p-type
semiconductor on either side of the wafer, and between
them, the remaining n-type material formed the base of a
pnp transistor.

Biasing of a transistor

The two pn junctions of the transistor must correctly biased

with external voltage to operate properly. When the base
emitter (BE) junction is forward biased and base collector
junction (BC) is reversed biased, the transistor is said to
operate in the active region.

In npn transistors, electron flow is dominant while pnp transistors rely mostly on the flow of
“holes”. In practice, npn transistors are much more popular than pnp transistors because electrons
move faster in a semiconductor. As a result, a npn transistor has a faster response time compared
to a pnp transistor.

Action of a transistor
Let us consider a pnp transistor

 Forward bias between the base and emitter narrows the Base Emitter junction depletion
layer while reverse bias between base collector junction widest the base collector
depletion region.

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  Holes from the p type emitter region are injected into base region by the positive potential
of VBE.
 The base region is lightly doped and very narrow so that it has small number of electrons.
Therefore only a small fraction of injected holes recombine with electron in n – type base
region forming a small base current IB.
 The most of the injected holes are pulled across the BC junction by negative potential of
collector terminal and forming collector current IC.

Transistor Characteristics for common emitter configuration

Input characteristic

 An input characteristic of a transistor is similar

to forward characteristic of a diode.
 IB is negligible until VBE exceed about 0.6V
(for Si BJT) and thereafter small changes in
VBE cause large changes in IB
 In general, increasing|V CE|with constant VBE
cause a decrease in base width and results in a
decreasing a recombination base current.

Transfer Characteristics

It indicates how IC varies with changes in IB when

VCE is held constant at a given value. Its slope gives
∆I
β= C
∆ IB

IB

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Output Characteristic

Active region

Cut off region

Dc load line V CC =I C RC +V CE
−1 V
I C= V CE + CC
RC RC
Pmax =V CE I C +V BE I B
I C ≫ I B∧V CE >V BE
Pmax ≈ V CE I C

Operating point, Q = (IC, VCE)

The characteristics can be divides into three distinct regions

 Active Region
The base emitter junction of the transistor forward biased while the collector base junction is
reversed biased
|I B|,|I C|>0, |V CE|≥ a few tenths of a volt
A transistor when operated in the active region can be used to amplify signals.

 Cutoff region
The region below IB , IC ≈ 0 or |V BE|<0.6 V
In the cut off region both the base emitter junction and collector base junction are reversed
biased.

 Saturation Region
In the saturation region both the base emitter junction and collector base junction are
forward biased.
In these cut off and saturation region transistor can be used as a switch.

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Biasing
The operating point shifts with change in temperature T because the transistor parameters (β, I CO,
and VCE) are functions of T. A criterion is established for comparing the stability of different
biasing circuit. The transistor biasing may be defined as the proper flow of zero signal collector
current and the maintenance of collector emitter voltage during the passage of signal.

Stability factor
d IC
Stability factor S= at constant IB and constant β (Or α)
d I CO
Where I CO reverse saturation current
For common emitter configuration I C =α I E + I CO
0.9< α <1
I C ≫ I CO
I C =α ( I C + I B ) + I CO
α 1
I C= I B+ I
1−α 1−α CO

I C =β I B + ( β+1 ) I CO
α
Where β=
1−α
d IC β+1
S= =
d I CO dIB
1−β
( )d IC

Fixed bias or Base bias

V CC −V BE
I B= , I B is ¿
RB
( V CC −V BE )
I C =β
RB
The operating point might be unstable as operating collector
current; IC is proportional to β which is a strong function of
temperature.
Or stability factor
d IC β+1
S= = =β +1 ,if β =99 , thus S=100
d I CO dIB
1−β
( )d IC
This circuit is not stable.

Biasing with feedback resistor

V CC =( I C + I B ) R C + I B R B +V BE
V −V BE−I C R C
R B= CC
IB
V −V BE−βI B RC
R B= CC
IB
Alternatively
V CE =V BE+ V CB

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 V CB V CE −V BE I
R B= = , where I B = C
IB IB β

It can be shown mathematically that stability factor S for this method of biasing less than (1+β)
i.e. Stability factor, S < (β+1) therefore this method provides better thermal stability than the
fixed bias.

Potential divider bias

According to Thevenin equivalent circuit between A and B,

V CC R2 R 1 R2
=I B +V BE
R 1+ R 2 R1 + R 2
V CC R2

I C =β
[ R1 + R2
−V BE
]
R 1 R2
[ R 1 + R2 ]
The operating collector current is still proportional to β, and circuit might be too unstable.

Self bias

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V CC R2 R 1 R2
=I B +V BE + ( I B + β I B ) R E
R 1+ R 2 R1 + R 2

V CC R 2

I C =β
[ R 1+ R 2
−V BE
]
R 1 R2
[ R1 + R2 ]
+ ( 1+ β ) R E

IC has β in both the numerator and dominator. If R E, R1 and R2are chosen such that
R R
( 1+ β ) R E ≫ 1 2 , then the dependence of IC on β almost disappears. If any increase in
R 1 + R2
I C ↑ ⇒ I E R E ↑⇒ I B R B ↓ ⇒ I B ↓ ⇒ I C ↓ causes to decreases I C. Thus, any increases in operating
collector current IC is compensated and the stability factor, S≈1.
V CC R2
=I R +V + ( I + I ) R
R 1+ R 2 B Th BE B C E
V CC R2

I B=
[
R1 + R2
−I C RE
] dI
⟹ B=
−R E
RTh + R E d I C RTh + R E
I C =β I B + (1+ β ) I CO
RTh

S=
β +1
=
β +1
=
(
( β+ 1 ) 1+
RE )
d IB RE R Th
1− β
d IC ( )
1+ β
RTh + R E( ) 1+ β +
RE
(i) If R E ( 1+ β ) ≫ RTh, S would be a constant.
R1 R2
(ii) If > R E, power lose due to current flows through base resistor would be smaller.
R 1+ R 2
In amplifier design, we should select bias resistor R1 and R2 to compromise these two
requirement and allow large current (say 10 IB) through R2 compared to IB to keep VE is
large (1 to 2 V) compared to ΔVBE (change in VBE) due to temperature rise.

Amplifiers

Transistors are frequently used as amplifiers. Some transistor circuits are current amplifiers, with
a small load resistance; other circuits are designed for voltage amplification and have a high load
resistance; others amplify power.

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Generally amplifiers can be divided into three categories.
 Voltage amplifier
 Current amplifier
 Power amplifier

Common Emitter Amplifier

When the positive half cycle of the signal is applied,

forward bias is increased (VBE is already positive
with respect to the ground)  IBICICRCVout
180° phase change between input and output.
V CC =V out + I C RC ⟹ V out =V CC −I C RC

Common Base Amplifier

Circuit operation
When the positive half cycle of the signal
is applied, forward bias is decreased (VBE
is already negative with respect to the
ground) IBIC ICRCVCB No
phase change between input and output.
V CC =V CB + I C RC ⟹ V CB =V CC −I C RC

Common Collector Amplifier (Voltage Follower)

When the positive half cycle of the

signal is applied, forward bias is
increased (VBE is already positive with
respect to the ground)
IBIEIERENo phase change
between input and output.

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Common emitter amplifier

To draw the ac equivalent circuit of the above

amplifier,

(i) Short circuit all capacitors

(ii) Short circuit all dc voltage source
(iii) Replace the transistor by an ac equivalent
circuit.

Ac equivalent circuit becomes

R1 R 2 RC RE
R B= , Z L=
R1 + R 2 RC+ RE

For high value of RB, the effect of RB can be negligible in parallel, compared with hie.

1. Overall voltage gain of common emitter amplifier.

vo vo v ¿ v
A vs= = × = Av × ¿
vs v¿ v s vs

( Z Z+ r )
v ¿=v s
¿
¿

A =Avs
( Z Z+r )
v
¿
¿

V¿ h h R
Z¿ = =h i− r f L
i¿ 1+ ho R L

h r hf R L
Z¿ =h i−
1+ ho R L

Ai
A v= R
Z¿ L
January 2021 9 Electronics
 −hf
Ai =
1+h o R L

Common collector amplifier (Emitter follower)

RL

The ac equivalent circuit

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 We can neglect the voltage hre compared with hie ib and neglect the effect of hoe and RB in the ac
equivalent circuit.

(i). The current gain of the emitter follower

i L ( 1+ hfe ) i b
Ai = = =( 1+h fe )
i¿ ib

(ii). The input impedance

v ¿ ( 1+ hfe ) i b Z L +hie i b
Z¿ = = =( 1+h fe ) Z L +hie
i¿ ib

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Characteristic of the transistor rri
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Performance of the Common Emitter Common Collector s -Common Base
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January 2021 11 rit Electronics
y
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 er
s -
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les because it provides
This mode is suitable for voltage, current and power amplifications,
current and voltage gain. The CE amplifier stage introduces a phase reversal between input
and output signals (current and voltage)
Common collector mode
The CC amplifier is used as an impedance matching device or buffer stage between a high
impedance source and low impedance load with almost unity power gain.
Common base mode
This mode finds applications in matching low impedance source and high impedance load and
also in voltage amplification.

January 2021 12 Electronics