Lecture: 4

Modern Physics
Relativity of mass
Consider two frames of reference S and S'. S' is moving with a constant velocity
v relative to S, in the positive x-direction.

S'

x'

Two exactly similar elastic balls A and B in the frame S'

Same mass, moving in opposite direction with equal velocity u and –u.
Alter collision they combined into one.
According to the law of conservation of momentum,
mu + m (-u) = momentum of combined mass = 0
Thus, the combined mass must be at rest in S' frame.
Consider the collisions with respect to the frame S. Let u1 and u2 be the
velocities of the balls as observed from S.
Then,

and

v is the relative velocity of combined mass, u1 is the velocity of m1 (A) and

u2 is the velocity of m2 (B) with respect to frame S.

Since the total momentum of the balls must be conserved, we have

m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v (iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
From equation (i), we get,
Relativity of Simultaneity:
• Two events are said to be simultaneous if they occur at the same time.
• The simultaneity of the two events is not an absolute concept and depends
on the frame of reference.
• In fact, each observer is correct in his own frame of reference.

➢ Two events that appear simultaneous to an observer A will not be

simultaneous to an observer B if B is moving with respect to A.
Let us consider an example to clarify the above statement:

Figure: Two tennis ball ejected at a same time with same velocity in a moving train
as observed (a) by an observer on the train itself and (b) by an observer standing
on the ground.
▪ Let us consider two frames of reference S and S.
▪ The frame S is moving with velocity u relative to the frame S along +ve x-axis.
▪ Two events occur simultaneously in S.
▪ Since the events are simultaneous in frame S, therefore we have t1 = t2.

If t1 and t 2 are the corresponding times of the same two events with respect to
system S, then we have from Lorentz transformation equations:-
ux1 ux2

t1 = k (t1 − 2 ) and t 
2 = k (t 2 − 2
)
c c
ux 2 ux1
 t 2 − t1 = k (t 2 −
c 2
) − k (t 1 −
c 2
)

u ( x1 − x 2 )
=k 2
since t1 = t 2
c

Thus, if the events are simultaneous in frame S, t1 must be equal to t 2 or t 2 − t1
must be equal to zero, but it is not so because x1 is not equal to x2.

Therefore, the same two events are not simultaneous in frame S.
Relativistic kinetic energy (KE) to Classical KE

m0 c 2
We know, Energy, E = mc 2 = and
1− v / c2 2

m0 c 2  1 
Kinetic energy, K = m c − m0 c =
2 2

− m 0 c = m0 c  2
− 1
2

1− v / c
2 2
 1− v / c
2 2


Using the binomial approximation (1 + x) n  1 + nx with x  1 , we get

 1 
K = m0 c 2  − 1
 1− v / c 
2 2
At low speed, the
2 1 v2  relativistic expression
For low speeds, = m0 c 1 + − 1 
 2 c 2
 for the K.E. of a moving
v / c  1 body reduces to the
1
= m0 v 2 classical one. (9)
2
 m0 c 2
Mass-less particles: We know, total energy E= ,
1− v / c
2 2

m00vu
and relativistic momentum p=
1− v2 / c2

(Case-1) When m0 = 0 and v < c, i.e., E = p = 0 i.e., A mass less particle with a
speed less than that of light can have neither energy nor momentum.

(Case-2) When mo = 0 and v = c, E = 0/0 and p = 0/0 which are indeterminate: E

and p can have any values. The above equations are consistent with the existence
of mass-less particles that possess energy and momentum provided that they
travel with the speed of light.
Momentum of Photon Subtracting p 2c 2 from E2 , we get,
We know, 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 𝑚0 2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2
m0 c 2 𝐸2 − 𝑝2 𝑐 2 = −
total energy E= , 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
1− v / c
2 2
𝑐 2
𝑣 2
m0 c
2 4 = 𝑚0 2 𝑐 2 2 2
− 2 2
𝑐2
or, E2 = 𝑐 −𝑣 𝑐 −𝑣
1− v2 / c2 𝑐2 − 𝑣2
2
= 𝑚0 𝑐 4
and relativistic momentum 𝑐2 − 𝑣2
m0u
p= = 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4
1− v2 / c2
2
m0 v 2
or, p = 2

1− v / c
2 2
,  E 2 = m0 c 4 + p 2 c 2
2

2
m0 v 2 c 2
or, p c =2 2

1− v2 / c2
E = mo c 4 + p 2 c 2 = Eo + p 2 c 2
2 2
Therefore, for all particles, we have

According to this formula, if a particle exists m0 = 0, then the relationship between

its energy and momentum is given by
For, mass - less particles E = pc ℎυ
𝐸 ℎυ 𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 𝑝= =
𝑐 𝑐
Theory of Light
There are different theories on the nature of the light. The important theories are as
follows:
1. Newton's corpuscular particle theory:
Isaac Newton stated in his Hypothesis of Light on 1672 that light was composed of
corpuscles (tiny, light and elastic particles) which were emitted in all directions from
a source.
2. Huygens, Wave Theory:
Christiaan Huygens worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1679 and
published it in his treatise on light in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all
directions as a series of waves in a medium called the Luminiferous ether.
3. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory:
Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation, he first stated
this result in 1862.

4. Planck's Quantum theory:

In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black-body radiation, suggested that light
energy is a combination of "quanta“.
5. Dual nature of light:
It is established that light has both the nature of wave and particles.
Planck's Quantum theory:
Postulates of Planck's quantum theory:
1) Energy is not emitting continuously but discontinuously in the form of small
packets of energy known as quanta of energy (photon).

2) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of

radiation i.e., E is directly proportional to ʋ, where ʋ is the frequency.
Thank YOU