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Aristotle’s classification It included the unicellular and the multicellular organisms

- Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis in same group. E.g. Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were
for classification of organisms. placed under algae.
- He classified plants to trees, shrubs & herbs and animals It did not differentiate between the heterotrophic fungi
into 2 groups- those with red blood &without red blood. and the autotrophic green plants. Fungi have chitinous
Linnaeus’s Two-kingdom classification cell wall while the green plants have cellulosic cell wall.
- Linnaeus (1758) classified organisms into Two Five Kingdom Classification
Kingdoms- Kingdom Plantae & Kingdom Animalia.
- It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).
Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification: - It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.
Prokaryotes (Bacteria, cyanobacteria) and eukaryotes - This is based on cell structure, thallus organization,
(fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms & angiosperms) were mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic
included under ‘Plants’ based on the presence of cell wall. relationships.system: It divides Kingdom Monera into two domain
Three-domain
But they are widely differed in other characteristics.

Characteristics of the five kingdoms

Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Non-cellulosic (poly- Present (Chitin & Present
Cell wall Present in some Absent
saccharide + amino acid) polysaccharides) (Cellulose)
Nuclear membrane Absent Present Present Present Present
Multicellular, Tissue/organ/
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic (photosynthetic
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
& chemosynthetic) and Autotrophic
Mode of nutrition (photosynthetic) (saprophytic or (holozoic,
heterotrophic (photosynthetic)
and heterotrophic parasitic) saprophytic etc.)
(saprophyte/parasite)

1. KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

- Bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms. II. Eubacteria (‘true bacteria’)
- Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.
- They have a rigid cell wall and a flagellum (if motile).
- They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs,
- They include Autotrophs (photosynthetic and
deserts, snow & deep oceans. Many are parasites.
chemosynthetic) and Heterotrophs.
- Based on shape, bacteria are 4 types: Coccus (Spherical),
Bacillus (Rod-shaped), Vibrium (Comma-shaped) & a. Photosynthetic autotrophs (E.g. Cyanobacteria):
Spirillum (Spiral). - They have chlorophyll a similar to green plants.
- Cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae) are unicellular,
colonial or filamentous,
marine or terrestrial algae.
- The colonies are generally
surrounded by gelatinous
- Some bacteria are autotrophic (synthesize food from
sheath.
inorganic substrates). Majority are heterotrophs (they do
- They often form blooms in
not synthesize food but depend on other organisms or on
polluted water bodies.
dead organic matter for food).
- Some of them fix
I. Archaebacteria atmospheric nitrogen in
- They live in harshest habitats such as extreme salty areas specialized cells (heterocysts). E.g., Nostoc & Anabaena.
(halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and b. Chemosynthetic autotrophs:
marshy areas (methanogens). - They oxidize inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites
- Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for their & ammonia and use the released energy for ATP
survival in extreme conditions. production.
- Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant animals - They help in recycling nutrients like nitrogen,
(cows, buffaloes etc). They produce methane (biogas) phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
from the dung of these animals. c. Heterotrophic bacteria:

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- They are the most abundant in nature.

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- The majority are important decomposers. - Some fungi are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
Impacts of Heterotrophic bacteria on human affairs:
 They are used to make curd from milk.
 Production of antibiotics.
 Fixing nitrogen in legume roots etc.
 Some are pathogens causing diseases. E.g.
Cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker.
Reproduction in Bacteria:
 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.
 Under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.

2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
- It includes single-celled eukaryotes.
- The cell contains a well-defined nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or
cilia.
- Protists are primarily aquatic.
- It is a link with plants, animals and fungi.
- They reproduce asexually and sexually (cell fusion
and zygote formation).
- Protista includes Chrysophytes, Dianoflagellates,
Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans.

I. Chrysophytes
- Found in fresh water and marine environments.
- Microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
- Most of them are photosynthetic.
- It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).
- Diatoms: They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin
overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap box.
The cell wall deposit of diatoms over billions of years in
their habitat is known as ‘diatomaceous earth’. This is
used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
- Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
II. Dinoflagellates
- Mostly marine and photosynthetic.
- They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red based on
the main pigments present in their cells.
- The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
- Most of them have 2 flagella; one lies longitudinally and
the other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
- Red dinoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax) undergo rapid
multiplication so that the sea appears red (red tides). They
release toxins that kill marine animals like fishes.
III. Euglenoids
- Mainly fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
- Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called
pellicle. It makes their body flexible.

3. KINGDOM FUNGI
- It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.
- Fungi are cosmopolitan.
- They grow in warm and humid places.
- E.g. mould on bread & rotten fruits, mushroom, toadstools.
- White spots on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.

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 They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction
(DNA transfer from one bacterium to other).

Mycoplasmas are organisms without a cell wall. They are

the smallest living cells. They can survive without
- They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
oxygen. Many are pathogenic in animals and plants.
- They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight. In
the absence of sunlight, they behave like heterotrophs by
predating on smaller organisms.
- The pigments are identical to those in higher plants.
- E.g. Euglena.
IV. Slime Moulds
- They are saprophytic protists.
- The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves
engulfing organic material.
- Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called
plasmodium. It may spread over several feet.
- Under unfavourable conditions, plasmodium
differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at
their tips. Spores have true walls. They are highly
resistant and survive for many years. Spores are dispersed
by air.
V. Protozoans
They are heterotrophs (predators or
parasites). They are the primitive relatives of
animals.
There are 4 major groups of protozoans:
o Amoeboid protozoans: They live in fresh water, sea
water or moist soil. They move and capture prey by
putting out pseudopodia (false feet). E.g. Amoeba.
Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of
them are parasites. E.g. Entamoeba.
o Flagellated protozoans: They are free-living or
parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause
diseases like sleeping sickness. E.g. Trypanosoma.
o Ciliated protozoans: They are aquatic, actively moving
organisms using thousands of cilia. They have a cavity
(gullet) that opens to outside. By the movement of cilia,
the water with food enters gullet. E.g. Paramoecium.
o Sporozoans: They have an infectious spore-like stage in
their life cycle. E.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite).

- Some unicellular fungi (e.g. yeast) are used to make

bread and beer.
- Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals.
E.g. wheat rust-causing Puccinia.
- Except yeasts, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies
consist of thread-like structures called hyphae.

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- The network of hyphae is known as mycelium. - E.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould) and Albugo (parasitic
- Hyphae are 2 types: fungi on mustard).
o Coenocytic hyphae: They are continuous tubes filled
with multinucleated cytoplasm. II. Ascomycetes (sac-fungi)
o Septate hyphae: They have septae or cross walls. - They are unicellular (e.g., yeast, Sacharomyces) or
- Fungal cell wall is made of chitin & polysaccharides. multicellular (e.g., Penicillium).
- Most fungi are saprophytes (absorb soluble organic - Mycelium is branched and septate.
matter from dead substrates). Some are parasites. - They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or
- Some live as symbionts. E.g. Lichens (fungi+ algae), coprophilous (growing on dung).
mycorrhiza (fungi + roots of higher plants). - Asexual reproduction: By conidia produced
Reproduction: exogenously on the special mycelium called
conidiophores. Conidia germinate to produce mycelium.
 Vegetative propagation: By fragmentation, fission &
budding. - Sexual reproduction: By ascospores produced
 Asexual reproduction: By spores such as conidia, endogenously in sac like asci (sing. ascus). The asci are
sporangiospores and zoospores. arranged to form fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
 Sexual reproduction: By oospores, ascospores and - E.g. Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora.
basidiospores. They are produced in distinct structures - Neurospora is used in biochemical and genetic work.
called fruiting bodies. - Morels & truffles are edible.
- The sexual cycle involves 3 steps: III. Basidiomycetes
a. Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasm between two - Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
motile or non-motile gametes. - They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living
b. Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei. plant bodies as parasites (e.g. rusts and smuts).
c. Meiosis in zygote to give haploid spores. - The mycelium is branched and septate.
- When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae - The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative
of compatible mating types come together and fuse. reproduction by fragmentation is common.
- In some fungi, the fusion of two haploid cells immediately - The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy occurs by
results in diploid cells (2n). fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different
- In ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, a dikaryotic stage or strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic
dikaryophase (n + n i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs. Such which gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis
a condition is called a dikaryon. Later, parental nuclei take place in basidium producing four basidiospores
fuse and the cells become diploid. exogenously. Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies
- The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division (basidiocarps).
occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores. - E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia
(rust fungus).
Based on morphology of mycelium, mode of spore
formation & fruiting bodies, Fungi are classified into IV. Deuteromycetes
different classes: - Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only their
1. Phycomycetes 2. Ascomycetes asexual or vegetative phases are known.
3. Basidiomycetes 4. Deuteromycetes - When perfect (sexual) stages were discovered, they were
I. Phycomycetes (Lower Fungi) often moved to ascomycetes or basidiomycetes.
- It is also possible that asexual and vegetative stage have
- They occur in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in
been given one name placing under deuteromycetes and
moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants.
the sexual stage another name placing under another
- The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
class. When the linkages were established, the fungi were
- Asexual reproduction: By motile zoospores or by non-
correctly identified and moved out of deuteromycetes.
motile aplanospores. These are produced in sporangium.
- They reproduce only by asexual spores (conidia).
- Sexual reproduction: Zygospores are formed by fusion
- The mycelium is septate and branched.
of two gametes. These gametes are isogamous (similar in
- Some are saprophytes or parasites. Majority are
morphology) or anisogamous or oogamous (dissimilar).
decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
- E.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

4. KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANT KINGDOM)

- Plants are eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms gymnosperms and angiosperms.
with cellulosic cell wall.
- Some are partial heterotrophs (e.g. insectivorous plants like
bladderwort & Venus flytrap) or parasites (e.g. Cuscuta).
- Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes,
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- Life cycle of plants has 2 phases: Diploid sporophytic
& haploid gametophytic. These phases alternate with
each other. This is called alternation of generation.
- Among different plant groups, length of the haploid &
diploid phases is varied. Also, these phases are free
living or dependent on others.

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5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMAL KINGDOM)

- Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotic - They have a definite growth pattern and grow into adults
organisms without cell wall. that have a definite shape and size.
- They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. - Higher forms show sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
- They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food - Most of them are capable of locomotion.
reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition is - The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and
holozoic (by ingestion of food). female followed by embryological development.

VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND

- In the five-kingdom classification, acellular organisms
(viruses, viroids & prions) and lichens are not
mentioned.
- Viruses are non-cellular and not truly ‘living’. So they are
not included in five-kingdom classification.
- Viruses have an inert crystalline structure outside the
living cell.
- Viruses are obligate parasites.
- When they infect a cell, they take over the machinery of
the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
- Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes,
- Louis Pasteur gave the name virus (means venom or
influenza & AIDS. In plants, the symptoms can be
poisonous fluid).
mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and
- D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) discovered virus. He recognized vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
certain microbes that cause mosaic disease of tobacco.
- Viroid: It is an infectious agent with a free low molecular
They were smaller than bacteria because they passed
weight RNA and no protein coat. These are smaller than
through bacteria-proof filters.
viruses. It is discovered by T.O. Diener (1971). He found
- M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of that it caused potato spindle tuber disease.
the infected tobacco plants cause infection in healthy
- Prions: These are abnormally folded protein that cause
plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum
some infectious neurological diseases. These are similar in
(infectious living fluid).
size to viruses. They cause bovine spongiform
- W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be
encephalopathy (BSE) or mad cow disease in cattle and
crystallized and crystals consist largely of proteins.
its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
- A virus is a nucleoprotein, i.e., it has a protein coat
(capsid) & genetic material (RNA or DNA). LICHENS
- The genetic material is infectious. - Lichens are symbiotic associations (mutually
- No virus contains both RNA & DNA. useful associations) between algae & fungi.
- Generally, plant viruses have single stranded RNA. - The algal component is called phycobiont (autotrophic)
Animal viruses have either single or double stranded and fungal component is mycobiont (heterotrophic).
RNA or double stranded DNA. Bacteriophages (viruses - Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and
that infect bacteria) usually have double stranded DNA. absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
- The capsid made of small subunits (capsomeres) protects - Lichens are very good pollution indicators. They do not
nucleic acid. Capsomeres are arranged in helical or grow in polluted areas.
polyhedral geometric forms.

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Based on the relationship, fill in the blanks.
a) Sac fungi: Ascomycetes Imperfect fungi: ................................
b) Ciliated Protozoans: Paramecium Flagellated Protozoans: ................................
c) Spherical shaped bacteria: …………… Rod shaped bacteria: Bacillus
2. Louis Pasteur named virus which means venom or poisonous fluid.
a. Who crystallized virus for the first time? b. Name one plant disease caused by virus.
3. Arrange the organisms given in brackets under two categories, prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
(Rhizopus, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Nostoc, Bacteria, Yeast, Paramecium, Mycoplasma, Anabaena)
4. Select the odd man. Justify your answer.
a) Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Mycoplasma, Euglenoids b) Oscillatoria, Spirulina, Ascomycete, Nostoc
c) Oospores, ascospores, zoospores, basidiospores
5. Differentiate between ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.

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6. Viruses are not included in five-kingdom classification. Why?