Introduction Figure 1: Propeller Terms

Throughout the development of controlled flight as we know it, every aircraft re-
quired some kind of device to convert engine power to some form of thrust Nearly
all of the early practical aircraft designs used propellers to create this thrust.
As the science of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs improved from flat
boards, which merely pushed the air backwards, to airfoil shapes. These airfoils
produced lift to pull the aircraft forward through aerodynamic action. Blade

As aircraft designs improved, propellers were developed which used thinner airfoil
sections and had greater strength. Because of its structural strength, these im-
provements brought the aluminium alloy propeller into wide usage. The advantage
of being able to change the propeller blade angle in flight led to wide acceptance
of the two-position propeller and, later, the constant speed propeller system.
Today, propeller designs continue to be Improved by the use of new composite
materials, new airfoil shapes and multi blade configurations.

Terms
Before starting any discussion about propellers, it is necessary to define some ba-
sic terms to avoid confusion and misunderstanding.
A propeller is a rotating airfoil that consists of two or more blades attached to a
central hub which is mounted on the engine crankshaft. The function of the propel-
ler is to convert engine power to useful thrust. Propeller blades have a leading
edge, trailing edge, a tip, a shank, a face, and a back as shown in Sub Module
"Propeller Construction" Figure 1 on page 2.
Blade angle is the angle between the propeller's plane of rotation, and the chord
line of the propeller airfoil.
Blade station is a reference position on a blade that is a specified distance from
the cen ter of the hub. UFWD
Pitch Is the distance (in inches or milimetres) that a propeller section will move for- Blade B~a:;:c;..:.k_ _ __
ward in one revolution.

~~···
Pitch distribution is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank to tip.

Which of the following functions requires the use of a

propeller blade station? Plane of Rotation

Measuring blade angle

Blade Element Theory Figure 2: Propeller Slip

The thrust produced by a propeller blade is determined by five things: the shape
and area of the airfoil section, the angle of attack, the density of the air, and the t------+11 Slip
speed at which the airfoil moves through the air.
Before discussing ways of varying the amount of lift produced by a propeller blade,
we must understand some of the propeller design characteristics.
The blade element theory considers a propeller blade to be made of an infinite
number of airfoil sections, with each section located a specific distance from the
axis of rotation of the propeller. Each blade element travels at a different speed
because of its distance from the centre of the hub, and to prevent the thrust from
increasing along the length of the blade as its speed increases, the cross-sectional
shape of the blade and its blade, or pitch, angle, vary from a thick, high pitch angle
near the low-speed shank to a thin, low pitch angle at the high-speed tip.
By using the blade element theory, a propeller designer can select the proper air-
foil section and pitch angle to provide the optimum thrust distribution along the
blade. This is named propeller twist.
The thrust developed by a propeller is in accordance with Newton's third law of
motion. (For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction). In the case of Effective Pitch
a propeller, the first action is the acceleration of a mass of air to the rear of the air-
craft. The reaction is that the aeroplane is pulled forward. Geometric Pitch
Since the angle of a propeller blade varies along its length, a particular blade sta-
tion must be chosen to specify the pitch of a blade.
Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some propeller manufactur- Angle of Attack
ers express pitch in inches at 75% of the radius. This is the geometric pitch, or the Thrust produced by a propeller, in the same way as lift produced by a wing, is de-
distance this particular element would move forward in one revolution along a he- termined by the blade's angle of attack. It is the acute angle between the chord line
lix, or spiral, equal to its blade angle. of a propeller blade and the relative wind.
The effective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances through the air in
one revolution. This cannot be determined by the pitch angle alone because it is Angle of attack relates to the blade pitch angle, but it is not a fixed angle. It varies
affected by the forward velocity of the airplane. with the forward speed of the airplane and the RPM of the propeller.
The difference between geometric and effective pitch is called propeller slip. As an example: \Mlen there is no forward speed, angle of attack (a) and blade
If a propeller has a pitch of 50 inches, in theory it should move forward 50 inches pitch angle are the same, 20•.
in one revolution But if the aircraft actually moves forward only 35 inches in one \Mlen the airplane Is moving forward at 60 knots, angle of attack becomes much
revolution the effective pitch is 35 inches and the propeller efficiency Is 70%. less than the blade pitch angle (see "Figure 3" on page 4)
What is the purpose of prop twist?
To provide optimum thrust distribution along the blade.
Figure 3: Propeller Angle of Attack

1300 1300
RPM RPM

Forward Velocity Forward Velocity

o Knots 60 Knots
Forces Acting on the Propeller Thrust Bending Force
\Mlen a propeller rotates, many forces interact and cause tension, twisting, and Thrust ben~ing force atte~pts to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips, be-
bending stresses within the propeller. cause the lift toward the ttp of the blade flexes the thin blade sections forward.
Thrust bending force opposes centrifugal force to some degree.
Centrifugal Force Figure 5: Thrust Bending Force
Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it tries to pull the blades
out of the hub. It is not uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several thousand
times the weight of the blade. For example, a 10 kg propeller blade turning at 2,700
RPM may exert a force of 50 tons on the blade root

Figure 4: Propeller Centrifugal Force

Centrifugal Force

which forces are acting on a propeller blade?

Bending, twsting and tension
Torque Bending Force Aerodynamic Twisting Moment
Torque bending forces try to bend the propeller blade back in the direction oppo- Aerodynamic twisting moment tries to twist a blade to a higher angle. This force is
site the direction of rotation. produced because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the midpoint of the chord
line, while the centre of the lift of the blade is forward of this axis. This force tries
Figure 6: Propeller Torque Bending Force to increase the blade angle. Aerodynamic twisting moment is used in some de-
signs to help feather the propeller.
Figure 7: Propeller Aerodynamic Twisting Moment

Center of
Pressure
Centrifugal Twisting Moment Vibrational Forces and Resonance
Centrifugal twisting moment tries to decrease the blade angle. and opposes aero- When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and mechamcal forces are
dynamic twisting moment. This tendency to decrease the blade angle is produced present which cause the blades of the propeller to vibrate (see "Figure 9" on
since all the parts of a rotating propeller try to move in the same plane of rotation page 7). A person designing a propeller must take this into consideration. If this is
as the blade centerline. This force is greater than the aerodynamic twisting mo- not done, these vibrations may cause excessive flexing , hardening of the metal
ment at operational RPM and is used in some designs to decrease the blade an- and could result in sections of the propeller breaking off during operation.
gle. Aerodynamic forces have a great vibration effect at the tip of the blade where the
Figure 8: Propeller Centrifugal Twisting Moment effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibrations.
Mechanical vibrations are caused by power pulses in a piston engine and are more
destructive then aerodynamic vibrations The most critical location when looking
Centrifugal Twisting Force for the stresses is about 2.5 em from the propeller tip.
Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations have no problem in eliminating the
effects of vibrational stresses. However some combinations are sensitive to cer-
tain RPM ranges and they have a critical range indicated on the tachometer by a
red arc. The engine should not be operated in this range. If it is operated in the
critical range over a period of time, there is a strong possibility that the propeller
will suffer from structural failure due to the vibrational stresses.

Rotation Figure 9: Propeller Vibration

Vibrations

Some engine-propeller combinations have one or more critical range(s)

within which continuous operation is not permitted. why not?
Critical ranges are established to avoid propeller vibration Stress Points Propeller Shaft
Propeller Construction clamping rings. The blade shank is that portion of the blade near the butt (see
"Figure 4" on page 5). It is usually made thick, to provide strength, and it is cylin-
The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which drical. This area of the propeller does not produce any lift.
they are attached.
Propeller blades have a shank, butt, hllb, tip, trailing edge, leading edge, face and
Blade Cuff
a back. The blade shank is the thick, rounded portion of the propeller blade near A blade cuff is a metal , wood, or plastic structure designed for attachment to the
the hub, which is designed to give strength to the blade. The blade butt (see shank end of the blade, whith an outer surface that will transform the round shank
"Figure 4" on page 5), also called the blade base or root, is that end of the blade, into an airfoil section. The cuff is designed prima rilly to increase the flow of cooling
which fits in the propeller hub. The blade tip is that part of the propeller blade far- air to the engine nacelle.
thest from the hub, generally defined as the last 6 inches of the blade. The cam- The cuffs are attached to the blades by mechanical clamping devices or by using
bered side of a blade is called the blade back. The flat side of the blade is called bonding materials. what is the primary purpose of a cuff on a
the blade face (see "Figure 1" on page 2).
Figure 2: Blade Cuff propeller?
Figure 1: Propeller Parts To increase the flow or cooling air to the
engine nacelle.
Blade
Blade Cuff

n
np

A-A
c,'l-
c::) Rotation
e
1
Leading
Trailing Edge
Edge what is the basic purpose of the small holes in the tipping of
wood propeller blades?
Adjustable propellers have at least two blades clamped into a steel hub assembly. To allow the moisture which may collect between the tipping and
The hub is the supporting unit for the blades and it provides the mounting structure
for the propeller to be attached to the engine. The propeller hub is split on a plane the wood to escape (vent the tipping).
parallel to the plane of rotation to allow for the installation of the blades. The blade
root consists of machined ridges, which fit into grooves inside the hub. \.1\hlen the
propeller is assembled, the sections of the hub are held in place by means of
Aluminum Alloy Propellers A composite propeller designed by Hamilton Standard consists of a solid alumini-
um-alloy spar around which a fiberglass shell with the correct airfoil shape is
Aluminum propellers are the most widely used types of propeller in aviation. They
placed. The space between the spar and the shell is filled with plastic foam that
provide better engine cooling by carrying the airfoil sections closer to the hub and
provides a fi rm support for the shell. The outer surface of the shell is given a coat-
directing more air over the engine.
ing of polyurethane.
Aluminum propellers are made from aluminum alloy and are finished to the desired
airfoil shape by machining and manual grinding. Twisting the blades to the desired It is important that nicks in aluminium alloy propeller blades be
angles sets the pitch. repaired as soon as possible. Why that?
Once the propeller is ground to the desired contour, it must then be balanced. This In order to eliminate stress concentration points
is done by removing some metal from the tip of the blade (see Title "Propeller Bal-
ancing" on page 2) .
After the propeller is balanced the surfaces are finished by plating, chemical etch-
ing and or painting. Anodizing is the most commonly used finishing process.

Steel Propellers
Steel propellers are found primarily on transport aircraft. They are normally of hol-
low construction, which help to reduce weight.
Solid steel propellers are forged and machined to the desired contours and the
proper twist is achieved by twisting the blades.
Hollow steel blades are constructed by assembling a rib structure, attaching steel
sheets to the structure. and filling the outer section of the blade with a foam mate-
rial to absorb vibration and maintain a rigid structure

Composite Propellers
Much research has been devoted to the development of technology required to
produce blades from composite materials. In comparison to the more traditional
aluminum alloys, the composite blade material offers not only a significant weight
reduction, but also improved damage tolerance, vibration damping, and design
flexibility
Composite blade construction involves the use of various plastic resins reinforced
with fibres or filaments composed of glass, carbon, Kevlar or boron. The resin ma-
trix may be epoxy, polyester or polyamide. Glass fiber with epoxy resin was used
extensively for many years to manufacture a wide variety of lightweight, high
strength blades. Graphite or carbon filament with epoxy was developed lately and
has proven to be stronger and more durable than glass fiber composites.
Hamilton Standard, Hartzell, and Dowty are the main manufactures of composite
propellers. Blade design may vary among them, but similar results are achieved.
Figure 3: Different Composite Propeller
Polyurethane Leading Aluminium Braid Glass Fiber
Solid High-Strength Edge Protection Lightning Conductor Envelope
Aluminium Alloy Spar

Glass Cloth Polyurethane Carbon Fiber

Foam Core Blade Spars
Hamilton Standard Propeller

Kevlar Shear Webs Foam Fill

Layers of Glass
nd Carbon Fibers

Carbon Glass Fiber

Kevlar Outer Fiber Blade Envelope
Shell Spars

Primary Retention Metal Erosion

Blade Cuff Shear Webs Shield

Shank of Aluminium PluQ Laminated Kevlar

Hartzell Propeller Dowty-Rotol Propeller Inner Sleeve

Blade Stations
The typical propeller blade can be described as a twisted airfoil of irregular plan- From where to where be propeller blade station numbers
form. Two views of a propeller blade are shown in Figure 4 on page 5. For purpos-
es of analysis, a blade can be divided into segments, which are located by station increased?
numbers in 1nches from the centre of the blade hub. The blade hub assembly is From hub to tip.
the supporting unit for the blades.
Blade Stations are used from maintenance personnel for damage assessment,
blade angle checks, etc.
The cross sections of each 6-in. blade segment are shown as airfoils in the right-
hand side of Figure 4 on page 5. Also identified are the blade shank and the blade
butt.

Figure 4: Blade Station

Tip Section

42" STA

42"
18" STA

12" STA

Hub
-~---~----- - - - - - Centerline
Types of Propellers Ground-Adjustable Propeller
There are various types or classes of propellers, the simplest of which are the The ground-adjustable propeller operates as a fixed-pitch propeller. The pitch or
~xed-pitch and ground-~djustable propellers. The complexity of propeller systems
blade ~ngle can only be changed when the propeller is not turning. It is done by
loose~mg the clamping mechanism, which holds the blades in place. After the
mcreases fro_m these s1mp~er forms to controllable-pitch and complex automatic
clampmg mechamsm has been tightened, the pitch of the blades cannot be
sys~ems. Vanous charactenst1cs of several propeller types are discussed in the fol-
changed In flight to meet variable flight requirements. Uke the fixed-pitch propeller
lowmg paragraphs, but no attempt is made to cover all types of propellers.
th~ ground-adjustable propeller IS used on aircraft of low power, speed. range, o~
Fixed-Pitch Propeller altitude
':- ground adjusta~le propeller may have blades made of wood or metaL The hub
As the name implies, a fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch or blade angle
1s usually of two p1ece steel construction with clamps or large nuts used to hold the
bu~lt Into the propeller. The blade angle cannot be changed afte~ the propeller i~ blade securely in place. When the angle of the blade is to be changed, the clamp
bUilt Generally, this type of propeller is one piece and is constructed of laminated
or blade nuts are loosened and the blades rotated to the desired angle as indicated
wood or aluminium alloy.
by a propeller protractor. The angle markings on the hub are not considered accu-
Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one rotational and for- rate enough to provide a good reference for blade adjustment, so they are only
ward speed. used for reference.
They are de~igned to fit a _s_e t of conditions of both aircraft and engine speeds, and
Figure 5: Ground-Adjustable Propeller
any change 1n these cond1t1ons reduces the efficiency of both the propeller and the
engine. The fixed-pitch propeller is used on aircraft of low power speed range or
altitude. ' ' '
Control/able·.Pitch Propeller move the blades into a low pitch, and by installing counterweights on the blade
roots to help move the blades into high pitch
Ground-adjustable propellers were a step in the right direction, but with only minor
added weight and complexity, the propeller could be made far more efficient by al-
lowing the pilot to change the pitch of the blades in flight.
The first popular controllable-pitch propellers were hydraulically actuated by en-
gine lubricating oil supplied through a hollow crankshaft. A counterweight on an
arm is attached to each blade root so that centrifugal force rotates the blade into
a high pitch angle. A fixed piston in the end of the propeller shaft is covered by a
movable cylinder attached through bearings to the counterweight arms.
For takeoff, the two-position propeller control is placed in the low pitch position that
directs engine orl into the cylinder and moves it forward over the piston. This pulls
the counterweights in and rotates the blades into their low pitch position.
'Mlen the airplane is set up for cruise flight, the pitch control is moved to the high
pitch position. This opens an oil passage, allowing the oil in the propeller cylinder
to drain back into the engine sump. Centrifugal force on the counterweights moves
them outward into the plane of rotation, and rotates the blades into their high pitch
position.
This same configuration of propeller, when equipped with a Hyweight governor to
control the oil into and out of the cylinder, is a popular constant speed propeller.

Figure 6: Two Position Propeller

Automatic Propellers
At the end of World War II there was a tremendous boom in private arrplane, en- The aerodynamic twisting force acting on a rotating propeller blade
gine, and propeller development and manufacture. One interesting development
operating at a normal pitch angle tends to do what?
of that era that became popular but faded away, because its complexities were
greater than its advantages, was the Koppers Aeromatic propeller. This propeller It increase the pitch angle.
was fully automatic and used the balance between the aerodynamic twisting force
and the centrifugal twisting force to maintain a relatively constant speed for any which statement regarding the centrifugal twisting force acting on a
given throttle setting. propeller blade is true?
The two forces were amplified by offsetting the blades from the hub with a pro- It is greater than the aerodynamic twisting force and tends to move
nounced lag angle to increase the effect of the centrifugal twisting force trying to the blade to a lower angle
Constant Speed Propellers Figure 7: Constant Speed Propeller
A constant speed propeller system is a system in which the propeller blade angle
is varied by the action of a governor to maintain a constant speed. The pitch
changing devices for constant speed propellers include electric motors, hydraulic
cylinders, and devices in which centrifugal forces act on fly weights and combina-
tions of these methods.
The tremendous advantage of being able to change pitch in flight opened new pos-
sibilities for increased efficiency. Replacing the two-position valve with a flyweight-
controlled valve in a governor allows the blade pitch angle to be continuously and
automatically adjusted in flight to maintain a constant and efficient engine speed.
Throughout and immediately after World War II an electrically controlled constant-
speed propeller was used with some degree of success. A small reversible DC
motor mounted in the centre of the propeller hub drove a speed reducer with an
attached bevel gear. This gear meshed with bevel gears on the root of each blade
to change the pitch so the propeller could maintain an air load on the engine that
produced the RPM called for by the governor. The large amount of maintenance
required for electric propellers caused their demise.
There are only two types of propellers installed on current production airplanes;
fixed-pitch propellers for the small and simple airplanes, and hydraulically actuat-
ed constant-speed propellers for complex airplanes.
The blades of constant-speed propellers are held in high-strength steel hubs, with
roller- or ball-type thrust bearings that enable their pitch angle to be changed with
a minimum of force.

What is the propeller blade angle? Steel Hub Propeller Compact Propeller
It is the angle between chord of the blade and the rotational
plane of the propeller

When engine power is increased, the constant speed propeller

tries to function how?
That it will maintain the RPM and increase the blade angle
Propeller Installation Tapered Shaft Installations
The method used to attach the propeller to the engine crankshaft will vary with the Tapered shaft crankshafts are found on older model engines of low horsepower.
This type of crankshaft requires a hub insert to adapt the propeller to the shaft.
design of the crankshaft. Basically there are three types of crankshafts used on air-
craft engines: (see "Figure g•· on page 9)
The Flanged Propeller Shaft. Figure 9: Tapered Propeller Shaft
The Tapered Propeller Shaft
The Splined Propeller Shaft.

Flanged Shaft Installations

Flanged propeller shafts are used on most flaUhorizontally opposed and some tur-
boprop engines. The front of the crankshaft is formed into a flange four-to-eight
inches across and perpendicular to the crankshaft centre line. Mounting bolt holes
and dowel pin holes are machined into the flange and, on some flanges, threaded
inserts are pressed into the bolt holes.
Figure 8: Flanged Propeller Shaft
Splined Shaft Installations inserts hold on the propeller. The bolt heads are drilled and safetied with 1mm
stainless steel safety wire, using standard safety wire procedures.
Splined crankshafts are found on most radial engines and some flat! horizontally
opposed, in-line. and even turboprop engines. The splined shaft has grooves and If threaded inserts are not pressed into the flange, bolts and nuts are used. Some
splines of equal dimensions, and a master, or double-width , spline so that a hub installations use fiber lock nuts, which require no safetying, but the nuts should be
will fit on the shaft 1n only one position. replaced each time the propeller is removed. Other installations use castellated
nuts and drilled bolts and the nuts are safetied to the bolts with cotter pins.
Figure 10: Splined Propeller Shaft
Figure 11: Safetying a Flange Mounted Propeller

Use of Safety Wire to Secure Safetying a Castellated

Propeller Bolt Heads Nut on Propeller Bolts

Safetying a Propeller
There is no one correct way to safety a propeller installation because of the many
different types of installations. and for this reason only the more commonly used
safeties will be discussed.
A flanged shaft installation has the largest variety of safety methods because of its
many variations. If the flange has threaded inserts installed, bolts screwed into the
Propellers on splined and tapered shafts are safetied by passing a clevis pin
through matching holes in the end of the crankshaft and the propeller retaming nut
The clevis pin is safetied with a washer and a safety cotter pin.

Figure 12: Safetying a Tapered or Splined Shaft Mounted Propeller

Retaining Nut

f
Spinner Installation
All modern propeller-driven airplanes have spinners over their propeller hubs. How is aircraft electrical power for propeller deicer systems
These spinners have the dual aerodynamic function of streamlining the engine in-
stallation and directing cool air into the openings in the cowling. Figure 13 on transferred from the engine to the propeller hub assembly?
page 12 shows a typical spinner installation over a constant-speed propeller. The By slip 1ings and brushes.
spinner bulkhead is installed on the propeller shaft flange and held in place by six
spinner attaching bolts. The propeller is then installed so that the dowel ptns in the
propeller hub align with the holes in the flange. The propeller attaching nuts are
Installed and tightened to the torque value specified in the airframe maintenance
manual.
If a spinner support is required, it is installed and the spinner is secured to the bulk-
head with the proper machine screws.
The propeller spinner and bulkhead are critical components, and cracks in either
one can be repaired only if they do not exceed the allowable limits. Repair them
using the procedures specified in the airframe maintenance manual and take spe-
cial care not to add weight where it could cause vibration.

Figure 13: Spinner Installation

Spinner
Support
Pitch Change Methods Figure 1: Propeller Pitch Terms

Ground-adjustable propellers are designed so that their blade angles can be ad-
justed on the ground to give the desired performance characteristics for various
operational procedures.
If it is desired that the airplane have a maximum rate of climb, the propeller blades
are set at a low angle so that the engine can rotate at maximum speed to produce
the greatest power. In any case, the propeller blade may not be set at an angle
which will permit the engine to overspeed. \Mlen it Is desired that the engine op-
erate efficiently at cruising speed and at a high altitude, the blade angle is In-
creased.

The Controllable--Pitch Propeller

The controllable-pitch propeller permits a change of blade pitch, or angle, While the
propeller is rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a blade angle that will give
the best performance for particular flight conditions. The number of pitch positions
may be limited, as with a two position controllable propeller; or the pitch may be
adjusted to any angle between the minimum and maximum pitch settings of a giv-
en propeller.

Reverse Pitch Low Pitch High Pitch Feather

T he use of controllable-pitch propellers also makes it possible to attain the desired

engine RPM for a particular flight condition. As an airfoil Is moved through the ait,
it produces two forces, lift and drag. Increasing propeller blade angle Increases the
angle of attack and produces more lift and drag; this action increases the horse-
power required to turn the propeller at a given RPM. Since the engine is still pro-
ducing the same horsepower, the propeller slows down.
If the blade angle Is decreased, the propeller speeds up. Thus, the engine RPM
can be controlled by increasing or decreasing the blade angle.
The use of propeller governors to increase or decrease propeller pitch is common
practice. \Mlen the aircraft goes into a climb, the blade angle of the propeller de-
creases just enough to prevent the engine speed from decreasing. Therefore, the
engine can maintain its power output, provided the throttle setting is not changed. Figure 2: Propeller Control Mechanism
Wlen the aircraft goes into a dive, the blade angle increases sufficiently to prevent
over-speeding and, with the same throttle setting, the power output remains un-
changed. If the throttle setting is changed, Instead of changing the speed of the
aircraft by climbing or diving, the blade angle will increase or decrease as required
to maintain a constant engine RPM The power output (and not RPM) will therefore Condition
Propeller Lever
change in accordance with changes in the throttle setting. The governor-control-
Governor
led, constant-speed propeller changes the blade angle automatically, keeping en-
gine RPM constant.
Most pitch-changing mechanisms are operated by oil pressure; and use some type
of piston-and-cylinder arrangement. The piston may be moved in the cylinder, or Propeller Hub
the cylinder may be moved over a stationary piston. The linear motion of the piston Assembly
is converted by several different types of mechanical linkage into the rotary motion
necessary to change the blade angle. The mechanical connection may be through
gears, the pitch changing mechanism turning a drive gear or power gear that
meshes with a gear attached to the butt of each blade.
In most cases the oil pressure for operating these various types of hydraulic pitch-
changing mechanisms comes directly from the engine lubricating system (see
"Figure 2" on page 3). Wlen the engine lubricating system is used, the engme oil Engine
pressure is usually boosted by a pump that is integral with the governor to operate
the propeller. The higher oil pressure providing a quicker pitch change. The gov-
ernors used to control the hydraulic propeller pitch-changing mechanisms are
geared to the engine crankshaft and, thus, are sensitive to changes in RPM. The
governors direct the pressurised oil for operation of the propeller hydraulic pitch-
changing mechanisms. Wlen RPM increases above the value for which a gover-
nor is set, the governor causes the propeller pitch-change-mechanism to turn the Mounting
blades to a higher angle. This angle increases the load on the engine, and RPM Flange
decreases. Wlen RPM decreases below the value for which a govemor is set, the
governor causes the pitch-changing mechanism to turn the blades to a lower an-
gle, the load on the engine is decreased and RPM increases. Thus, a propeller
governor tends to keep engine RPM constant.
Blade
Constant Speed Propeller System pitch of the blades. Oil pressure moves the blades, against the force of the coun-
terweights, into low pitch. (see "Figure 3" on page 4)
Many types of light aircraft use governor regulated, constant-speed propellers in The pitch of a non-counterweight propeller is controlled by a combination of oil
two and more-bladed versions. pressure and aerodynamic twisting force to increase the pitch, and centrifugal
These propellers may be the non-feathering type, or they may be capable of feath- twisting force and the force of an internal spring to decrease the pitch.
ering and reversing. The steel hub consists of a central spider, which supports alu- The basic hub and blade retention system is common to all models described. The
minium blades with a tube extending inside the blade roots. Blade clamps connect blades are mounted on the hub spider for angular adjustment. The centrifugal
the blade shanks with blade retention bearings. A hydraulic cylinder is mounted on force of the blades, amounting to as much as 25 tons, is transmitted to the hub spi-
the rotational axis connected to the blade clamps for pitch actuation. (see der through blade clamps and then through ball bearings. The propeller thrust and
"Figure 3" on page 4)
engine torque is transmitted from the blades to the hub spider through a bushing
inside the blade shank.
Types of Hydraulic Pitch-Changing Mechanisms
In order to control the pitch of the blades, a hydraulic piston-cylinder element is
There are two basic types of constant-speed propellers: counterweight and non- mounted on the front of the hub spider.
counterweight.
The piston is attached to the blade clamps by means of a sliding rod and fork sys-
Counterweight propellers have a weight clamped to the blade root to help move tem for non-feathering models and a link system for the feathering models.
the blades into high pitch . The centrifugal force, due to rotation of the propeller,
tends to move the counterweights into the plane of rotation, thereby increasing the

Figure 3: Types of Propeller

Counterweight

Counterweight Propeller Non-counterweight Propeller

Hydromatic Feathering Propeller Figure 4: Hydromatlc Propeller
In the late 1930s, the Hamilton Standard hydromatic propeller was developed,
which gave multlengine aeroplanes a much needed safety factor. If an engine Blade Gear Segment
failed, the pilot could move the blades beyond their normal high pitch position to
the feather position, which was normally between 88° and 92°.
The blade met the oncommg air at an angle that produced no torque and a mini-
mum of resistance. The propeller stopped turning and the pilot could continue fly-
ing on the other engine or engines. The hydromatic propeller has without a doubt Bevel - .
been used more than any other propeller in the history of aviation. It was used on Gear
most of the bombers, fighters, and transports during World War II, and it is still
seen on large reciprocating engines.The entire mechanism is enclosed in a sealed
hub and dome with no external arms, linkages, or counterweights. Figure 4 on
~overnor Oil Pressure cgh-Pressure from
page 5 shows the basic operating principle of this propeller. Engme 0 11Pressure Feathering Pump Routed
through Governor
The blades of a hydromatic propeller are secured in a high-strength steel hub with
roller-type thrust bearings. Torque from the engine is directed into the blades The Saab 2000 commuter airliner is equipped with a newer version of this kind of
through arms that extend several inches into the blade butt and are part of a high- propeller, it is a Dowty-Rotol Composite propeller.
strength forged steel spider, splined to the engine propeller shaft. Each blade root
is fitted with a segment of a bevel gear. The propeller controlling system and the counterweights on the propeller blades,
control the pitch of the propeller blades. The propeller controlling system can set
The dome screws into the propeller hub and houses the piston and two sets of the blades to feathering, forward thrust and reverse thrust.
concentric cams. A bevel gear on the inner cam meshes with the gear segments
on the blade roots. The primary parts of the pitch change mechanism are:
A double-acting governor is used with this propeller (see Title "Governor Mecha- The piston
nism" on page 8) . In an underspeed condition, it sends oil under engine pump The cylinder
pressure into the dome on the forward side of the piston, to move the piston aft The cross-head yoke assembly
and rotate the cams so that they move the blades into a low pitch angle, so the The cylinder is attached to the front of the hub and it does not move. The piston is
engine can speed up. Oil from the aft side of the piston drains into the engine sump installed in, and moves along the length of, the cylinder. The cross-head yoke is
through the governor. installed inside the hub, the front of it is connected to the piston, thus it moves with
ln an overspeed condition, the passages in the governor are reversed, and engine it.
oil , boosted in pressure by the governor pump, is directed to the aft side of the pis-
ton, and the oil from the forward side drains into the engine sump. The piston
moves forward and rotates the cam to move the blades into a high pitch angle.
Figure 5: Propeller Blade Pitch Changing Mechanism (Oowty-Rotol) V'vtlen the propeller turns, the counterweights turn the propeller blades towards
their feathered position. This effect makes sure the propeller blades give the min-
imum drag, if there is a failure of the propeller controlling system.
In usual conditions of operation, the pitch change mechanism gets a pressurized
supply of hydraulic oil from the propeller controlling system. This supply of hydrau-
lic oil (to each side of the piston in the pitch change mechanism) has a greater
force than the counterweights. Thus, when all the systems are serviceable, the
propeller controlling system sets the pitch of the propeller blades.
The piston of the pitch change mechanism moves along the cylinder, in relation to
the pressurized supply of hydraulic oil that it gets. V'vtlen the piston moves:
The cross-head yoke assembly moves
The propeller blades turn in their bearings
The pttch of the propeller blades changes.
Thus the pitch of the propeller blades is related to the input of the hydraulic oil to
the pitch change mechanism. V'vtlen the piston is at the forward end of the cylinder,
the propeller blades are in their reverse pitch position. V'vtlen the piston is at the
rear of the cylinder, the propeller blades are in their fully feathered position.
In the usual conditions of operation, when the power plant operates satisfactorily:
The pressurized hydraulic oil, from the propeller controlling system, flows
through the beta tubes into the pitch change mechanism.
The flow of the hydraulic oil into the pitch change mechanism:
Moves the piston
Sets the pitch of the propeller blades at the correct angle, in relation to the op-
eration of the power plant.
V'vtlile the the propeller assembly turns, the counterweights apply a force to the
propeller blades. If the flow of the hydraulic oil to the pitch change mechanism
stops, the counterweights control the pitch of the propeller blades. Because of their
position on the propeller blades, the counterweights try to move the propeller
blades towards:
Their coarse pitch (feathered) position , while the aircraft is in flight
Their maximum reverse thrust position, when the propeller blades are at an
angle less than 4•- 6•.
After an aircraft takes off and starts to increase speed, which
way would a constant speeding propeller move its blades?
Towards coarse pitch.
Figure 6: Pitch Control Schematic {Dowty-Rotol)

BLADE
Speed control
Governor Mechanism
The engine-driven propeller governor, constant-speed control, receives oil from
the lubricating system and boosts its pressure to that required to operate the pitch-
changing mechanism. It consists essentially of a gear pump to increase the pres-
sure of the engine oil, a pilot valve actuated by flyweights which control the flow of
oil through the governor and a relief valve system which regulates the operating
pressures in the governor.
In addition to boosting the engine oil pressure to produce one of the fundamental
control forces, the governor maintains the required balance between all control
forces by metering to, or draining from, the pitch change mechanism the exact
quantity of oil necessary to maintain the propeller blade angle for constant-speed
operation.
The position of the pilot valve with respect to the propeller control line port regu-
lates the quantity of oil which flows through this port to or from the propeller. A
spring above the rack returns the rack to an intermediate position, approximating
cruise RPM in case of governor control failure.
If the engine speed drops below the RPM for which the governor is set (see
"Figure 7'' on page 8), the rotational force on the engine driven governor fly-
weights decreases. This allows the speeder spring to move the pilot valve down-
ward. With the pilot valve in the downward position, oil from the gear pump flows
through a passage to the propeller and moves the cylinder outward. This, in turn.
decreases the blade angle and permits the engine to return to the on-speed set-
ting. If the engine speed increases above the RPM for which the governor is set,
the flyweights move against the force of the speeder spring and raise the pilot
valve. This permits the oil in the propeller to drain out through the governor drive
shaft. As the oil leaves the propeller, the centrifugal force acting on the counter-
weights turns the blades to a higher angle, which decreases the engine RPM.
IM'len the engine is exactly at the RPM set by the governor, the centrifugal action
of the flyweights balances the force of the speeder spring, positioning the pilot
valve so that oil is neither supplied to nor drained from the propeller. With this con-
dition, the propeller blade angle does not change. What will happen to the propeller blade angle and the engine RPM if
Note that the RPM setting is made by varying the amount of compression in the the tension on the propeller governor control spring (speeder spring)
speeder spring. Positioning of the speeder spring rack is the only action controlled
is increased?
manually All others are controlled automatically within the governor.
Blade angle will decrease and RPM will increase
Figure 7: Typical Propeller Governor
 Speed-Adjustmg
Control Lever
(Connects to
Cockpit Control)
.,..SJ:>eeder Spring

Adjusting Worm

SpeederSpnng Flyweight
Lift Rod
Flyweight

Toe

Flywe1ght Head
Drive Gear Shaft
On-speed Condition
Relief Valve Pilot Valve Plunger

Relief Valve To Engine Sump

By-Pass
During the on-speed condition of a propeller, what is true? Over-speed Condition Under-speed Condition
The centrifugal force of the governor flyweights is equal to
the speeder spring force
Constant-Speed Feathering Propeller What is the primary purpose of a feathering propeller?
The feathering propellers operate similarly to the non-feathering ones, except that It is to eliminate the drag created by a wind milling propeller when
the feathering spring assists the counterweights to increase the pitch (see an engine fails in flight
"Figure 8" on page 10).

Figure 8: Feathering Propeller

Oil

Fine Pitch
Stop

Counterweight
Fine Pitch Reverse Pitch
Feather

Feathering The ability to unfeather the blades, or re-establish normal pitch , within the same
Feathering is accomplished by releasing the governor oil pressure, allowing the elapsed time is not considered important for the light twin-engine aircraft. The pos-
counterweights and feathering spring to feather the blades. This is done by pulling sibility of feathering the wrong propeller in an emergency is remote, as the wrong
the governor pitch control back to its limit, which opens up a port in the governor action will become apparent in ample time to be corrected.
allowing the oil from the propeller to drain back into the engine. The time neces-
Unfeathering
sary to feather depends upon the size of the oil passage from the propeller to the
engine, and the force exerted by the spring and counterweights. The larger the Unfeathering is accomplished by repositioning the governor control to the normal
passages through the governor and the heavier the spring, the quicker is the feath- flight range and restarting the engine (see "Figure 8" on page 10). As soon as the
ering action. The elapsed time for feathering, between three and ten seconds, is engine cranks over a few turns, the governor starts to unfeather the blades and
usual with this system. windmilling immediately takes place, which speeds up the process of unfeather-
The primary reason for using feathering propeller on a multiengine aircraft is to de- ing. In order to facilitate cranking of the engine, the feathering blade angle is set at
crease the drag that is caused by a windmilling propeller when an engine fails in so· to ss· degrees at the 314 point on the blade, allowing the air to assist the en-
flight. gine starter. In general, restarting and unfeathering can be accomplished within a
few seconds.
Special unfeathenng systems are available for certain aircraft, for which restarting This feature is helpful for landing multi-engine turboprops because it reduces the
the engine is difficult, or for demonstrations. The system consists of an oil accu- length of their landing roll, which, in tum, reduces the amount of braking needed
mulator, connected to the governor through a valve, as shown in Figure 9 on substantially increasing the life of the brakes and tires.
page 11 .
Overspeed Protection
Figure 9: Feather Accumulator
Light aircraft propeller speed control is accomplished by the governor (see Title
Control "Governor Mechanism" on page 8}.
Control (Normal Position) Actual turbo-prop equipped aircraft, like Saab 2000 or Pilatus PC-XII , are provided
with back-up propeller overspeed protection.
(Feather Position)

"' Mechanical Controlled Propellers (Pilatus PC-XII)

An overspeed governor is a back-up for the propeller governor and is mounted on
the reduction gearbox. It has its own flyweights and pilot valve, and it releases oil
from the propeller whenever the propeller RPM exceed a preset limit. W1en the
propeller speed reaches this limit the flyweights lift the pilot valve and bleed off pro-
peller servo pressure oil into the reduction gearbox sump, causing the blade angie
to increase. A greater pitch puts more load on the engine and slows down the pro-
peller.

Vhen a turbo-prop engine's normal max. RPM is limited normally

One safety feature inherent in this method of feathering Is that the propeller will by the Propeller Governor, what unit provides the emergency
feather if the governor oil pressure drops below zero for any reason. As the gov- overspeed protection?
ernor obtains its supply of oil from the engine lubricating system, it follows that if A back-up ove-r-speed governor
the engine runs out of oil, or if oil pressure fails due to breakage of a part of the
engine, the propeller will feather automatically. This action may save the engine
from further damage in case the pilot is not aware of trouble.

Reverse Pitch
A reverse pitch propeller is a constant speed propeller for which the blade angles
can be changed to a negative angle during operation.
The purpose of a reversible-pitch feature is to produce a high negative thrust at
low speed by using engine power. A reverse pitch propeller is used principally as
an aerodynamic brake to reduce ground roll after landing.
W1en propellers are reversed, their blades are rotated below their positive angle
(that is, rotated through "zero thrust" pitch) until a negative blade angle is obtained
which will produce a thrust acting in the opposite direction to the forward thrust nor-
mally produced by the propeller.
Figure 10: Ov ers peed Governor Operation Modes (Alpha, Beta and Reverse)
Because the engine and propeller must work together to produce the required
thrust for a turboprop installation, there are a few unique relationships. The turbo-
prop fuel control and the propeller governor are connected and operate in coordi-
nation with each other. The power lever directs a signal from the cockpit to the fuel
control for a specific amount of power from the engine.
The fuel control and the propeller governor together establish the correct combi-
nation of RPM, fuel flow, and propeller blade angle to provide the desired power.
Propeller
governor The propeller control system is divided into two types of control: one for flight and

~il.....-~~n
one for ground operation. For flight, the propeller blade angle and fuel flow for any
given power setting are governed automatically (propeller governor) according to
a predetermined schedule. This is known as the alpha range. Below the "flight
idle" power lever position. the coordinated RPM blade angle schedule becomes in-
capable of handling the engine efficiently. Here the ground handling range, re-
ferred to as the beta range. is encountered. In the beta range of the throttle
quadrant, the propeller blade angle is not governed by the propeller governor, but
Oil dump is controlled by the power lever position 'v'\hlen the power lever is moved below the
to gearbox start position, the propeller pitch is reversed to provide reverse thrust for rapid de-
celeration of the aircraft after landing.
Propeller system of turboprop engines are equipped with a mechnical linkage be-
tween propeller piston and the Beta Valve. This linkage provides mechanical fol-
low-up for propeller pitch control during beta range operation. There are basically
two kind of mechanical linkage: the external and the internal beta tube.
FADEC Controlled Propellers (Saab 2000)
In beta range, the power lever is used to control both fuel flow and propeller blade
The functions to limit the speed of the propeller/power turbine rotor are as follows.
angle. V\lhen the power lever is moved forward , the fuel flow Is increased. At the
The FADEC software adjusts the propeller blade angle through the pitch con- same time, the beta valve is moved to increase pitch. As the pitch increase, the
trol unit (PCU) to control the propeller/power turbine rotor speed. mechanical linkage returns the beta valve back to its neutral position. This gives a
A hydro mechanical overspeed governor supplies the emergency protection proportional response.
if a propeller/power turbine rotor overspeed condition occurs (power changes If the power lever is moved aft of the zero thrust position, fuel flow will increase
momentarily or a failure occurs). and the blade angle goes negative to allow a variable reverse thrust.
If the propeller/power turbine speed is more than the limit for the propeller
governor, the FADEC software sends signals that decrease the fuel flow, and
thus the engine power level.
The FADEC has microprocessor-independent overspeed protection to stop
the flow of the fuel. This prevents an overspeed condition that can cause dam-
age to the engme.
Figure 11 : Propeller Control System (Internal Beta tube)

PROPELLER GOVERNOR
--------- ------ -----~

GEAR PUMP I

CHECK
VALVE
______________ _j
FEATHERING VALVE
------------ ~:~~AL --l
FEATHER ,
'
___________ _j
PROPELLER PITCH CONTROL
-----------~

CAM I

~~;;;;~~~~~~~~~~~~::~~~i:~~ii~~~~~~~~i:T~O
~ FUELFUEL
MANUAL CONTROL I
VALVE ,
'
' POWER LEVER !

L-------------- --C-~NNECT~~~
Propeller Control System (External Beta Linkage)

Power
Lever

Condition
Lever

Propeller
 Alpha Mode Beta Mode
Betll'een.~ and ..~.. % BcMeC'Il.~.and. ..l!; ."~~
RPM RP/11

Fuel Control
1. Flight Idle
2. ON'GND
Idle
3. OFF

Cond./Sprcd
L£'ver
I. MAX-RPM
2. LOW-RPM
3. Fci.llher

ThrustfPowet·
Lever·
I . MAX
2. Low
3. Reverse

L---f7._~.~.- f""l(1 ' "" t ef'1'4t'

17£WI Ci>
llnfcathering
Pump
t' o..- N~~..,,/ 6~~ e·t:J·,...._. c·-.·l•·ji.,..Jt, p.Jb, c'·•s. l
Hydromecanical Controlled Engines synchronization, that is, not turning at exactly the same speed. This type of vibra-
tion has a low fundamental frequency that is the approximate difference between
Vibration has always been a problem with aircraft because the lightweight struc- the RPM of the engines. To prevent this vibration, the propellers can be synchro-
ture does not have sufficient mass to absorb it. Some annoying and harmful vibra- nized with an electronic synchronizer system shown in Figure 1 on page 2. There
tion in multiengine aeroplanes is caused by the propellers being slightly out of are several types of synchronizer systems in use.
Figure 1: Syncronizer System for a Twin Turboprop Aircraft

Master Eng1ne
~::;::::J<·- Propeller
Governor

Stepping
Magnetic Motor
Pickup Actuator

Slave Engine
Propeller Governor

1
Switch--9

Magnetic
Pickup
One-Engine Master System Figure 2: Phase Angle
Synchronizer systems are also installed in light twin-engine aircraft. Typically,
such systems consist of a special propeller governor on the left-hand engine, a Phase
slave governor on the right-hand engine, a synchronizer control unit and an actu-
Angle
o·
ator in the right-hand engine nacelle.
The propeller governors are equipped with magnetic pick-ups that count the pro-
peller revolutions and send a signal to the synchronizer unit. The synchronizer,
which is usually a transistorlsed unit, compares the signal from the two propeller
governor pick-ups. If the two signals are different, the propellers are out of syn-
chronization, and the synchronizer control generates a DC pulse which is sent to
the slave propeller unit.
The control signal is sent to an actuator, which consists of two rotary solenoids
mounted to operate on a common shaft. A signal to increase the RPM of the slave
propeller is sent to one of the solenoids, which rotates the shaft clockwise. A signal
to decrease RPM is sent to the other solenoid, which moves the shaft in the oppo-
site direction.
Each pulse signal rotates the shaft a fixed amount. This distance is called a "step.· Master Engine
A flexible cable is attached to the shaft, which is connected to a trimming unit on
its other end. The vernier action of the trimming unit regulates the governor arm. I ll/..j!Vf37t i F'!t..lt Ub!'J
Synchrophazing System Components
Synchrophazing is a refinement of synchronization, which allows the pilot to set A pulse generator is keyed to the same blade of each propeller (#1 blade for ex-
the blades of the slave engines a number of degrees in rotation behind the blades ample) and the signal generated is used to determine if all #1 blades are in the
of the master engine. Synchrophazing is used to further reduce the noise created same relative position at the same instant. The pulse generator serves the same
by the engines. The synchrophase angle can be varied by the pilot to adjust for function as a tach-generator in the synchronization system. By comparing when
different flight conditions and still achieve a minimum no1se level. (see "Figure 3" the signals from the slave pulse generators occur in relation to the master engine
on page 4) pulse, the mechanism will synchronize the phase relationship of the slaves to the
master engine.
why are one engine master control system used? The synchrophaser electronic unit receives the signals from the pulse generators,
To reduce noise and vibration of a propeller driven aircraft compares them to the master engine signal, and sends a correcting signal to the
governors. This adjusts the control of the slave engines to establish the phase an-
When is synchronization used? gle selected by the pilot.
In steady flight except landing and take off A propeller manual phase control in the cockpit allows the pilot to select the phase
angle, which will give minimum vibration.
what is used on a synchrophasing system to reduce vibration? which parameter of two propellers will be at the same after
Pulse probes and a single synchrophase unit. successful synchronization?
RPM
Figure 3: Control Panel

Jndtcator Functton
Lamp Switch

Phasing

CD Synchrophaser

Phasing Control

System Operation
\M'len the engines are operating at nearly the same RPM, the system is turned on
and the slave(s) will synchronize with the master engine. The electronic unit will
adjust the govemor(s) to set the propellers at the phase angle selected on the pilot
control panel.
FADEC Controlled Engines Figure 4: FADEC Propeller Synchrophazer

Propeller synchronization on these kind of engines is calculated from the engine

control computer. Like previous systems, there is a master engine (normally en-
gine #1) which sends signals to the other eng1ne control computer(s) to adJUSt pro-
peller speed and phase (see "Figure 4' on page 5). FADEC controlled engines
operate in different modes depending on the flight configuration and power lever
setting. Propeller synchronization 1s normally an automatic function performed
during propeller forward thrust, constant speed operation modes, when all engines
work normal.
The following system is installed on the Saab 2000.
The left-hand (lh) and the right-hand (rh) propeller-control systems automatically
go Into their synchronization mode when:
They are in the constant speed mode
There is less than 1RPM difference between the speed of the two propellers
and the speed which the engine control computers have set. ..
In the synchronization mode the lh and the rh engine control computers use the
signals from the pulse probes. These pulse signals identify the position of the
blades on each propeller. The rh engine control computer compares the master
pulse signals (lh propeller) with its own pulse signals. If there is a difference in
~. .-_T_hr_(!_tle_ l....,,.t----'
.......

blade phase angle (see "Figure 2" on page 3), the rh engine control computer
sends adjusting signals to its own propeller control unit, until the difference in face
angle between both propellers is correct.
To keep its pulse signals in the correct relation with the master pulse signals. the
rh engine control computer continuously adjusts its propeller control unit.
The propeller control systems go out of their synchronization mode when the rh
engine control computer cannot maintain the same speed and correct face angle,
compared to the master engine. If there is an engine shut down, the propeller con-
trol system will also go out of synchronization mode.

PCU: Propeller Control Unit

FADEC: Full Authority Digital Engine Control
Effects of Propeller Icing
Ice formation on a propeller blade produces a distorted blade airfoil section, which
causes a loss of propeller efficiency. Generally, ice collects unsymmetrically on a
propeller blade and produces propeller imbalance and destructive vibration.
Fluid Systems (Anti-Icing) stalled on the blade's leading edge. These over-shoes are a narrow strip of rubber,
extending from the blade root to a blade station that is approximately 75% of the
A typical fluid system (see "Figure 1'' on page 3} includes a tank to hold a supply propeller radius. The over-shoes are moulded with several parallel open channels
of anti-rcing fluid. This fluid is forced to each propeller by a pump The control sys- in which fluid will flow from the blade root toward the blade tip by centrifugal force.
tem permrts variation rn the pumping rate so that the quantity of fluid delivered to The fluid then flows laterally from the channels, over the leading edge of the blade
a propeller can be varied, depending on the severity of the icing. Fluid is trans- Isopropyl alcohol is used in some anti-icing systems because of its availability and
ferred from a stationary nozzle on the engine reduction gear case (or nose case} low cost. Phosphate compounds are comparable to isopropyl alcohol in anti-icing
into a circular U-shaped channel (the slinger ring) mounted on the rear of the pro- performance and have the advantage of reduced flammability. However. phos-
peller assembly or the back of the spinner. The fluid under pressure of centrifugal phate compounds are comparatively expensive and, consequently, are not widely
force is transferred through nozzles to a receiving cup at each blade root used.
Figure 1: Fluid Anti-Icing System
what unit in the propeller anti-icing system controls the
output of the pump?
, - Vent Line Rheostat
I

G
- Fluid Tank

,.~ Rheos ta t
~, Filter

Slinger Ring -

Flurd Feed Shoe

Because airflow around a blade tends to disperse anti-icing fluids to areas on

which ice does not collect in large quantities, teed over-shoes, or boots, are in-
Electrical De-Icing Equipment Figure 2: Electrical De-Icing System

An electrical propeller icing control system (see "Figure 2" on page 4) consists ba-
sically of an electrical energy source. a resistance heating element, system con-
trols, and the necessary wiring. The heating elements are mounted internally or
externally on the propeller spinner and blades. Electrical power from the aircraft
system is transferred to the propeller hub through electrical leads, which terminate
in slip rings and brushes. Flexible connectors are used to transfer power from the
hub to the blade elements.
Figure 3: Electrical De-Icing Propeller Components Icing control is accomplished by converting electrical energy to heat energy in the
heating element. Balanced ice removal from all blades must be obtained as nearly
as possible if excessive vibration is to be avoided. To obtain balanced ice removal,
variation of heating current in the blade elements is controlled so that similar heat-
ing effects are obtained in opposite blades.
Electrical de-icing systems are usually designed for intermittent application of
power to the heating elements to remove ice after formation but before excessive
accumulation Proper control of heating intervals aids in preventing ''runback",
since heat is applied just long enough to melt the ice face in contact with the blade.
If heat supplied to an icing surface is more than that required to melt just the inner
ice face, but insufficient to evaporate all the water formed, water will run back over
the unheated surface and freeze. Run back of this nature causes ice formation on
uncontrolled areas of the blade or surface
Cycling timers are used to energise the heating element circuits for periods of 15
to 30 seconds, with a complete cycle time of, usually, 2 minutes. A cycling timer is
an electric motor-driven contactor which controls power contactors in separate
sections of the circuit.
To prevent element overheating, the propeller de-icing system is generally used
only when the propellers are rotating and only for short periods of time during
ground run-up.

what will ice formation on propellers, when an aircraft is in

flight, cause?
It will decrease thrust and cause excessive vibration.

Slip Rings
Propeller Balancing Figure 1: Two-Blade Propeller Balancing

Propeller imbalance, which Is a source of vibration In an aircraft, may be either How is dynamic balance confirmed?
static or dynamic. Propeller static imbalance occurs when the centre of gravity of By use of a vibration analyzer
the propeller does not coincide with the axis of rotation.
Dynamic imbalance results when the centres of gravity of similar propeller ele-
ments, such as blades or counterweights, do not follow in the same plane of rota-
tion. Since the length of the propeller assembly along the engine crankshaft is
short in comparison to its diameter and, since the blades are secured to the hub
so they lie in the same plane perpendicular to the running axis, the dynamic imbal-
ance resulting from improper mass distribution is negligible, provided that the track
tolerance requirements are met.

Static Balancing
Static balancing can be done by the suspension method or by the knife-edge
method. In the suspension method the propeller or part is hung by a cord and any
imbalance is determined by noting the eccentricity between a disk firmly attached
to the cord and a cylinder attached to the assembly or part being tested. The sus-
pension method is used less frequently than the simpler and more accurate knife-
edge method.
The knife-edge test stand (see "Figure 1" on page 2) has two hardened steel edg- Vertical Balance Check
es mounted to allow the free rotation of an assembled propeller between them.
The knife-edge test stand must be located In a room or area that is free from any
air motion and preferably removed from any source of heavy vibration. The stand-
ard method of checking propeller assembly balance involves the following se-
quence of operations:
1. Insert a bushing in the engine shaft hole of the propeller.
2. Insert a mandrel or arbor through the bushing.
3. Place the propeller assembly so that the ends of the arbor are supported upon
the balance stand knife-edges.The propeller must be free to rotate.
If the propeller is properly balanced, statically, it will remain at any position In which Horizontal Balance Check
it is placed. Check two-bladed propeller assemblies for balance, first with the
blades in a vertical position and then with the blades in a horizontal position (see Apparent engine roughness is often a rtsult of propeller unbalance.
"Figure 1" on page 2). Repeat the vertical position check with the blade positions ( imbalance) At which RPM will the effect of a static unbalanced
reversed; that is, with the blade which was checked in the downward position
placed in the upward position. propeller usually be?
Greater at high RPM
Check a three-bladed propeller assembly w1th each blade placed in a downward V\lhen a propeller assembly is checked for stat1c balance and there is a definite
vertical position. as shown in Figure 2 on page 3. tendency of the assembly to rotate, certain corrections to remove the imbalance
During a propeller static balance check, all blades must be at the same blade pitch are allowed. The addition of permanent fixed weights at acceptable locations when
angle. Before conducting the balance check, inspect to see that each blade has the total weight of the propeller assembly or parts is under the allowable limit The
been set at the same pitch angle. removal of weight at acceptable locations when the total weight of the propeller as-
sembly or parts Is equal to the allowable limit.
Figure 2: Three-Blade Propeller Balancing The location for removal or addition of weight for propeller imbalance correction
has been determined by the propeller manufacturer. The method and point of ap-
plication of imbalance corrections must be checked to see that they are according
to applicable drawings.

I
I
I
I
I
I I I
\,J v

I
I
I
',) 1

Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, an acceptable balance check re-

quires that the propeller assembly have no tendency to rotate in any of the posi-
tions previously described. If the propeller balances perfectly in all described
positions, it should also balance perfectly in all intermediate positions. V\lhen nec-
essary. check for balance in intermediate positions to verify the check in the orig-
inally-described positions.
Dynamic Propeller Balancing Figure 3: Electronic Vibration Measuring System
If a rotating disk is perfectly balanced, no vibration will be passed on to the sup-
porting structure. If a weight is added to the edge of the disk, the support will be
forced up and down once per revolution as the disk rotates, generating a one-per-
revolution vibration. Even when the propeller is properly statically balanced and
the engine is in perfect condition, tolerances allow the propeller/engine combina-
tion to produce one-per-revolution vibration. The residual imbalance can produce
significant vibration energy that can stress engine mounts, seals, accessory brack-
ets, etc.
Electronic vibration measuring equipment can be used to sense this out-of-bal-
ance condition with the engine running and provide information on where and in
what amount to add trim weights to eliminate the vibration.
A vibration measuring system consists of a vibration transducer for converting the
vibration into a measurable electronic signal; a photo cell, magnetic pick-up or
strobe light for sensing the angular position of the propeller; and an electronic in-
strument (processor) for filtering , measurement and read-out of the amplitude and
phase of the vibration signal. The vibration transducer most commonly used is a
piezoelectric accelerometer. This type of sensor uses a crystal material that pro-
duces an electrical charge in proportion to the force applied to it. This type of sen-
sor is sensitive to vibration in one axis only. For propeller balance, the sensor is
mounted on the engine or gearbox as close as possible to the propeller. The vibra-
tion produced by propeller imbalance causes a circular motion at all points on the
end of the engine.
A photocell can be used to sense the phase angle of the propeller The photocell A magnetic pick up can also be used to sense the phase angle of the propeller. A
produces a beam of light that is modulated at a high frequency If the beam of light magnetic pick-up cons1sts of a bar magnet wrapped with a coil of wire. The hous-
strikes a reflector, the return beam is sensed by the photocell and a signal pulse ing of the pick up nearly completes the magnetic circuit, leaving a gap at the end
is generated. By attaching a photocell to the engine or cowling and plac1ng a patch of the pick-up. IMlenever a ferromagnetic object is introduced into this gap, the
of reflective tape on a propeller blade, a simple phase detector is installed. The magnetic flux increases dramatically. This change in magnetic flux induces a volt-
high frequency modulation of the light beam allows the photocell to ignore other age in the coil that is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Mag-
sources of ambient light. Common photocells can sense a reflector at distances netic pick-ups are inexpensive and very rugged, but they require a small,
from Scm to 1OOcm. accurately controlled gap between the pick-up and the "interrupter" (blade of steel)
that passes by the pick-up.
Figure 4: Photo Cell
Figure 5: Magnetic Pick-Up
A strobe light can also be used to measure the vibration phase angle. After the vi-
bration is filtered, a zero cross1ng detector is used to create a pulse and trigger the
strobe light. A piece of reflective tape is placed on the root of the propeller blades.
Directing the strobe at the propeller will make the reflective tape appear to have
stopped. The phase angle can be estimated VISUally by the user.
Figure 6: Strobe Light
Blade Tracking Figure 7: Propeller Tracking

Once the propeller is installed and torqued, check the track. The track of the pro-
peller is defined as the path followed by the tips of the blades as they rotate while
the aircraft is stationary. For example: light aircraft with propellers of up to approx-
imately 6ft. (1 .8m) in diameter, metal propellers can be out of track no more than
11 inch (1 .6mm).
16
Before the propeller can be tracked, the aircraft must be made stationary by chock-
ing the wheels. Next. place a fixed reference point within 114 inch (6 4mm) of the
propeller arc. This may be done by placing a board on blocks under the propeller
arc and taping a piece of paper to the board so the track of each blade can be
marked (see "Figure 7" on page 7). Rotate the propeller by hand until one blade is
pointing down at the paper, and mark this position on the paper Now turn the pro-
peller so that the track of the next blade can be marked on the paper, and repeat
this for each blade. The maximum difference in track for all of the blades should
not exceed the limits mentioned above.
If the propeller track is off more than is allowed, the reason should be determined,
and the condition corrected. Probably the easiest item to check is the propeller
torque. If all bolts are properly torqued, it will probably be necessary to remove the
propeller, inspect for dirt or damage, and check the propeller shaft for alignment.
Assessment of Blade Damage Erosion: is a gradual wearing away or deterioration due to action of air con-
taminations (sand, dust, etc.).
Vvhen objects such as stones, dirt, birds etc., strike against the propeller blades Corrosion: is a gradual wearing away due to a chemical action (see
and the hub during flight, take off or landing, they may cause bends, cuts, scars, Sub Module ''Corrosion").
nicks, scratches or other defects in the blades or hub. If a defect is not repaired,
Normal airworthy damage does not effect the flight safety characteristics of the
local stresses are established which may cause a crack to develop, resulting even-
blades, although area of airworthy damage should be repaired to maintain aero-
tually in the failure of the propeller or hub. For this reason, propellers must be care-
dynamic efficiency.
fully examined at frequent intervals, and any defects that are discovered should be
repaired immediately. Note: To determine if the damage is airworthy or unairworthy, the Aircraft
Vvhen discussing damage to propellers (metallic or composite), the Aircraft Me- Mechanic should refer to the information in the blade repair manual. Airwor-
thy damage limits are usually described within AMM ATA chapter 61 of the
chanic should be familiar with the terminology used.
related aircraft.
Blade Damage: damage to a propeller can be divided into airworthy and un-
airworthy damage. Airworthy damage can be repaired in the field. Unairworthy Note: Always refer to the manufacturer manuals to determine serviceability
damage is any damage that exceeds the limits of the airworthy damage. and methods of repair.
Damage to blades can take many forms. Some of the terms used to describe blade
damage are as follows:
Crack: is an irregular shaped separation within a material, usually visible as
a narrow opening at a surface.
Debond: is a separation of the metal erosion shield from the composite ma-
terial in the blade.
Delamination: is an internal separation of the layers of composite material.
Depression: is a surface area where the material has been compressed, but
not removed, by contact with a sharp object.
Distortion: is an alteration of the original shape or size of a component.
Exposure: is a condition in which material is left open to the action of the el-
ements.
Gouge: is a small surface area from which material has been removed by
contact with a sharp object.
Impact Damage: occurs when the propeller blade or hub assembly strikes or
is struck by an object.
Scratch: is a removal of paint and a small amount of material not exceeding
(O.Smm).
Nick: small indent or notch, not deeper than O.Smm.
Split: is a delamination of a composite blade extending to the blade surface,
normally found near the trailing edge or tip.
Dent: hollow or mark left by impact, blow or pressure.
Blade Bending Figure 9: Using a Protractor
The extent of a bend in the face alignment of a propeller should be carefully
checked by means of a protractor. Manufacturers often specify the maximum
bends, which can be repaired by cold straightening. Blades with bends in excess
of this amount require heat treatment and must be returned to the manufacturer
for repair (see "Figure 9" on page 9).
Figure 8: Bend Repair Chart
20
19
~ 16
lA"
~ 17
~ 16 J..
Ol 15
Q) 14
:2. 13
01 12
..!: 11 ;--t-
"0
g
10
9 J W- f--:-1-
CO B
7 '--
r+
Q)
I
:0 6 1---;:::_
~ 5
.2 ~
< ~ - H=fl r
t I
t f--1-
1 I -t rt HI
I
0 8 1CI 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Blade Stahon

Measure at a Pomt of
Which of the following storing precautions has to be specially Tangency Taken one Inch
each Side of Bend
followed when storing a wooden propeller?
Store it with the blades in horizontal position
Fatigue
Fatigue failures normally occur within a few inches of the blade tip· however, fail- Repairs of aluminium alloy adjustable pitch propellers are not
ures also occur in other portions of the blade when dents, cuts. scratches or nicks
are ignored. Failures have also been found near the shank and at the propeller permitted to be made on which of the following propeller blade
hub. When performing an inspection on a propeller. inspect each whole blade, not areas?
just the leading edge for erosion, scratches. nicks and cracks.
Shank
Figure 10: Fatigue Failures

Normal Stresses Run Parallel

Propeller Treatment I Repair Schemes Figure 11 : Aluminium Blade Repair

Aluminium Propeller
Propeller blades with nicks, gouges, scratches, and leading edge pitting can be re-
paired by a qualified Aircraft Mechanic in the field. Normally there is sufficient ma-
terial available to allow a number of minor repairs without replacing the propeller.
Note: Blades wrth larger nrcks, gouges, etc., that may effect the structure,
balance or operation of the propeller should be referred to a propeller over- 8
haul facility.
Damage in the shank area of a propeller blade is allways critical and should
be referred to an overhaul facility for appropriate repair.
Before making a repair to a metal propeller, make sure to clean the area, which is
to be repaired. Repairs to metal propellers can be made using files or small power
equipment with suitable grinding equipment.
For damaged areas in the leading edge or trailing edge (see "Figure 11 " on
page 11 ), remove the damaged material down to the bottom of the damaged area
with a round file. Remove material from this point out on both sides, providing a
smooth depression.
The approximate maximum allowable size of a repaired edge defect is % inch
(3.2mm) deep and no more then 1 inch (25.4mm) and 112inch (12.. 7mm) in length.
The max allowable repair size of a surface defect is ~ 6 inch (1.6mm) deep, 3/ 8 inch
(9.5mm) wide and 1 inch (25.4mm) long.
Repairs to the face and back of a blade are performed with a spoon-like riffle file
which is used to dish out the damaged area.
Use an emery cloth to smoothen the reworked area. Then polish the area with very
fine sanding paper, moving the cloth in a direction parallel to the blade axis. Treat
the surface with alodine, paint or some other protective coating.
NOTE: Local width or thickness repair depth may not exceed the
If the blade is bent, measure the angle of the bend and the blade station of the manufacturers minimum repair tolerance
bend centre. By using the proper chart, determine the reparablllty of the blade.

How may minor surface damage located in a repairable area,

but not on the leading or trailing edges of aluminum blades,
be repaired? First filing with spoon like file
Composite Propellers Figure 12: Repair of damaged propeller tip
Repair of composite propellers can be categonsed as either mtnor or maJor. Minor
repair is the correction of damage that may be safely performed in the field by an Pencil Line Drawn on Blade
Aircraft Mechanic Major repairs are repairs that require the propeller to be sent to Reference Edge
at Selected Station for
an overhaul factlity of Template ~ Template Reference
Composite propeller blades are not subject to fatigue cracks, as aluminium propel-
lers, because of their composite construction.
Lightening strikes usually enter a composite blade through the metal erosion
shield, however some strikes hit the hub directly. A direct strike on the hub of a
composite propeller results in unairworthy damage. The lightening strike in the
erosion shield leaves a darkened area and sometimes pitting near the tip of the
blade.
If evidence of a lightening strike is found, it will require a careful debond I delami- Sheet Aluminium Tip Leading Edge
nation inspection to determine the extent of the damage and whether the damage Template, all Blades on
is airworthy or unairworthy in nature. To determine this you must carry out a tap the same Propeller must be
test. If only a darkened area is present on the erosion shield and all the blade dam- Shortened Exactly the same.
age is within limits, then the blade is considered airworthy.
There are many different types of airworthy damage. Repair of a composite pro-
peller blade is usually performed by cleaning the damaged area, removing the
paint and sanding. The damaged area is then tilled with laminated fiberglass cloth
and epoxy. After the epoxy has hardened, the area is sanded for conformance with Enlarged Side View of Tip of Blade
the contours of the blade. The repaired blade must then receive a final finish of ap-
proved primer and polyurethane paint.
As an example, Figure 13 on page 13 shows some acceptable debonds impact
damages and cracks of eroston strips (these are used to protect most of composite
propeller blades)
Damage in the shank area of a propeller blade is allways critical and should be re-
ferred to an overhaul facility for appropriate repair.
Figure 13: Acceptable Erosion-Strip Damages of a Dowty-Rotol Composite Propeller
6.35mm Leading Edge of
the Erosion Strip
Trailing Edge of
the Erosion Strip

Satisfactory for Repair

48.26mm
6.35mm

35.56mm

Satisfactory for Airworthy Operation

No-Bond and Crack Limits on Erosion Strip

4.8mm
7mm 53 34mm 38. 1mm

Satisfactory for Airworthy Operation

Satisfactory tor Repair
No-Bond Limits on Erosion Strip
Hole Limits
Propeller Engine Running Figure 14: Hazard Areas of a Turboprop Aeroplane (Saab 2000)
Forward Aft
Warning: Under no circumstances must an Aircraft Mechanic start a propel-
ler engine unless they have been properly trained and authonsed to do so Hazard Hazard
by the company.

Safety Precautions
Treat all propellers as live, make sure that all personnel are away from the for-
ward and aft hazard areas (see "Figure 14" on page 14).
Make sure all the wheels are chocked.
After an engine run, before shut down, do an ignition check.
Always where possible, position aircraft into wind.
Ensure that only personal involved with the engine runs are allowed near the
aircraft and that they are properly trained for the task.
The person running the engine must brief the person nominated to handle the

IS
J
fire extinguishers on the procedures in case of an engine fire.
Note: Obey all safety precautions associated with engine operations as
mentioned earlier. For starting, operating and shut-down procedures of a tur-
boprop engine consult the appropriate aircraft manuals.
Note: The sound made by a turbine engine can permanently damage your
heanng. so an approved type of hearing protector should be worn at all times
n ~-----
I
:1 0m ~
30.0m

when working near operating engines.

Engine Operation
Turboprops are constant-speed engines, because they operate throughout the op-
erational cycle at near 100% RPM. To hold the RPM constant, the fuel control ad-
justs the fuel flow in relation to the engine load.
\1\nlen idling, the RPM remams high, but the propeller pitch 1s reduced until almost
flat, so it produces very little thrust and requires a minimum fuel flow.
Mechanically controlled engines use two engine controls on the cockpit quadrant:
the power lever and the speed, or condition, lever (see "Figure 15" on page 16).
The power lever relates to the throttle of a reciprocating engine, but it also gives
the pilot control over the propeller during ground operation. It affects the fuel flow,
torque, and EGT, and has four positions:
REVERSE (REV)
GROUND IDLE (GI)
FLIGHT IDLE (FI)
MAXIMUM (MAX)
The speed, or condition lever primarily controls the engine RPM, and in some in-
stallations it acts as a manual feather and emergency cutoff lever. The condition
lever has three positions:
EMERGENCY SHUTOFF
LOW RPM
HIGH RPM
Considering a newer version {FADEC controlled) of the Allison 250 engine, there
is a handling difference to look at. The condition lever no longer controls the pro-
peller governor, this task is calculated by the FADEC system depending on the po-
sition of the power lever, other aircraft system inputs and flight face.
Figure 15: The Cockpit Powerplant Quadrant
Fl
Gl
/ Max REV Start
Run I Fuel Off

I '"."A/ \\-JJ
' --..//
I / \ , \. .I"-
Maximum High RPM Emergency ·/
Ground Idle Reverse Shut Off
\ i/
Power Lever Condition Lever ---¥--
Power Lever Condition Lever

RU~RUN
STA ART
FUEL FUEL
OFF OFF

Mechanical Control FADEC Control

Usually four instruments are used to monitor the performance of a turboprop en- V'lthen the engine is operating with a given propeller load, and the power lever is
gine: moved forward to increase the fuel flow, the RPM will try to increase. To prevent
Tachometer: Shows the RPM of the compressor in percentage of its rated this, the propeller governor increases the blade angle, which causes the RPM to
speed remain constant and the power produced by the engine to Increase. V'lthen the
Torquemeter: Shows the torque or shaft horsepower being developed power lever is moved back, the fuel flow is reduced, and the RPM begins to de-
crease. But the propeller governor decreases the blade angle, which causes the
Fuel Flowmeter: Shows the number of pounds of fuel per hour being deliv-
RPM to remain constant, and the power to decrease.
ered to the engine
EGT Indicator: Shows the temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave Starting
the turbine
The pilot must monitor the compressor speed during engine start up, and upon
Figure 16: Engine Power Monitoring Instruments reaching the prescribed speed for light off, advance the condition lever to maxi-
mum speed position to initiate fuel flow. The fuel control unit will automatically reg-
ulate fuel flow during the acceleration to idle. Propeller unfeathering will
automatically occur with the propeller beta valve regulating the blade angle. A
ground start is accomplished with the power lever placed into flight idle position.
On FADEC controlled engines the start-up sequence is accomplished automati-
cally, when the condition lever is moved to the START position. V'lthen the engine
reaches ground idle RPM's, the operator moves the condition lever to the RUN po-
sition to close up the start-up sequence.

Engine Run
For low power settings during the engine run the condition lever should be put in
the MAXIMUM PROPELLER SPEED range. The power lever can then be moved
Tachometer Torquemeter freely to obtain the desired thrust.
For high power settings, i.e. , takeoff power, the condition lever should be in the po-
sition for 100% propeller speed, allowing the propeller governor to maintain the
compressor speed control The power lever controls the power setting of the en-
gine. The power lever must be controlled so as not to exceed the turbine outlet
temperature and torque limits
On FADEC controlled engines only the power lever is used to change power set-
tings and propeller pitch , the FADEC system monitors and controls the power and
propeller settings according to the position of the power lever, inputs from other
systems and flight face. During normal engine operation the condition lever re-
mains in its RUN position.

Fuel Flowmeter Exhaust Gas Temperature Stopping

Indicator
Engine stopping is effected by shutting off the fuel supply by means of a fuel con-
trol cutoff valve. At the same time the propellers move to the feathered position.
The condition lever controls both the fuel cutoff and propeller feathering. Make
sure that before the engine is shut down . the power lever is first put in the Ground
Idle position, and allow the turbine outlet temperature to stabilize for two minutes.
The condition lever is then moved to FUEL SHUTOFF and PROPELLER FEATH-
ERING.

what duration are electrical heating circuits operational,

in a typical complete cycle time of two minutes?
15-30 sees
Studv Questions

17.5 Propeller Ice Protection

1. What are the two problems when you get ice formation on a pr·opeller·'?

2. How is anti-icing tluid transferred to each b lade root and blade surface'?

~~~tC+4--~{~l~·q~J~~,r·~k~J~
b/1-Jt/~
•
!fw / tfvu) SI/ •' JP,cf

3. What is the function of the rheostat in a propeller anti ice system?

{()

(~()I'~ ~~~· (
4. The U-shaped ..'7!:?J ..... fitted at the r·ear of a fluid deiced propeller acts as a .. .:. . f. ~:'Jf( .. ring.

5. What kind of fluid is usually used for a fluid anti icing system?

• I ;1/lto Lt

6. How is aircraft electrical power for propeller deicer systems transfened from the engine to
the propeller· hub assembly?

7. An electrical heating cycle time is about.d.?.:J~ .!~. in a complete two minutes cycle time'?
 Study Questions

I 7.:1 Propeller Synchroni-;.ing

I. Why must on multiengine aircraft the propeller be synchronized?

p.-tv(.., [ ,
To redu~~ h~r ~ a/'Jt/ /.tt ··-·r-- r ov-e

~. What kind of propeller aircraft needs a synchronizing system?

H ll
I I

3. UsuaJiy on reciprocating multiengine aircraft, ~utomatic propeller synchronization is

accomplished through the actuation of the .. .!. . ~..":....... governor.

•
4. For engine synchronization is what kind of information given by the prop. governor ?

n /1 c.- (. I p,·

5. In which flight phase is propeller synchronizing used?

·. II( I
,. yf• •

6. To reduce vibration the propellers are also synchrophased. Which two parts are included for this
system?

r
 14. On which type of engine is an Alpha and Beta mode for propeller controlling required?

TtN l'"l pYl)f {;:; n~ t i'] (l

15. Why does this type of engines have different operating modes'? (fhree reasons)

1. !en 1llt-df &i-1.-1•&•1 2- e~.4.l:J ~YOv11 .._/ h,~.,)t,,.,~ .f vevtorl't' /"' 1

'

16. Name two different Beta control systems.

>-''~' "t.l /{etC! lu ~e 1 er lerVJ(A I_ fJ ~~vt !,vtl!tr~t

17. Which of the propeller control systems uses a separate feathering valve'?

• ,
L
·)1~1>'1,,
( ;jr-~ fv~f

18. How is feathering on the system with external Beta linkage established?
f1 •,J,_ .JI ~ .,
' ~" _ ,,.:;-,.~ ./~ _l(" f•- •IJf..,v" ,. '" 2.j;c~ "Y

19. In which condition is the propeller governor during Beta mode operation?
( overspeed-underspeed-on condition )
un <.ff!y IfeL~c.J

20. Beta mode operation on turboprops is approximately below .... :P.?../o..... propeller RP:\1.

• 21. What are the two main reasons for installing an unfeathering pump?
4 fl1UI/1 ft>v7Ct1Ct.:" {JUYfO\f!
) Y&!.it.of /YOlVJ fi,Jfo-1 t''~~"7C'( QY c;,·VI~L,~ ~ ~t>t/f C'"']t'W

X rratt/Whitney PT 6 engine. Which cockpit control lever is to move in what position

to change from Beta to Alpha mode?

y : carrct TPE-331 engines. Which cockpit control lever is to move in what position
to change from Beta to Alpha mode?
 Study Questions

17.3 Propeller pitch control

..
1. The pitch angle .1./J.~~:::~~ on a constant speed propeller, when the RPM tends to r-ise.

2. To reduce windmilling drag and prevent further damage to a shut down en~~~ during flight
aftcJ~ an engine failure the constant speed propeller has the capability to .. ;.\ty/.J.~.r. ...the blades.

3. When engine power is increased, the constant speed propeller tries to . . M.:...... the RPM by
. 1.'.1.<~f~( 1!!'!~ the blade angle.

4. The propeller .~Q .f:.V.~?r: •• .•• controls the oil tlow to and from the pitch changing mechanism.

-.5. During the on speed condition of a propeller, the centrifugal force of the governor flyweights is
- e.<fv.t;l.f.,.to the speeder spring force.

6. To change the speeq of a constant speed propeller in tlight, the load tension (speeder spring)
against the 1?JY.C:~~.~f.n the governor must be changed.

7. On a hydraulically controlled constant speed propeller the propeller blade angle will increa~ e and
engine RPM will decrease when the governor control spring (speeder spring) tension is.(t?{/ucet./
by a movement of the propeller control lever ( condjtion lever ).

8. Describe an over-speed condition ~ the governor. Note the relation benveen flyweights and
speederspring. 4/l;tI ·~· ,r.,{, ._ ,,~ / '>- c"' I "''~ ~'-• ~~-- f(c., '\J ()fl'f~" /L',,' '1
vr- ·
'
t!
0vt • ' (t ~ t-r"\ .~.., I ()., !'~c"!.
I
/r:, f••IJ ' p l'(• jt;;r (- tv.' f( ~ r- !..-r- l~r 1 -
• I~ (L. C:t~ { ~
_,..,."'1 ,~ ;,f /1. ;_, . ( , ,.,
9. In which flight phase will you set a constant speed propeller into a low pitch, high RPM
configuration? /-n T/O Co"'/,c u r. ,:.,._.....,

• 11-. /-)
10. What unit provides the emergency over-speed protection?
OtiJ?v~ .fper-af fio JKYI"'PY

11. Lets assume the condition lever is remaining in its set position, which component actuates the
pilot valve in the governor of a constant speed propeller when the propeller RPM tends to

change? Thr: ~~~ ~~~~ 4 h

12. What are the counterweights on a constant speed propeller generally used for?
T~,,~t·.,,: 1< · fl ;/ To IJ1CYttl~~ /4- f'6:~
13. Hydraulic and centrifugal forces accomplish blade angel changes. Name nvo propeller types for
which these statements are true.

{o:' .(~.., I '('etA Pw"

I • ji
PYul
 Study Questions

17.2 Propeller Construction

1. What are the two functions of the propeller blade cuffs? Which is the primary function?
A· tq c~~t t~~ {tc•v of- Coo{,n~ ou·" to t4t eYJ<j hf.> codth~ (nc,cc_.de) 1

2 /~vv~t t0CreqJf , 74t f,·rJ.f- r/l7f' ,{ t~t p. . ,IYIO¥j fvVIc../,ovl ·

2. Name the three mainly used materials to manufacture a propeller.
A · £Vocci y. U!:~L I
2. ALv1-11 ~-J ,'.Jt>'l A tlo~ i!
?- Co"' po~. fe tl
3. How is the sequence of blade station numbering?
(')
•
rLon I (J " • v,
I I
,., "
I
.... I - ,

1y0~ lht llvk tr~~~&,. tmt: /n t- in ~pr !o 1.4e Ttr

4. T wo common reasons ~or using a blade station chart ar-e:
4 . &~~e Lt;CO/ £/on
1. {ll.adt a,.-,~f.t MtiW~~e ~eJ1J
5. Five types of propeller classes are known. What are their names, which of them is mainly used
no;ad;~s?J n '' 1 (/. tot// ~ /ov. I .f'peeof fOnJI"' 7t,c- (c,,,Jc.,_, I Jot'e-...1 to, ~ r
, . tte r'1cch 1
, ,
2 . '1Y0Uh&
r- 1 U--IJ"., 1 r {
" jllli'CI~E'
S.. Avto~tfc .oh...n»
r ' "t
t!
;I r
111tftv~k u( et.l , ·"1
j J
l I ~ .,, -~. a&,c..d
' Tvv o fcoc' COVI J
6. Which propelJer-construction provides maximum efficiency by adjusting the blade angle for most
conditions encountered in flight?

• 7 . Which wav would a constant soe.ed propeller move its blades, when aircraft-speed is increasing?

T~t ~ " tl·~ L ~fttl Prvp """'! cav~eJ l~t Uw )r: f • fc.4
I '-1 L rcct ( r

M. List the three common propeller attachment devices and on which kind of aircraft are they used?
/1, tqperrd i i,of{ ( Lotv h or\~ to~~, J
'}. ipLtV1(Jc,( S~ci{ ( V{)C/tt~( ()•.,vpt'1/- I lv / (t rror ( I
1. f(an~fJ jlpjl ( fv ... Jc Pn:r 1 }J,jfo,'"~ (>•1Cjo·?<' r fVI~/{ a~~cJ.-~·J~ (
9. ~What is the purpose of the spinner? What has to be aware of when installing a spinner to avoid
vibration?
-1. IJ ,>~c.t CooCtVJJ {)tY {·i?ID t~(· o;()eno·1~r JV) !~t· ('otv/,n~
2. 1irunn Lu,H•1'J Jsc- r:""~'l?t- '•;J/al,~/oh
!v J
L./~e· 1 'jvJ Jrt:/~ 1 1'" ~~t 'fiYIYlf:<"' 6.- !{t- ~v!.lt4ee~ tl ! c)/(. Ct-)r(' V1C I aclcl tvt!. 'J c.J
lv~t'd· , / <.~cv!cl CCiv ( f (; £ ,"- ~vi-1
 Study Questions

17.1 Fundamentals

1. The purpose of propeller blade twist is:

I 1
I n
To r f'l]r: I ") -':.. · t r"rOJ> '·
.., What is the difference between geometric and effective pitch? How is this difference called? f fL.
1
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J. Give a b.-ief description of the relation between angle of attack of a propeller blade and aircraft
forward speed: 11 " • ' ,,
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4. Name three forces, acting on a moving propeller blade.

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5. Which force limits the maximum propeller RPM?

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6. What operational force tends to increase - and which force tends to reduce the propeller blade
angle?
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7. Many engine-propeller combinations have one or more critical RPM ranges.

What is the reason for that, and why should you avoid this RPM range?
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Studv Questions

17.6 Propeller Maintenance

1. Give a statement about an unbalanced propeller· in relation to the pr·opelle•· RPJ\1.

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2. \Vhat do you actually compare when you perform a propeller blade tracking?

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3. Why is it important to remove scratches. nicks. gouges etc. (stress concentration points) on
a metal propeller?

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4. On a two-blade propeller you have shortened one blade at the propeller tip because of
damage. What is furthrr to do?

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5. What could be the reason for a fatigue failure on an aluminum propeller?

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6. In case of doubts about airworthy or unairworthy damage of a propelle,r blad~ ~ou can
find information in the blade repair manual described in the AMM .. /.! ."/.! ... .........of the
r·elated aircraft.