CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
• What is materials science?
• Why should we know about it?

• Materials drive our society

– Stone Age
– Bronze Age
– Iron Age
– Now?
• Polymer Age?
• Silicon Age?

(All the contents in this file are solely for educational purpose)
Chapter 1 - 1
Aluminum cans
(metal)

A familiar item that is

Glass bottles
(ceramic) fabricated from 3
different material types
is the beverage container.
Beverages are marketed
in aluminum (metal) cans,
glass (ceramic) bottles,
Plastic bottles and plastic (polymer)
(polymer) bottles.

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 Learning objectives

1. List six different property classifications of materials that determine their

applicability.
2. Cite the four components that are involved in the design, production,
and utilization of materials, and briefly describe the interrelationships
between these components.
3. Cite three criteria that are important in the materials selection process.
4. (a) List the 3 primary classifications of solid materials, and then cite
the distinctive chemical feature of each.
(b) Note the 4 types of advanced materials, and, for each, its distinctive
feature(s).
5. (a) Briefly define “smart material/system.”
(b) Briefly explain the concept of “nanotechnology” as it applies to
materials.

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 1.1 Historical Perspective

• Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize.
Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production-
virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another
by materials.

• Early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development
(i.e., Stone Age, Bronze Age)
The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those
that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on.

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 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering
• Materials
Materials may be defined as substances of which something is composed or made.

• Materials science
- The discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that
exist between the structures and properties of materials.
- It is primarily concerned with the search for basic knowledge about the internal
structure, properties, and processing of materials.

• Materials engineering
- Materials engineering is, on the basis of these structure-property correlations,
designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined
set of properties.
- It is mainly concerned with the use of fundamental and applied knowledge of
materials so that the materials can be converted into products needed or desired
by society.
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Materials knowledge spectrum. Using the combined knowledge of materials
from materials science and materials engineering enables engineers to
convert materials into the products needed by society.

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• Structure
- The structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components.
- Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions
with their nuclei.
- On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules
relative to one another.
- The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are
normally agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic”, meaning that which is
subject to direct observation using some type of microscope.
- Structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed
“macroscopic”.

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• Property
- A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a
specific imposed stimulus.
- Definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and size.

• Six important properties in solid materials

- Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force.
- Electrical properties
For electrical properties, the stimulus is an electric field.
- Thermal properties
- Magnetic properties
Magnetic properties demonstrate the response to the application of a magnetic field.
- Optical properties
For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation.
- Deteriorative properties
Deteriorative properties indicate the chemical reactivity of materials.
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 Mechanical

Figure 6.13 Schematic representations of tensile stress-strain behavior for

brittle and ductile metals loaded to fracture.

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 Electrical
• Electrical Resistivity of Copper:
6
5
Resistivity, r
(10-8 Ohm-m)

4
3
2
1
0
-200 -100 0 T (°C)
• Adding “impurity” atoms to Cu increases resistivity.
• Deforming Cu increases resistivity.
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 Thermal
• Space Shuttle Tiles: • Thermal Conductivity
--Silica fiber insulation of Copper:
offers low heat conduction. --It decreases when
you add zinc!

400

Thermal Conductivity
300

(W/m-K)
200

100
0
100 mm 0 10 20 30 40
Composition (wt% Zinc)

Chapter 1 - 11
 Magnetic

• Magnetic Storage: • Magnetic Permeability

-- Recording medium vs. Composition:
is magnetized by -- Adding 3 atomic % Si
recording head. makes Fe a better
recording medium!

Fe+3%Si

Magnetization
Fe

Magnetic Field

Chapter 1 - 12
 Optical
• Transmittance:
--Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or
opaque depending on the material structure.
polycrystal: polycrystal:
single crystal low porosity high porosity

Figure 1.1 Photograph showing

the light transmittance of three
aluminum oxide specimens.

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 Deteriorative

• Stress & Saltwater... • Heat treatment: slows

--causes cracks! crack speed in salt water!

crack speed (m/s)

10-8 “as-is”
“held at
160ºC for 1 hr
before testing”
10-10 Alloy 7178 tested in
saturated aqueous NaCl
solution at 23ºC

increasing load

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• Interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and performance
- The structure of a material will depend on how it is processed.
- A material’s performance will be a function of its properties.

Figure 1.2 The four components of the discipline of materials science and
engineering and their linear interrelationship

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Structure, Processing, & Properties
• Properties depend on structure
ex: hardness vs structure of steel

(d)
600
Hardness (BHN)

30 mm
500 (c)
400 (b)
(a)
4 mm
300
30 mm
200 30 mm

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (ºC/s)
• Processing can change structure
ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel
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 The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

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 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

• Why
- Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or
electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving
materials.
- A materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many
thousands that are available.

• 3 selection criteria
- Properties required for in-service conditions
- Deterioration during service operation (lifetime)
- Economics (cost)

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 Case Study

Liberty Ship Failures

- The failure of many of the World War II Liberty ships is a well-known and
dramatic example of the brittle fracture of steel that was thought to be ductile.

- 3 of the ships catastrophically split in half when cracks formed, grew to critical
lengths, and then rapidly propagated completely around the ships’ girths, Figure
1.3.

- When some normally ductile metal alloys are cooled to relatively low
temperatures, they become susceptible to brittle fracture － that is, they
experience a ductile-to-brittle transition upon cooling through a critical range of
temperatures.

- The corner of each hatch (i.e., door) was square; these corners acted as points
of stress concentration where cracks can form.

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Figure 1.3 The
Liberty ship S.S.
Schenectady,
which, in 1943,
failed before
leaving the
shipyard.

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 1.4 Classification of Materials

• Three basic classifications

This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structures.
- Metals
- Ceramics
- Polymers

• Composites
- combinations of two or more of the above 3 basic material classes.

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 Types of Materials
• Metals:
– strong, ductile
– high thermal & electrical conductivity
– opaque, reflective.

• Ceramics:
Ionic bonding (refractory) – compounds of metallic & non-
metallic elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
– brittle, glassy
– non-conducting (insulators)

• Polymers/plastics:
Covalent bonding → sharing of e’s
– soft, ductile, low strength, low density
– thermal & electrical insulators
– optically translucent or transparent.

Chapter 1 - 22
 Metals

Figure 1.9 Familiar objectives that are made of metals and metal alloys: fork,
knife, scissors, coins, gear, wedding ring, and a nut and a bolt.
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 Ceramics

Figure 1.10 Common objectives that are made of ceramic materials: scissors,
china tea cup, building brick, floor tile, and a glass vase.
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 Polymers

Figure 1.11 Several common objectives that are made of polymeric materials:
plastic tableware, billiard balls, bicycle helmet, dice, lawnmower wheel, and
plastic milk carton Chapter 1 - 25
• Metals
- Metallic materials are normally combinations of metallic elements.
- They have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not
bound to particular atoms.
- Properties: good conductors of electricity and heat, not transparent to visible light.
- Metals are quite strong, yet deformable, which accounts for their extensive use in
structural applications.
- Metals and alloys are commonly divided into two classes.
1. Ferrous metals and alloys
2. Nonferrous metals and alloys

Chapter 1 - 26
• Ceramics
- Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements.
- They are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
- They are typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat, and are more
resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers.
- Ceramics are hard but very brittle.
- Advantages for engineering applications
1. Light weight
2. High strength and hardness
3. Good heat and wear resistance
4. Reduced friction.
5. Insulative properties

Chapter 1 - 27
• Polymers
- Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
- They are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements.
- They have very large molecular structures.
- They typically have low densities and may be extremely flexible.
- Structurally, most polymeric materials are noncrystalline, but some consist of
mixtures of crystalline and noncrystalline regions.

Chapter 1 - 28
 Example – Develop New Types of
Polymers
• Commodity plastics – large volume ca. $0.50 / lb
Ex. Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
etc.

• Engineering Resins – small volume > $1.00 / lb

Ex. Polycarbonate
Nylon
Polysulfone
etc.

Can polypropylene be “upgraded” to properties (and price) near

those of engineering resins?

Chapter 1 - 29
• Composites
- They have been engineered that consist of more than one material type.
- Most composite materials consist of a selected filler or reinforcing material and
a compatible resin binder to obtain the specific characteristics and properties
desired.
- A composite is designed to display a combination of the best characteristics of
each of the component materials.

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 Density

Figure 1.4 Bar-chart of room-temperature density values for various metal,

ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
Chapter 1 - 31
 Young’s Modulus

Figure 1.5 Bar-chart of room-temperature stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus)

values for various metal, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
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 Tensile Strength

Figure 1.6 Bar-chart of room-temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength)

values for various metal, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
Chapter 1 - 33
 Fracture Toughness

Figure 1.7 Bar-chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e., fracture

toughness) for various metal, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
Chapter 1 - 34
 Electrical Conductivity

Figure 1.8 Bar-chart of room-temperature electrical conductivity ranges for

metal, ceramics, polymers, and semiconducting materials.
Chapter 1 - 35
Figure 1.12 Modulus of elasticity (stiffness) versus density material chart.

Chapter 1 - 36
 Case Study
Carbonated Beverage Containers
- The materials used for this application must satisfy the following constraints:

(1) provide a barrier to passage (i.e., impervious) of carbon dioxide, which is

under pressure in the container;

(2) be nontoxic, unreactive with the beverage, and, preferably, recyclable;

(3) be relatively strong and capable of surviving a drop from a height of several
feet when containing the beverage;

(4) be inexpensive, including the cost to fabricate the final shape;

(5) if optically transparent, retain its optical clarity;

(6) be capable of being produced in different colors and/or adorned with

decorative labels. Chapter 1 - 37
 1.5 Advanced Materials

• Materials that are utilized in high-technology applications are sometimes termed

advanced materials.

• By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions using

relatively intricate principles.

• They are typically either traditional materials whose properties have been
enhanced or newly developed, high-performance materials.

• They may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers) and are
normally expensive.

Chapter 1 - 38
 Semiconductors

• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between electrical

conductors and insulators.

• The electrical characteristics of them are extremely sensitive to the presence of

minute concentrations of impurity atoms; these concentrations may be controlled
over very small spatial regions.

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Modern microprocessors have a multitude of outlets, as indicated on
this picture of Intel’s Pentium II microprocessor.

Chapter 1 - 40
 Biomaterials

• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for
replacement of diseased or damaged body parts.

• They must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body
tissues.

• Metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors may be used as

biomaterials.

Chapter 1 - 41
 Example – Hip Implant
• With age or certain illnesses joints deteriorate.
Particularly those with large loads (such as hip).

Chapter 1 - 42
 Example – Hip Implant

• Requirements
– mechanical
strength (many
cycles)
– good lubricity
– biocompatibility

Chapter 1 - 43
Example – Hip Implant

Chapter 1 - 44
 Hip Implant
• Key problems to overcome
– fixation agent to hold Ball
acetabular cup
– cup lubrication material
– femoral stem – fixing agent
Acetabular
– must avoid any debris in cup Cup and Liner

Femoral
Stem

Chapter 1 - 45
 Smart (or intelligent) Materials

• “Smart” implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their
environments and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners.

• Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (that
detects an input signal), and an actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive
function).

• Materials/devices employed as sensors

Optical fibers
Piezoelectric materials
Microelectromechanical devices (MEMS).

• 4 types of materials are commonly used for actuators

Shape memory alloys
Piezoelectric ceramics
Magnetostrictive materials
Electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids. Chapter 1 - 46
 Nanomaterials

• The dimensions of the structural entities are on the order of a nanometer

(10-9 m), less than 100 nanometers (~500 atom diameters).

• “Top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches.

• Some of the physical and chemical characteristics may exhibit dramatic

changes.

Chapter 1 - 47
 Competition among Materials

• Factors cause material replacement

- Special properties
- Cost

Chapter 1 - 48
 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs

• Materials against radioactive contamination from nuclear energy.

• Low-density structural materials for energy saving.

• High-temperature resistant materials in engine.

• High efficiency materials for the direct conversion of solar into electrical energy.

• New material processing and refinement methods for less environmental

degradation .

• New recycling technologies.

Chapter 1 - 49
 Summary
Course Goals:
• Use the right material for the job.

• Understand the relation between properties,

structure, and processing.

• Recognize new design opportunities offered

by materials selection.

Chapter 1 - 50