THE AMAATRA ACADEMY

PHYSICS LAB MANNUAL

GRADE 11

Experiment-1(a)
Aim :Use of Vernier Calliper to measure the diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body.

Apparatus/ Materials Required:A spherical body such as a pendulum bob,Vernier

Calliper,Magnifying Glass

Theory:A vernier scale or a vernier calliper is a measuring device that is used to precisely measure
linear dimensions. It is a useful tool to measure spherical and cylindrical objects. It has two main
scales known as the main scale and the vernier’s scale, which are divided into small divisions. Both
the scales have two jaws that are perpendicular to the scale. The zeroes of the main scale and
vernier scale coincide when the jaws are made to touch each other. The jaws and the metallic strips
are designed to measure the diameter of objects.
The smallest distance that can be measured along the distance is the least count. It is the difference
between one main scale division and one vernier scale division.
In Vernier Callipers, n divisions of the vernier scale coincide with (n-1) divisions of the main scale.

Formula Used
TR=MSR+(CVD*L.C)
TR-Total reading
MSR-Main scale reading
CVD-Coinciding vernier scale division
L.C-Least count

L.C=
MSD-Main scale division
VSD- Vernier scale division

Diagram
 Procedure
1. Keep the jaws of the vernier calliper closed. Make sure that the zero of the main scale
perfectly coincides with the zero of the vernier scale. If it doesn’t coincide account for the
zero error for all observations.
2. Using a magnifying glass, look for the division of the main scale that coincides with the
division of the vernier scale. Note down the number of division that coincides with each
other. To avoid parallax error, position your eye directly over the division mark.

3. Release the movable jaw by gently loosening the screw. Slide it enough to hold the sphere
or the cylindrical body between the jaws AB without any undue pressure. Align it perfectly
perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Gently tighten the screw in order to clamp the
instrument in this position to the body.

4. Note down the position of the zero of the vernier scale against the zero of the main scale.
Normally, it will not perfectly coincide with any of the divisions on the main scale. Record
the main scale division to the left of the zero marks of the vernier scale.

5. Look for the exact coincidence of the vernier scale division with that of the main scale
division in the vernier window from the left end to the right. Note down the number N.

6. Multiply the obtained N by the least count of the instrument and add the product to the
main scale reading noted in step 4. Make sure to convert the product into proper units for
valid addition.

7. Repeat steps 3-6 to get the positions of the body at different positions on its curved surface.
Make sure to take three sets of reading in each case.

8. Record the observations in a tabular column with proper reading. If needed, apply zero
correction.

9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the body.

Observations
The least count of vernier caliper (V.C) = 0.01 cm
Table for measuring the diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body
SL.NO Main Scale reading, Coinciding vernier division, Vernier scale reading, TR=MSR+(VSR)
MSR CVD VSR=(CVD*L.C) cm
Cm cm

1
2
3
4
5
Mean Observed Diameter (TR)= ……cm
Result
The diameter of the given sphere/cylinder is _____ cm.
Precautions

1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.

3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pres-sure on
it from the jaws).

4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as three
different places.

Sources of Error

1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.

2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.

3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.

4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.

Experiment-1(b)

Aim:To measure internal diameter and depth of a beaker using vernier calipers and hence find its
volume.

Materials Required:Vernier calipers,A cylindrical object like a beaker,Magnifying glass

Theory:A vernier scale or a vernier calliper is a measuring device that is used to precisely measure
linear dimensions. It is a useful tool to measure spherical and cylindrical objects. It has two main
scales known as the main scale and the vernier’s scale, which are divided into small divisions. Both
the scales have two jaws that are perpendicular to the scale. The zeroes of the main scale and
vernier scale coincide when the jaws are made to touch each other. The jaws and the metallic strips
are designed to measure the diameter of objects.
The smallest distance that can be measured along the distance is the least count. It is the difference
between one main scale division and one vernier scale division.
In Vernier Callipers, n divisions of the vernier scale coincide with (n-1) divisions of the main scale.

Formula
TR=MSR+(CVD Х L.C)
TR-Total reading
MSR-Main scale reading
CVD-Coinciding vernier scale division
L.C-Least count

L.C=
MSD-Main scale division
VSD- Vernier scale division
Volume of beaker

V=

D-internal diameter
h-depth

Diagram

Procedure
1. Determine and record the least count of the vernier caliper which is also known as the
vernier constant.
2. To find the zero error, bring the movable jaw BD in contact with the fixed jaw AC. Repeat
and record this three times. If there is no zero error, then record zero error as nil.

3. Now put the jaws C and D inside the beaker and open till they make contact with the inner
wall of the beaker without any pressure. Tighten the screw without putting too much of
pressure.

4. On the main scale, record the zero mark of the vernier scale. Just before the zero mark of
the vernier scale, record the main scale reading which is known as main scale reading
(M.S.R).
 5. Let n be the number of the vernier scale division which coincides with the main scale
division.

6. Rotate the vernier caliper 90° and repeat the steps 4 and 5 for measuring the internal
diameter in perpendicular direction.

7. To measure the depth, find the total reading and zero correction.

8. The edge of the main scale of vernier caliper should be placed on the peripheral edge. Care
should be taken to make the strip go freely inside the beaker along with its depth.

9. Once the moving jaw of the vernier caliper touches the bottom of the beaker
perpendicularly, the screw of the vernier caliper should be tightened.

10. For four different positions along the circumference of the beaker, repeat steps 4 and 5.

11. Find the total reading and also zero correction.For internal diameter, take two different
mean values and for depth, take four different values.

12. Calculate the volume using the proper formula and record the same in the result with units.

Observations
The least count of vernier caliper (V.C)= 0.01 cm
1. internal diameter (D) of the given beaker.

SL.NO Main Scale reading, Coinciding vernier division, Vernier scale reading, TR=MSR+(VSR)
MSR CVD VSR=(CVD*L.C)
Cm cm

1
2
3
4
5

2.depth(h) of the given beaker.

SL.NO Main Scale reading, Coinciding vernier division, Vernier scale reading, TR=MSR+(VSR)
MSR CVD VSR=(CVD*L.C)
Cm cm

1
2
3
4
5

Calculations
Mean internal diameter, D =……. cm
Mean depth , h = …….. cm
Volume of the beaker,

V= =

______

Result
The volume of the beaker is …….cm3.
Precautions
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.

3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pres-sure
on it from the jaws).

4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as three
different places.
Sources of Error
1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.

3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.

4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.

Experiment-2(a)
Aim:To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.

Materials Required:Screw gauge,Wire,Half-meter scale,Magnifying glass

Theory
Screw gauge is an instrument used to accurately measure the thickness of a sheet of metal. It
comprises a U-shaped frame fitted to a screwed spindle which is attached to a thimble. A scale
graduated in mm is engraved parallel to the axis of the thimble. This is known as the pitch scale.
The head of the screw consists of a rachet that avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the
thimble, there is a circular scale known as the head scale which is divided into 50 to 100 equal
parts. The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. The distance
moved by the tip of the screw when the screw is turned through 1 division of the head scale is
known as the least count.

Least count is given as:

If a screw gauge has a pitch of 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale then the least count is
given as:
Linear scale reading is taken by noting the mark on the linear scale which is close to the edge of the
circular scale.
Circular scale reading is taken by noting the division on the circular scale that coincides with the
main scale reading.
Formula

Pitch=

Pitch=

Least Count=

= = 0.01 mm
Circular scale reading,
CSR={(CVD+/-Z.E)*L.C}= mm
Z.E= Zero error

TR=MSR+(CSR) = ………… mm

Diagram
Procedure
1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).
2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.

3. To find the zero error, bring the plane face B and A near. Repeat and record this for three
times. Record zero error as nil if there is no error.

4. Move face B away from face A. using a ratchet head R, move the face A towards face B
lengthwise and stop when R turns without moving the screw.

5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the no.of visible and uncovered
divisions of linear scale.

6. Let n be the no.of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.

7. To measure diameter in a perpendicular direction, repeat steps 5 and 6 by rotating the wire
to 90°.

8. For the entire length of wire, repeat steps 4,5,6 and 7 for five different positions and record
the observations.

9. Find the total reading and also zero correction.

10. Take the mean of different values of diameter.

11. Using a half-meter scale, measure the length of the wire. Repeat this step three times and
record the readings.

Observations
least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
1. Table for diameter (D)
SL.NO Main Scale reading/Pitch Scale Coinciding vernier Circular scale TR=MSR+(CSR)
Reading division, reading, mm
MSR/PSR CVD {(CVD+/-Z.E)*L.C}
Mm mm
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations
Mean diameter of the wire,
Mean length of the wire l= …………. cm

Volume of the wire,

Result
The volume of the given wire is ………cm3.

Precautions
1. There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.
2. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid undue pressure.

3. For zero correction proper sign should be noted.

4. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same direction.

5. The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular directions
and mean should be taken.

6. Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different places.

7. Avoid errors because of parallax.

Sources Of Error
1. There might be friction in the screw.
2. There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.

3. Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.

4. There might not be uniformity in the wire.

Experiment-2(b)

Aim:To measure the thickness of the sheet using screw gauge.

Apparatus/ Materials Required:Screw Gauge,Sheet,Magnifying Lens

Theory
Screw gauge is an instrument used to accurately measure the thickness of a sheet of metal. It
comprises a U-shaped frame fitted to a screwed spindle which is attached to a thimble. A scale
graduated in mm is engraved parallel to the axis of the thimble. This is known as the pitch scale.
The head of the screw consists of a rachet that avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the
thimble, there is a circular scale known as the head scale which is divided into 50 to 100 equal
parts. The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. The distance
moved by the tip of the screw when the screw is turned through 1 division of the head scale is
known as the least count.

Formula

Pitch=

Pitch=

Least Count=

= = 0.01 mm
Circular scale reading,
CSR={(CVD+/-Z.E)*L.C}= mm
Z.E= Zero error

TR=MSR+(CSR) = mm
 Diagram

Procedure
1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).
2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.

3. To find the zero error, bring the plane face B and A near. Repeat and record this for three
times. Record zero error as nil if there is no error.

4. Move face B away from face A. using a ratchet head R, move the face A towards face B
lengthwise and stop when R turns without moving the screw.

5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the no.of visible and uncovered
divisions of linear scale.

6. Let n be the no.of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.

7. Find the total reading and also zero correction.

8. Insert the sheet between the studs of the screw gauge and determine the thickness at five
different positions.

9. Find the average thickness and determine the correct thickness by applying the zero error

Observations
least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Table for thickness
SL.NO Main Scale reading/Pitch Scale Coinciding vernier Circular scale reading, TR=MSR+(CSR)
Reading division, CSR={(CVD+/- mm
MSR/PSR CVD Z.E)*L.C}
Mm Mm
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations
Mean thickness (TR) = mm

Result
The thickness of the given sheet is …..mm
Precautions
1.There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.
2.The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid undue pressure.
3.For zero correction proper sign should be noted.
4.To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
5.The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular directions
and mean should be taken.
6.Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different places.
7.Avoid errors because of parallax.
Sources Of Error
1. There might be friction in the screw.
2.There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
3.Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
4.There might not be uniformity in the wire.
Experiment-2( c )
Aim: To determine the volume of irregular lamina using screw guage

Apparatus/ Materials Required:Screw Gauge,Sheet,Magnifying Lens

Theory
Screw gauge is an instrument used to accurately measure the thickness of a sheet of metal. It
comprises a U-shaped frame fitted to a screwed spindle which is attached to a thimble. A scale
graduated in mm is engraved parallel to the axis of the thimble. This is known as the pitch scale.
The head of the screw consists of a rachet that avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the
 thimble, there is a circular scale known as the head scale which is divided into 50 to 100 equal
parts. The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. The distance
moved by the tip of the screw when the screw is turned through 1 division of the head scale is
known as the least count.

An irregular lamina has no proper geometrical shape and its thickness is negligible compared to its
length and breadth. The volume of the irregular lamina is calculated using the following formula

Volume = Area × Thickness

The thickness area of the lamina can be determined using a screw gauge, while the surface area of
the lamina is measured using graph paper.

Formula

Pitch=

Pitch=

Least Count=

= = 0.01 mm
Circular scale reading,
CSR={(CVD+/-Z.E)*L.C}= mm
Z.E= Zero error

TR=MSR+(CSR) = mm
Volume = Area × Thickness

Observations
least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Table for thickness
SL.NO Main Scale reading/Pitch Scale Coinciding vernier Circular scale reading, TR=MSR+(CSR)
Reading division, CSR={(CVD+/- mm
MSR/PSR CVD Z.E)*L.C}
Mm Mm
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations
Mean thickness (TR) = mm

Volume = Area × Thickness

Result
The volume of the given sheet is …..mm
Precautions
1.There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.
2.The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid undue pressure.
3.For zero correction proper sign should be noted.
4.To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
5.The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular directions
and mean should be taken.
6.Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different places.
7.Avoid errors because of parallax.
Sources Of Error
1.There might be friction in the screw.
2.There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
3.Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
4.There might not be uniformity in the wire.
Experiment-3

Aim:To determine the radius of curvature of a given spherical bodies by a spherometer.

Materials Required:Spherometer,Convex mirror

Theory
A spherometer is a measuring device which has a metallic triangular frame supported on three legs.
The tips of the three legs form an equilateral triangle and lie on the radius. There is a central leg
which can be moved in a perpendicular direction. The least count of the spherometer is 0.01 mm.
Formula

Radius of curvature of convex mirror R = ……….cm

l = length
h= sagitta

Diagram

Procedure
1. To get the three pricks of the spherometer, press the spherometer gently on the practical
note-book by lifting the central screw and mark these pricks as A, B, and C.
2. Join the points A, B, and C to form a triangle and measure the distance between these
points.

3. Note the distances between AB, BC, and CA and take their mean.

4. Find the value of the pitch which is the vertical scale division.

5. Record the pitch and least count of the spherometer.

6. Lift the screw sufficiently upwards.

7. Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that all the three legs rest on it.

8. Turn the screw gently downwards till it touches the convex surface.

9. Let a be the reading taken from the circular scale which is in line with the vertical scale.

10. Now remove and place the spherometer on the plane mirror.
 11. Let n1 be the no.of rotations completed by the disc when it is moved downwards.

12. Continue rotating the disc till the tip of the screw touches the plane surface of the mirror.

13. Let b be the reading of the circular scale which is in line with the vertical scale.

14. From the last incomplete rotation, find the number of a circular scale division.

15. Repeat steps 6 to 14 three times and record the observations.

Observations
1. Distance between two legs of the spherometer

In △ABC marked by the legs of the spherometer

AB = …….cm
BC = …….cm
AC = …….cm

Mean value of length (l) = = ……….cm

2. Least count of spherometer

1 pitch scale division = 1 mm

No.of full rotations given to screw = 5
Distance moved by the screw = 5 mm
Hence, pitch, p = 5mm/5 = 1 mm
No.of divisions on circular (disc) scale = 100
Hence, least count = 1mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Table for sagitta (h)
Sl.n Circular scale reading No.of complete No.of circular scale Total reading
o Initial reading on Final reading on rotations divisions in incomplete h=n×pitch+m× (L.C)
spherical surface glass slab (b) (n) rotation (mm)
(a) m=(a-b) or
m=100+a-b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculations
Mean value of h =….. mm = ….cm

Radius of curvature of convex mirror R =

……….cm

Result
The radius of curvature of the given sperical bodies is ………..cm.

Precautions
1. The movement of the screw should happen without any friction.
2. To avoid backlash error, the screw should be moved in the same direction.

3. Avoid excess rotation.

Source Of Error
1. There might be friction in the screw.
2. There might be a back-lash error in the spherometer.

3. The divisions between the circular scale may not be of equal size.

Experiment-4
Aim:To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal
velocity of a given spherical body.

Materials Required:5cm broad glass cylindrical jar ,Transparent viscous liquid,Lead shot,Screw
gauge,Stop clock/watch,Clamp with stand

Theory
Terminal velocity is defined as the highest velocity that is attained by an object as it falls through a
fluid. When the sum of drag force and buoyancy are equal to the force of gravity, terminal velocity
occurs.
Formula
Following is terminal velocity formula:

v is the terminal velocity

r is the radius of the spherical body
g is the acceleration due to gravity
ρ is the density of the spherical body
σ is the density of the liquid
η is the coefficient of viscosity

Diagram

Procedure
1. Clean the glass jar and fill it with transparent viscous liquid.
2. The vertical scale along the height of the jar must be clearly visible to note the least count.

3. Check the tight spring of the stopwatch and also record the least count and zero error.

4. Record the least count and zero error of the screw gauge.

5. Determine the radius of the ball.

6. Gently drop the ball in the liquid. Initially, the ball falls with an accelerated velocity until it
reaches one-third height of the liquid. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.

7. As the ball reaches some convenient division, start the stopwatch to note its fall.
 8. As the ball reaches the convenient lowest division, stop the stopwatch.

9. Record the time taken by the ball.

10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 twice for more readings.

11. Record the temperature of the liquid.

12. Record the observations.

Observations
Length=40 cm
Tabular column

SL.NO Main Scale Coinciding Circular Diameter Radius Time Terminal

reading/Pitch vernier scale reading, TR=MSR+(CSR) R=D/2 (t) velocity
Scale Reading division, {(CVD+/- mm cm s v=L/t
MSR/PSR CVD Z.E)*L.C} Cm/s
Mm Mm

Calculations
Mean diameter D = ………..cm
Mean radius square
= ……..cm
Mean time t = ……..s
Mean terminal velocity v = …….cm/s
coefficient of viscosity

………..poise
Result
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid at a temperature (T℃) = ……. Nsm–2 or poise
Precautions
1. To watch the motion the liquid used must be transparent
2. The perfectly spherical ball should be used

3. Velocity should be noted only when it is constant

Sources Of Error
1. The density of the liquid used must be non-uniform
2. The ball used might not be perfectly spherical

3. Velocity noted might not be constant

Experiment-5

Aim:Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T2 graphs and use it to find the effective length of the
second’s pendulum.

Apparatus Required:Clamp stand,Split Cork,Heavy metallic spherical bob with a hook,Long and
strong cotton thread,Stopwatch,Meter scale
Principle/Theory
The simple pendulum exhibits Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) as the acceleration of the
pendulum bob is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position and is always
directed towards it.
Formula

T=2π
The time period (T) of a simple pendulum for oscillations of small amplitude, is given by the
relation
Where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration of gravity
Length of simple pendulum=length of thread + length of hook of bob + mean radius of bob
Diagram

Procedure
1. Place the clamp stand on the table. Tie the hook attached to the pendulum bob, to one end
of the string of about 80 cm in length and the other end of the string through two half-
pieces of a split cork.
2. Clamp the split cork firmly to the clamp stand such that the line of separation between the
two pieces of the split cork is at right angles to the line OA along which the pendulum
oscillates as given in the figure. Mark the edge of the table a vertical line parallel to and
just behind the vertical thread OA, the position of the bob at rest. Take care that the bob
hangs vertically (about 2 cm above the floor) beyond the edge of the table so that it is free
to oscillate.

3. Displace the bob not more than 15 degrees from the vertical position OA and then gently
release it. If you notice the stand to be shaky, put a heavy object on its base. Make sure that
the bob oscillates in a vertical plane about its rest and does not (i) spin about its own axis
 (ii) move up and down while oscillating (iii)revolve in an elliptic path around its mean
position.

4. Keep the pendulum oscillating for a few minutes. After the completion of few oscillations,
start the stopwatch as the thread attached to the bob crosses the mean position. Consider it
as a zero oscillation.

5. Keep counting the oscillation 1,2,3…n every time the bob crosses the mean position. Stop
the stopwatch at the count of n oscillations. For better results, n should be chosen such that
the time taken to complete n oscillations is 50 s or more. Read the total time taken
for n oscillations. Repeat the observation a few times by noting down the time for the
same n number of oscillations. Once noted down, take the mean of the readings. Calculate
the time for one oscillation, i.e., the time period T ( = t/n) of the pendulum.

6. Change the length of the pendulum, by about 10 cm. Repeat step 6 again for finding the
time (t) for about 20 oscillations or more for the new length and find the mean time period.
Take 5 or 6 more observations for different lengths of the pendulum and find the mean
time period in each case.

7. Report observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures.

8. Take effective length L along the x-axis and T2 (or T) along the y-axis, using the observed
values from the table. Choose suitable scales on these axes to represent L and T2 (or T).
Plot a graph between L and T2

Tabular column

Effective length L Time for 20 vibrations Time period T2

Cm t(s) T=t/20 (s)
(s2)

Trial 1 Trial 2

Graph
From the L versus T2 graph, determine the effective length of the second’s pendulum for T 2 = 4s2

L
Result

The effective length of the second’s pendulum from the L versus T2 graph is … cm.

Precautions
1. Thread should be strong, weightless and in extensible.
2. Point of suspension should be fixed in a rigid support.

3. Lower faces of split cork should be in same level.

4. Splitting should be perpendicular to the plane of vibration of the pendulum.

5. Amplitude should be small to have sin 0 = 0. [when 0 < 18°]

6. The bob should move along a straight line.

7. The bob should not spin during vibration.

8. Place of experiment should be free from disturbances of building vibrations or air current.

9. Laboratory fan should be switched off.

10. Length of pendulum should include length of hook and radius of bob.

11. Counting should be proper and started from zero.

12. Clock/watch should be accurate.

13. Length of pendulum should be increased in steps of 10 cm to bring appreciable change in

time period.

14. Metre scale used should be accurate.

Sources of error
1. The string may not be weightless and in extensible.
2. Point of suspension may not be rigid.

3. The amplitude may not be small.

 4. The bob may spin.

5. The air currents may disturb vibrations.

6. There may be an error in counting.

7. The stop clock/watch may be inaccurate.

8. There may be delay in starting and stopping the stop clock/watch.

Experiment-6
Aim: To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and extension.
Apparatus/ Materials required: rigid support, spring, slotted weight, fine pointer, vertical
wooden scale, hook
Theory: The Spring constant, also known as the force constant, is the restoring force per unit
extension in the spring. Its value is determined by the elastic properties of the spring.
Formula
FαL
F=kL
When a load F suspended from the lower free end of the spring hanging from rigid support
increases its length by l, K is the proportionality constant also known as the force constant or the
spring constant of the spring
From the above equation, it is clear that if l =1, F = K.Hence, spring constant can be defined as the
force required to produce a unit extension in the spring.

Diagram

Procedure
1. Suspend the spring from a rigid support and attach the pointer and the hook from its lower
free end.
2. Hang a 50 g hanger from the hook
 3. Arrange the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer comes over the divisions
on the scale but does not touch the scale.

4. Note the reading on the scale and record it in the loading column against the zero loads.

5. Gently add a suitable load of 50 g or 20 g of slotted weight to the hanger. The tip of the
pointer moves down.

6. Wait for some time till the pointer comes to rest. Repeat step 4.

7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till six slots have been added.

8. Remove one slotted weight. The pointer moves up. Repeat step 6 and record the reading in
the unloading column.

9. Repeat step 8 till the only hanger is left.

10. Record your observation as given below in the table.

Observations
Table for extension and load
Load suspended from Extension
Loading Unloading Mean
spring(g wt) Applied l
(x cm) (y cm) z =(x+y)/2
Force F cm
0 z1 z1

z2 z2-z1=

z3 z3-z1=

z4 z4=z1=

z5 z5-z1=

z6 z6-z1=

Calculation and Graph

Plot a graph between F and l with F along the x-axis and l along the y-axis

y
a

c θ
b

Applied force F in g wt x
Extension l in l cm

Slope, tan θ=ab/cb=

……..cm/g wt

Force constant, k=1/slope =

…….g wt/cm

Precautions
1. Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently.
2. Reading should be noted only when tip of pointer comes to rest.

3. Pointer tip should not touch the scale surface.

4. Loading should not be beyond elastic limit.

Sources of error
1. The support may not be rigid.
2. The slotted weights may not have correct weight

Result
The spring constant of the given spring is …….. g wt/cm.

Experiment-7
Aim: To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant tension
using sonometer.
Materials Required: Sonometer, tuning forks, hanger, slotted weights, Rubber pad, Paper rider,
Meter-scale
Theory: SONOMETER it consists of a long sounding board or a hollow wooden box W with a peg
G at one end and a pulley at the other end. One end of a metal wire S is attached to the peg and the
other end passes over the pulley P. A hanger H is suspended from the free end of the wire. By
placing slotted weights on the hanger tension is applied to the wire. By placing two bridges A and
B under the wire, the length of the vibrating wire can be fixed. Position of one of the bridges, Say
Bridge A is kept fixed so that by varying the position of other bridge, say bridge B, the vibrating
length can be altered.
Formula
The frequency of vibration of a stretched string is given by

n=
Where l is the length of the string, T is the tension in the string and m is mass per unit length of the
string.

Diagram

Procedure
1. Place the sonometer on the table as shown in Fig.
2. Test the pulley and make it frictionless by oiling (if necessary).

3. Put suitable maximum weight in the hanger.

4. Move wooden bridges P, outward to include maximum length of wire (AB) between them.

5. Take a tuning fork of least frequency from among the set. Strike its prong with a rubber pad
to make it vibrate. Bring the tuning fork near your ear.

6. Pluck the wire AB from the middle and leave it to vibrate.

7. Listen sound produced by tuning fork and wire and judge which has less frequency (sound
which is grave and has low pitch, has less frequency).

8. Since the long wire may have less frequency, decrease its length by moving the bridges
inwardly. Check the frequencies again.

9. Go on decreasing the length till frequency of vibrating wire AB becomes equal to the
frequency of the tuning fork.

10. Put an inverted V shape paper rider R on the wire AB in its middle. Vibrate the tuning fork
and touch the lower end of its handle with sonometer board. The wire AB vibrates due to
resonance and paper rider falls.
 11. Note the length of the wire AB between the edges of the two bridges and record it in ‘length
decreasing’ column.

12. Bring the two bridges closer and then adjust the length of the wire by increasing it little by
little till rider falls.

13. Note the length of the wire and record it in ‘length increasing’ column.

14. Take the remaining five tuning forks, one by one, in order of increasing frequency and
repeat steps 5 to 13.

15. Record your observations as given below.

Observations
Constant value of load on the wire =m=…….. kg
Constant tension on the wires, T=mg =………….N

Table for measurement of resonant length

Resonant length of
wire l
Frequency of tuning Product
(cm)
Sl. no fork nl
(cm-1)
n (Hz) (Hz. cm)

1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

7.

Calculations
Plot the graph between 1/l and frequency n of the tuning fork,

1/l

(cm-1)
 Precautions n (Hz)
1. Frictionless pulleys should be used.
2. The wires should be of uniform cross-section and kink less.
3. The maximum load on the wire should not exceed the elastic limit.
4. Soft rubber pad should be used to strike the tuning forks.
5. For calculations, the mean of length decreasing and increasing should be used.
6. While transferring the vibrations, the lower end of the handle should be touched gently to
the sonometer board.
7. The load should include hanger weight too.
8. After the experiment, the load should be removed.

Sources of Error
1. Frictionless pulley might not be used.
2. The rigid and uniform cross-sectional wire might not be used.
3. Correct weights are not used.
4. Sharpe wooden bridges might not be used.
Result :

all the observation. This verifies that n ∝ 1/l.

Within the limits of experimental error, the product nl=constant for

The graph between n and 1/l is a straight line.

So, n∝ 1/l.
Thus the law of transverse vibrations of string is verified.

Experiment-8

AIM: To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube by two resonance
position
Apparatus required: Resonance tube apparatus, tuning fork, Thermometer, Rubber pad, water in
beaker, a set square, Plumb line
Theory
Resonance tube is a closed organ pipe in which the length of air column may be changed. It is used
to find the velocity of sound in air by making use of the phenomenon of resonance in air column.
Construction: It consists of a nearly 1 m long vertical glass or brass tube 7 having a uniform cross
sectional radius of nearly 2.5 cm. A flexible rubber tube connects the lower end of T to a water
reservoir R. The level of water in Tis adjusted by adjusting the height of R and controlling the
water-flow with the help of a pinch clip on the rubber tube. For observing water-level in T, a side
glass tube and scale S are used.
Principle: When a vibrating tuning fork is brought near the mouth of tube T, the air-column in the
tube undergoes forced oscillations. The frequency of these oscillations depends upon the length of
the air column. For a certain length of air column, the frequency of vibration of air-column
becomes equal to the frequency of tuning fork. The amplitude of vibrations in the air column
becomes very large. This produces a loud sound. The air-column in the tube is now called
resonance column.
Formula
υ =2v (l2 - l1 )
υ = velocity
 v = frequency

DIAGRAM

Procedure:

1)Note the room temperature in the beginning of the experiment. Let it be θ 1

2)Set the resonance tube apparatus vertical with the help of plumb line and by adjusting
leveling screws provided at the base of the apparatus.
3)Open the pinch cock and check for an adequate amount of water in the apparatus. If required.
Put some more water into it. Now adjust the position of reservoir so that water level in the glass
tube is near the open end. Close the pinch cock.
4)Bring down the reservoir from its previous position and lock its new position by tightening
the screw.
5)Strike the tuning fork gently on the rubber pad and hold it horizontally above the open end of
the resonance tube. Simultaneously open the pinch cock and allow the water level in the
resonance tube to fall gradually. Continue till a loud sound is heard and close the pinch cock at
once. Note the reading of water level in the tube with the help of a set square keeping one of its
perpendicular edges tangential to meniscus of water and other edge parallel to line of
graduations on the metre scale. This is the first resonant length of air column when water level
is falling.
Sl.no Frequency of the given First resonant Second Velocity of sound at
tuning fork Hz length l1 resonant length θ degree C
l2 υ=2ν(l2-l1) ms-1
 6)Lower the level of water by 2-3 cm and clamp the reservoir near the top of the tube.
7)Hold the vibrating tuning fork horizontally just above the mouth of the tube. 8)Allow the
water to rise gradually by opening the pinch cock. Close the pinch cock when loud sound is
heard. Note the length of the air column from the metre scale using the set square. It is the first
resonant length of the air column when the level of water in the tube is rising.
9)Find the mean l1, of the two first resonant lengths of the air column.
10)Lower the water level in the resonance tube to about 3 cm less than the length l 1 Now again
sound the tuning fork and operate pinch cock as done earlier to locate the second resonant
position. Measure the second resonant length of air column when water level is rising.
Similarly, determine the second resonant length of the air column when water level is falling
Find the mean 12, of two second resonant lengths of the air column
11)Repeat the experiment at least two times more and find the first and second resonant length
of the air column
12)Note the room temperature at the end of the experiment. Let it be θ 2.

OBSERVATION:
Tabular column for measurement of resonant length

Calucation:
υ=2ν(l2-l1)

Result:
The velocity of sound at room temperature υ =……….ms-1

EXPERIMENT-9
Aim:To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.

Apparatus Required:Gravesand’s apparatus which is a parallelogram law of forces apparatus,

Plumb line, Two hangers with slotted weights, A body whose weight is to be determined, Thin
strong thread, White drawing paper, Drawing pins, Mirror strip, Sharp pencil, Half-meter scale, Set
squares, Protractor
Theory: If unknown force acting simultaneously on a body can be represented completely by the
two sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point,then their resultant is represented by the diagonal
of the parallelogram drawn through the same point.

Formula:If an unknown weight body R is suspended from the middle of the hanger, and P and Q
are the two balance weights from the other two ends of the hanger, then the unknown weight is
calculated using the below equation:

R=
Where,
 R is the unknown weight
 P and Q are the balance weights

Diagram

Procedure
1. Set up the Gravesand’s apparatus with its board vertical and with the help of a plumb line.
2. Oil the pulleys P1 and P2 if they are not friction-less.
 3. With the help of drawing pins, fix the white sheet on the board.

4. Let O be the knot made from three-piece of strong thread.

5. Let P and Q be the weights that are tied at both the ends of the hanger and R be the given
body tied to the third end.

6. Let the third weight R be vertically in the middle of the board and weights P and Q are
passed over the pulley.

7. Junction O should be maintained at equilibrium by adjusting weights P and Q.

8. All the three weights P, Q and R act as three forces

9. All three weights should hang freely without touching the board or table.

10. With a sharp pencil, mark the position of junction O.

11. Disturb the weights P and Q and leave them free.

12. The position of junction O will be closer to the earlier position.

13. Let P1 and P2 be the position of P, Q1 and Q2 be the position of Q and R1 and S2 be the
position of R which are taken down with the help of the mirror.

14. Remove the paper from the board.

15. Using half-meter scale draw lines through P1 and P2, Q1 and Q2 and R1 and R2 represent P,
Q, and S respectively. All these lines should meet at point O.

16. P and Q can be changed for different sets.

17. By using spring balance, find the weight of the wooden box.

Observation

Tabular Column:

sl. Forces=Wt of hanger Length of Unknown weight Angle

no and slotted weights X=OC*S COC’
(g wt)
P Q OA OB OC
(g wt) (g wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.

2.

Calculations
X=OC Х S=

…gwt

Angle COC’=

3R=

Result
The unknown weight of given body is found to be …….g wt

Precautions
1. The board should be stable and placed verticle.
2. There shouldn’t be any friction in the pulleys.

3. The board or the table should not be in touch with the hangers.

4. The middle of the paper should have junction O.

5. When the weights are at rest, the points should be marked.

6. A sharp pencil should be used to mark the points.

7. To show the direction of forces, arrows should be marked.

8. To make a fairly big parallelogram, a proper scale should be taken.

Sources Of Error
1. There might be friction in the pulleys.
2. Weights might not be accurate.

3. Points marked may be correct.

4. Weight measured by spring balance may not be accurate.