HVAC Design

Key Concepts and Theories

By-Engr.Tarique Faizi

[email protected]
 Key Factors for Chiller Selection
Consider cooling load, efficiency metrics (EER & COP), ambient conditions (temperature & humidity),
refrigerant selection (environmental impact), future expansion needs, common challenges (space &
budget constraints), maintenance access (for reliability), and noise levels (to meet regulations).

A. Key Factors for Chiller Selection-Heating Load:

The building cooling load is calculated by estimating heat gains based on ASHRAE standards. Solar heat
gain through windows is calculated using ASHRAE Fundamentals/ISHRAE, while internal load from
equipment and lighting is estimated using ASHRAE 90.1. The sensible and latent heat gain from people
is determined based on ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 18. Heat transfer through walls and windows
follows the formula Q = U × A × ΔT, where U is the heat transfer coefficient, A is the area, and ΔT is the
temperature difference. Ventilation load from fresh air is also calculated based on ASHRAE 62.1. The
total heat gain in BTU/hr. is then converted to tons of refrigeration (TR) by dividing by 12,000.

For an industrial application requiring cooling for machinery, we need to determine the chiller
load using the formula: Q=m˙⋅Cp⋅ΔT
Where:
• Q is the heat load in (kW) BTU/hr
• m˙ is the mass flow rate in (kg/s) (lb/hr)
• cp is the specific heat capacity in(J/kg°C) (BTU/lb°F)
• ΔT is the temperature difference in degrees Celsius (°C) (°F)
General Formula:
Q=m˙⋅Cp⋅ΔT

The simplified formula Q=500×V˙ ΔT

Where Q is in (BTU/hr.), V˙ is in (USGPM), ΔT is in °F

the constant 500 accounts for the density of water (8.34 lb./gal), specific heat capacity (1 BTU/lb. °F),
and time conversion (minutes to hours).

The simplified formula Q=4.186×V˙×ΔT,

Where Q is in kW, V˙ is in L/s, and ΔT is in °C.

the constant 4.186 incorporates water's density (1000 kg/m³) and specific heat capacity (4186 J/kg°C).

Let's Consider an Example requiring cooling for machinery:

The mass flow rate of chilled water (m˙) is 2,500 pounds per hour.
The specific heat capacity of water (cp) is 1 BTU per pound per degree Fahrenheit.
The inlet temperature of the water is 60 degrees Fahrenheit, and the outlet temperature is 50 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Using the formula, we can calculate the chiller load (Q):

Q=m˙⋅Cp⋅ΔT

Q=(2,500lb/hr.) ⋅(1BTU/lb.⋅°F) ⋅(10°F) = 25,000BTU/hr.

This calculation indicates that the chiller must be capable of removing 25,000 BTU/hr. (approximately
2.08 TR or 7.34 kW) of heat from the machinery to maintain optimal operating temperatures.
 Designing the Heat Exchanger:
Once you've finalized the required cooling load for the building by Heat Load as mentioned above, (or from
Q=m˙⋅cp⋅ΔT for industrial applications), you can then equate it with Q=U⋅A⋅ΔT to determine the heat transfer
area.
Once you have the required heat transfer area (A), you can proceed to design the heat exchanger, selecting
the appropriate number, size, and arrangement of tubes depending on the desired surface area, material,
and flow characteristics. Tube selection will depend on parameters like, Tube diameter and length, Number
of tubes.

B. Key Factors for Chiller Selection-Ambient Conditions:

Heat Rejection: Air-cooled chillers reject heat to ambient air, and higher temperatures reduce their efficiency
and cooling capacity due to a lower temperature differential, leading to increased energy consumption. In
contrast, water-cooled chillers perform better in high temperatures but require a stable water supply.
Humidity: High humidity limits the heat rejection capability of air-cooled systems, reducing performance and
increasing the risk of condensation. Water-cooled systems are less affected by humidity, providing more stable
operation.
Altitude: Reduced air density at higher altitudes can significantly decrease the cooling capacity of air- cooled
chillers, while water-cooled chillers remain effective.
Air Quality: Poor air quality can lead to fouling on air-cooled chillers' condenser coils, increasing maintenance
needs and reducing efficiency. Water-cooled systems face challenges with water quality, requiring treatment to
prevent scaling and corrosion.
Seasonal Variations: Air-cooled chillers may be less efficient in summer months due to high temperatures,
whereas water- cooled chillers generally maintain stable performance throughout the year.
In what situations would you prefer Air cooled chiller over the water cooled?
Air-Cooled Chillers: Best for small, moderate-climate applications with lower cooling needs and installation
flexibility; performance may decline in extreme heat.
Water-Cooled Chillers: Optimal for large, high-load applications, offering higher efficiency in hot climates,
consistent performance, and reduced noise, but requiring adequate water resources and additional infrastructure.
 Non-AHRI Condition Performance-Standard Derating Factor
• AHRI Conditions: Chillers are typically tested and rated under standardized conditions set by AHRI
(e.g., specific inlet water temperatures, ambient temperatures, and flow rates). These are used to
compare chiller performance across different manufacturers.
• Deviation from AHRI Conditions: In real-world applications, conditions like water temperatures,
ambient temperatures, and system load may differ from AHRI test conditions. This can cause
degradation in chiller performance, where the cooling capacity and efficiency may be lower than
expected.

Example:
Chiller Rated Conditions (AHRI Standard):
Ambient air temperature: 35°C
Chilled water inlet temperature (evaporator): 12°C Chilled
water outlet temperature (evaporator): 7°C Condenser water
inlet temperature: 30°C
Chiller capacity: 100 TR (tons of refrigeration)

Scenario 1: Higher Ambient Temperature

When the ambient air temperature rises from 35°C (AHRI condition) to 40°C, the chiller’s condenser
struggles to reject heat efficiently. This increases the workload on the compressor, leading to a 10%
capacity reduction. As a result, the chiller’s cooling capacity drops from 100 TR to 90 TR.

Scenario 2: Varying Water Inlet/Outlet Temperatures

With the chilled water inlet/outlet temperatures changing from 12°C/7°C to 15°C/10°C, the heat exchange
efficiency decreases. Say this causes a 15% capacity reduction, lowering the chiller’s capacity from 100 TR to 85
TR.

Manufacturers typically include these derating factors or performance charts in their product documentation
to ensure proper selection based on real-world operating conditions.
C. Key Factors for Chiller Selection-Efficiency Metrics:
• Units: EER is expressed in BTUs per watt, while COP is a unitless ratio (kW/kW).
• Application: EER is primarily used for cooling systems (air conditioning and chillers), whereas COP can be
used for both heating and cooling applications, such as chiller and heat pumps.
Both EER and COP are crucial for evaluating the energy efficiency of HVAC systems, influencing operational
costs and sustainability. Higher values for either metric indicate better performance and lower energy
consumption.

EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio)

• Residential Systems: An EER value of 12 or higher is often considered efficient for residential air
conditioning systems.
• Commercial Systems: For commercial chillers, an EER of 10 to 14 is common, with values above 12
being favorable for energy efficiency
High-Efficiency Models: High-efficiency air-cooled chillers can achieve EER ratings of 15 or higher.

COP (Coefficient of Performance)

• Cooling Applications: A COP value of 3.0 or higher is generally considered efficient for air
conditioning and cooling systems. (Air cooled Chiller 2.5 to 4.5, water cooled chiller-3 to6)
• Heating Applications: For heat pumps, a COP of 3.5 to 4.5 is typical, with values above 4.0
indicating high efficiency.
IPLV stands for Integrated Part Load Value.
The IPLV is crucial because chillers typically operate at partial loads rather than full capacity. It gives a more
realistic measure of efficiency by reflecting how the chiller performs under varying load conditions.
IPLV is calculated based on the chiller's performance at various percentage loads (typically 25%, 50%, 75%, and
100%).
The average IPLV COP is usually higher than the full-load COP, often in the range of 6 to 9, reflecting better
efficiency at lower loads
kW/TR: This ratio indicates the amount of electrical power (in kilowatts) required to produce one ton of
refrigeration. A lower kW/TR value means a more efficient chiller, as it indicates that less electrical
power is needed for the same cooling capacity.

Derating Over Time-Fouling Factor

This type of derating specifically addresses performance degradation over time due to factors like, due to factors
such as fouling, corrosion, equipment aging, increased wear and tear and changes in refrigerant properties.

Manufacturers provide a fouling factor like 0.018 to predict chiller performance, which impacts the selection
process by ensuring the chiller is adequately sized for real-world conditions. This factor helps in determining the
cooling capacity loss due to fouling over time, which can lead to a significant reduction in effective capacity after 5
to 10 years if not addressed—potentially dropping from 100 TR to 85 TR. This factor is used to size the chiller
correctly and plan for regular cleaning and maintenance to keep it running efficiently.

Chiller approach is defined as the temperature difference between the evaporating refrigerant and the leaving water
(or air) at the evaporator or condenser. In a water-cooled system, it specifically refers to the difference between the
evaporating refrigerant temperature and the leaving chilled water temperature; in an air-cooled system, it's the
difference between the refrigerant and ambient air temperature.

Chiller approach Impact: Chiller approach temperature is a critical metric in assessing the efficiency and performance
of a chiller. A low approach indicates effective heat transfer, leading to better energy efficiency and lower
operational costs. Monitoring approach temperatures helps in early detection of issues like fouling, scaling, or
inadequate flow, enabling timely maintenance. Maintaining an optimal approach ensures efficient system design,
optimal chiller operation, and longer equipment life, while minimizing energy consumption. Typical evaporator
approach values range between 2°F to 6°F (1.1°C to 3.3°C), and condenser approach between 3°F to 7°F (1.7°C to
3.9°C).
 Below are some additional considerations for chiller selection:
When assessing noise levels in chillers, check the manufacturer's decibel ratings for sound levels during operation,
aiming for around 60 dB for offices and below 55 dB for residential areas. Use standardized measurement
methods (e.g., ANSI/ASA S12.60) for consistency, and consider the chiller's installation location to minimize noise
transmission. To mitigate noise, select low-noise models, isolate vibrations with pads or mounts, and install
acoustic enclosures for sound absorption. Regular maintenance is crucial to prevent mechanical issues that can
lead to increased noise levels.

Shell and tube heat exchangers are widely used for efficient heat transfer, with fluids flowing through tubes and
the shell. They are available in different configurations like single-pass, multi-pass, and U-tube arrangements.
Proper support, like baffles and tube sheets, is crucial to prevent vibration and ensure stability during operation.
Testing methods, including hydrostatic tests (1.5 times the design pressure) and eddy current tests, verify the
integrity of the tubes and overall system.

The General allowable pressure drop across a chiller in the chilled water circuit is typically between 20 to 40 kPa
(approximately 3 to 6 psi).

In chiller design, selection, and installation, compliance with a comprehensive set of standards is crucial for
ensuring performance, safety, and regulatory adherence. These include ASHRAE 15, ASHRAE 23, ASHRAE 30, and
ASHRAE 34 for safety and testing; AHRI 550/590 for performance ratings; ISO 1940 and ISO 5151 for vibration
control, performance, and acoustics; ANSI B 31.5 for refrigeration piping; IEC 60335-2-40 for electrical safety; and
NFPA 70 and NFPA 90A for electrical and fire protection. Additionally, EPA Clean Air Act and EPA Section 608
ensure environmental compliance in refrigerant use and handling.