Introduction

 Parallel machines are becoming quite common and

affordable
 Commodity machines are cheap
 Multiple processors on a chip

 Databases are growing increasingly large

 Large-scale parallel database systems increasingly used

for:
 processing time-consuming decision-support queries
 providing high throughput for transaction processing

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Architectures

Shared-Disk
N1 N2

NAS

N3 N4

Lots of disks

Shared Nothing

N1 N2 N3 N4

D1 D2 D3 D4

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 On a chip

core1 core3

L2 L2
cache cache
core2 core4

L3 cache

RAM

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Parallelism in Databases

 Data partitioned across multiple disks  parallel I/O.

 Individual relational operations (e.g., sort, join, aggregation) can be
executed in parallel
 data can be partitioned and each processor can work
independently on its own partition.
 queries are expressed in high level language
(SQL, translated to relational algebra)
 makes parallelization easier.
 Queries can be run in parallel with each other.
 Concurrency control takes care of conflicts.
 Thus, databases naturally lend themselves to parallelism.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Partitioning
 Reduce the time to retrieve relations from disk by partitioning
the relations on multiple disks.
 Horizontal partitioning – tuples of a relation are divided among
many disks such that each tuple resides on one disk.
 Partitioning techniques (number of disks = n):
Round-robin:
Send the I th tuple inserted in the relation to disk i mod n.
Hash partitioning:
 Choose one or more attributes as the partitioning
attribute(s).
 Choose hash function h with range 0…n - 1
 Let i denote result of hash function h applied to the
partitioning attribute value of a tuple. Send tuple to disk i.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Partitioning (Cont.)
 Range partitioning:
 Choose an attribute as the partitioning attribute.
 A partitioning vector [vo, v1, ..., vn-2] is chosen.
 Let v be the partitioning attribute value of a tuple.
 Tuples such that v vi+1 go to disk I + 1.
 Tuples with v < v0 go to disk 0 and
 Tuples with v vn-2 go to disk n-1.

e.g., with a partitioning vector [5,11], a tuple with partitioning

attribute value of 2 will go to disk 0, a tuple with value 8 will
go to disk 1, while a tuple with value 20 will go to disk2.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Comparison of Partitioning Techniques

 Evaluate how well partitioning techniques support the following

types of data access:
1. Scanning the entire relation.
2. Locating a tuple associatively – point queries.
 e.g., r.A = 25.
3. Locating all tuples such that the value of a given attribute
lies within a specified range – range queries.
 e.g., 10 r.A < 25.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Comparison of Partitioning Techniques (Cont.)

Round robin:
 Advantages
 Best suited for sequential scan of entire relation on each
query.
 All disks have almost an equal number of tuples; retrieval
work is thus well balanced between disks.
 Range queries are difficult to process
 No clustering -- tuples are scattered across all disks

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Comparison of Partitioning Techniques (Cont.)

Hash partitioning:

 Good for scanning a relation.

 Assuming hash function is good, and partitioning attributes
form a key, tuples will be equally distributed between disks
 Retrieval work is then well balanced between disks.
 Good for point queries on partitioning attribute
 Can lookup single disk, leaving others available for
answering other queries.
 Index on partitioning attribute can be local to disk, making
lookup and update more efficient
 No clustering, so difficult to answer range queries

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Comparison of Partitioning Techniques (Cont.)

Range partitioning:

 Provides data clustering by partitioning attribute value.

 Good for sequential access
 Good for point queries on partitioning attribute: only one disk needs to
be accessed.
 For range queries on partitioning attribute, one to a few disks may need
to be accessed
 Remaining disks are available for other queries.
 Good if result tuples are from one to a few blocks.
 If many blocks are to be fetched, they are still fetched from one to a
few disks, and potential parallelism in disk access is wasted
 Example of execution skew.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling of Skew

 The distribution of tuples to disks may be skewed — that is,

some disks have many tuples, while others may have fewer
tuples.
 Attribute-value skew can lead to Partition skew
 With range-partitioning, badly chosen partition vector
may assign too many tuples to some partitions and too
few to others.
 Less likely with hash-partitioning if a good hash-function
is chosen.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling Skew in Range-Partitioning

 To create a balanced partitioning vector (assuming partitioning

attribute forms a key of the relation):
 Sort the relation on the partitioning attribute.
 Let n denote the number of partitions to be constructed.
 Construct the partition vector by scanning the relation in sorted
order as follows.
 After every 1/nth of the relation has been read, the value of
the partitioning attribute of the next tuple is added to the
partition vector.
 Imbalances can result if duplicates are present in partitioning
attributes.
 Alternative technique based on histograms used in practice

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling Skew using Histograms
 Balanced partitioning vector can be constructed from histogram in a
relatively straightforward fashion
 Assume uniform distribution within each range of the histogram
 Histogram can be constructed by scanning relation, or sampling (blocks
containing) tuples of the relation

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling Skew Using
Virtual Processor Partitioning

 Skew in range partitioning can be handled elegantly using virtual

processor partitioning:
 create a large number of partitions (say 10 to 20 times the number
of processors)
 Assign virtual processors to partitions either in round-robin fashion
or based on estimated cost of processing each virtual partition
 Basic idea:
 If any normal partition would have been skewed, it is very likely
the skew is spread over a number of virtual partitions
 Skewed virtual partitions get spread across a number of
processors, so work gets distributed evenly!

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Interquery Parallelism
 Queries/transactions execute in parallel with one another.
 Increases transaction throughput; used primarily to scale up a
transaction processing system to support a larger number of
transactions per second.
 Easiest form of parallelism to support, particularly in a shared-memory
parallel database, because even sequential database systems
support concurrent processing.
 More complicated to implement on shared-disk or shared-nothing
architectures
 Locking and logging must be coordinated by passing messages
between processors.
 Data in a local buffer may have been updated at another
processor.
 Cache-coherency has to be maintained — reads and writes of
data in buffer must find latest version of data.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cache Coherency Protocol
 Example of a simple cache coherency protocol for shared disk
systems:
 Before reading/writing to a page, the page must be locked in
shared/exclusive mode.
 On locking a page, the page must be read from disk
 Before unlocking a page, the page must be written to disk if it
was modified.
 More complex protocols with fewer disk reads/writes exist.
 Cache coherency protocols for shared-nothing systems are similar.
Each database page is assigned a home processor. Requests to
fetch the page or write it to disk are sent to the home processor.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Intraquery Parallelism
 Execution of a single query in parallel on multiple processors/disks;
important for speeding up long-running queries.
 Two complementary forms of intraquery parallelism:
 Intraoperation Parallelism – parallelize the execution of each
individual operation in the query.
 Interoperation Parallelism – execute the different operations in
a query expression in parallel. (e.g., pipelining)
the first form scales better with increasing parallelism because
the number of tuples processed by each operation is typically more
than the number of operations in a query.

BUT THERE IS A POTENTIAL COST IN COORDINATION.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Parallel Processing of Relational Operations

 Our discussion of parallel algorithms assumes:

 read-only queries
 shared-nothing architecture
 n processors, P0, ..., Pn-1, and n disks D0, ..., Dn-1, where disk Di is
associated with processor Pi.
 If a processor has multiple disks they can simply simulate a single disk
Di.
 Shared-nothing architectures can be efficiently simulated on shared-
memory and shared-disk systems.
 Algorithms for shared-nothing systems can thus be run on shared-
memory and shared-disk systems.
 However, some optimizations may be possible.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Parallel Sort
Range-Partitioning Sort
 Choose processors P0, ..., Pm, where m n -1 to do sorting.
 Create range-partition vector with m entries, on the sorting attributes
1. Redistribute the relation using range partitioning
 all tuples that lie in the ith range are sent to processor Pi
 Pi stores the tuples it received temporarily on disk Di.
 This step requires I/O and communication overhead.
2. Each processor Pi sorts its partition of the relation locally.
 Each processor executes same operation (sort) in parallel with
other processors, without any interaction with the others (data
parallelism).
3. Final merge operation is trivial: range-partitioning ensures that, the
key values in processor Pi are all less than the key values in Pj
for I < j

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Parallel Sort (Cont.)
Parallel External Sort-Merge
 Assume the relation has already been partitioned among disks D0, ...,
Dn-1 (in whatever manner).
 Each processor Pi locally sorts the data on disk Di.
 The sorted runs on each processor are then merged to get the final
sorted output.
 Parallelize the merging of sorted runs as follows:
1. The sorted partitions at each processor Pi are range-partitioned
across the processors P0, ..., Pm-1.
2. Each processor Pi performs a merge on the streams as they are
received, to get a single sorted run.
3. The sorted runs on processors P0,..., Pm-1 are concatenated to get
the final result.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Parallel Join
 The join operation requires pairs of tuples to be tested to see if they
satisfy the join condition, and if they do, the pair is added to the join
output.
 Parallel join algorithms attempt to split the pairs to be tested over
several processors. Each processor then computes part of the join
locally.
 In a final step, the results from each processor can be collected
together to produce the final result.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Partitioned Join
 For equi-joins and natural joins, it is possible to partition the two input
relations across the processors, and compute the join locally at each
processor.
 Let r and s be the input relations, and we want to compute r r.A=s.B s.
1. r and s each are partitioned locally into n partitions, denoted r0, r1, ...,
rn-1 and s0, s1, ..., sn-1.
 r and s must be partitioned on their join attributes r.A and s.B),
using the same range-partitioning vector or hash function.
 Can use either range partitioning or hash partitioning.
2. Partitions ri and si are sent to processor Pi,
3. Each processor Pi locally computes ri ri.A=si.B si.
 Any of the standard join methods can be used.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Partitioned Join (Cont.)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Other Relational Operations
Selection (r)
 If is of the form ai = v, where ai is an attribute and v a value.
 If r is partitioned on ai the selection is performed at a single
processor.
 If is of the form l <= ai <= u (i.e., is a range selection) and the
relation has been range-partitioned on ai
 Selection is performed at each processor whose partition overlaps
with the specified range of values.
 In all other cases: the selection is performed in parallel at all the
processors.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Other Relational Operations (Cont.)
 Duplicate elimination
 Perform by using either of the parallel sort techniques
 eliminate duplicates as soon as they are found during sorting.
 Can also partition the tuples (using either range- or hash-
partitioning) and perform duplicate elimination locally at each
processor.

 Projection
 Projection without duplicate elimination can be performed as
tuples are read in from disk in parallel.
 If duplicate elimination is required, any of the above duplicate
elimination techniques can be used.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Grouping/Aggregation
 Partition the relation on the grouping attributes
 Compute the aggregate values locally at each processor.
 Can reduce cost of transferring tuples during partitioning by partly
computing aggregate values before partitioning.
 Consider the sum aggregation operation:
 Perform aggregation operation at each processor P i on those
tuples stored on disk Di
 results in tuples with partial sums at each processor.
 Result of the local aggregation is partitioned on the grouping
attributes, and the aggregation performed again at each processor
Pi to get the final result.
 Fewer tuples need to be sent to other processors during partitioning.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Interoperator Parallelism
 Pipelined parallelism
 Consider a join of four relations
 r1 r2 r3 r4
 Set up a pipeline that computes the three joins in parallel
 Let P1 be assigned the computation of
temp1 = r1 r2
 And P2 be assigned the computation of temp2 = temp1 r3
 And P3 be assigned the computation of temp2 r4
 Each of these operations can execute in parallel, sending result
tuples it computes to the next operation even as it is computing
further results
 Provided a pipelineable join evaluation algorithm (e.g., indexed
nested loops join) is used

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Factors Limiting Utility of Pipeline
Parallelism
 Pipeline parallelism is useful since it avoids writing intermediate
results to disk
 Useful with small number of processors, but does not scale up well
with more processors. One reason is that pipeline chains do not
attain sufficient length.
 Cannot pipeline operators which do not produce output until all
inputs have been accessed (e.g., aggregate and sort)
 Little speedup is obtained for the frequent cases of skew in which
one operator's execution cost is much higher than the others.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Independent Parallelism
 Independent parallelism
 Consider a join of four relations
r1 r2 r3 r4
 Let P1 be assigned the computation of
temp1 = r1 r2
 And P2 be assigned the computation of temp2 = r 3 r4
 And P3 be assigned the computation of temp1 temp 2
 P1 and P2 can work independently in parallel
 P3 has to wait for input from P1 and P2

– Can pipeline output of P1 and P2 to P3, combining

independent parallelism and pipelined parallelism
 Does not provide a high degree of parallelism
 useful with a lower degree of parallelism.
 less useful in a highly parallel system.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Optimization
 Query optimization in parallel databases is significantly more complex
than query optimization in sequential databases.
 Cost models are more complicated, since we must take into account
partitioning costs and issues such as skew and resource contention.
 When scheduling execution tree in parallel system, must decide:
 How to parallelize each operation and how many processors to
use for it.

What operations to pipeline, what operations to execute
independently in parallel, and what operations to execute
sequentially, one after the other.
 Determining the amount of resources to allocate for each operation is
a problem.

e.g., allocating more processors than optimal can result in high
communication overhead.
 Long pipelines should be avoided as the final operation may wait a lot
for inputs, while holding precious resources

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Optimization (Cont.)
 The number of parallel evaluation plans from which to choose from is much
larger than the number of sequential evaluation plans.
 Therefore heuristics are needed while optimization
 Two alternative heuristics for choosing parallel plans:

No pipelining and inter-operation pipelining; just parallelize every
operation across all processors.
 Finding best plan is now much easier --- use standard optimization
technique, but with new cost model
 First choose most efficient sequential plan and then choose how best to
parallelize the operations in that plan.
 Can explore pipelined parallelism as an option
 Choosing a good physical organization (partitioning technique) is important
to speed up queries.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design of Parallel Systems
Some issues in the design of parallel systems:
 Parallel loading of data from external sources is needed in order to
handle large volumes of incoming data.
 Resilience to failure of some processors or disks.
 Probability of some disk or processor failing is higher in a parallel
system.
 Operation (perhaps with degraded performance) should be
possible in spite of failure.
 Redundancy achieved by storing extra copy of every data item at
another processor.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design of Parallel Systems (Cont.)
 On-line reorganization of data and schema changes must be
supported.
 For example, index construction on terabyte databases can take
hours or days even on a parallel system.
 Need to allow other processing (insertions/deletions/updates)
to be performed on relation even as index is being constructed.
 Basic idea: index construction tracks changes and “catches up”
on changes at the end.
 Also need support for on-line repartitioning and schema changes
(executed concurrently with other processing).

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Distributed Transactions

 Transaction may access data at several sites.

 Each site has a local transaction manager responsible for:
 Maintaining a log for recovery purposes
 Participating in coordinating the concurrent execution of the
transactions executing at that site.
 Each site has a transaction coordinator, which is responsible for:
 Starting the execution of transactions that originate at the site.
 Distributing subtransactions at appropriate sites for execution.
 Coordinating the termination of each transaction that originates at
the site, which may result in the transaction being committed at all
sites or aborted at all sites.

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transaction System Architecture

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 System Failure Modes
 Failures unique to distributed systems:
 Failure of a site.
 Loss of messages
 Handled by network transmission control protocols such as
TCP-IP
 Failure of a communication link
 Handled by network protocols, by routing messages via
alternative links
 Network partition
 A network is said to be partitioned when it has been split into
two or more subsystems that lack any connection between
them
– Note: a subsystem may consist of a single node
 Network partitioning and site failures are generally indistinguishable.

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Commit Protocols
 Commit protocols are used to ensure atomicity across sites
 a transaction which executes at multiple sites must either be
committed at all the sites, or aborted at all the sites.
 not acceptable to have a transaction committed at one site and
aborted at another
 The two-phase commit (2 PC) protocol is widely used
 The three-phase commit (3 PC) protocol is more complicated and
more expensive, but avoids some drawbacks of two-phase commit
protocol.

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Two Phase Commit Protocol (2PC)
 Assumes fail-stop model – failed sites simply stop working, and do
not cause any other harm, such as sending incorrect messages to
other sites.
 Execution of the protocol is initiated by the coordinator after the last
step of the transaction has been reached.
 The protocol involves all the local sites at which the transaction
executed
 Let T be a transaction initiated at site Si, and let the transaction
coordinator at Si be Ci

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Phase 1: Obtaining a Decision
 Coordinator asks all participants to prepare to commit transaction Ti.
 Ci adds the records <prepare T> to the log and forces log to
stable storage
 sends prepare T messages to all sites at which T executed
 Upon receiving message, transaction manager at site determines if it
can commit the transaction
 if not, add a record <no T> to the log and send abort T message
to Ci
 if the transaction can be committed, then:
 force all records for T to stable storage
 add the record <ready T> to the log
 send ready T message to Ci

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Phase 2: Recording the Decision
 T can be committed if Ci received a ready T message from all the
participating sites: otherwise T must be aborted.
 Coordinator adds a decision record, <commit T> or <abort T>, to the
log and forces record onto stable storage. Once the record reaches
stable storage it is irrevocable (even if failures occur)
 Coordinator sends a message to each participant informing it of the
decision (commit or abort)
 Participants take appropriate action locally.

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling of Failures - Site Failure
When site Si recovers, it examines its log to determine the fate of
transactions active at the time of the failure.
 Log contain <commit T> record: site executes redo (T)
 Log contains <abort T> record: site executes undo (T)
 Log contains <ready T> record: site must consult Ci to determine the
fate of T.
 If T committed, redo (T)
 If T aborted, undo (T)
 The log contains no control records concerning T implies that Sk failed
before responding to the prepare T message from Ci
 since the failure of Sk precludes the sending of such a
response C1 must abort T
 Sk must execute undo (T)

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Handling of Failures- Coordinator Failure

 If coordinator fails while the commit protocol for T is executing then

participating sites must decide on T’s fate:
1. If an active site contains a <commit T> record in its log, then T must
be committed.
2. If an active site contains an <abort T> record in its log, then T must
be aborted.
3. If some active participating site does not contain a <ready T> record
in its log, then the failed coordinator Ci cannot have decided to
commit T. Can therefore abort T.
4. If none of the above cases holds, then all active sites must have a
<ready T> record in their logs, but no additional control records (such
as <abort T> of <commit T>). In this case active sites must wait for
Ci to recover, to find decision.
 Blocking problem : active sites may have to wait for failed coordinator to
recover.

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 18.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan