Chapter 2

Arguments and Statements

Argument: Claim defended with reasons.

• Premises: Statements in an argument offered as evidence or reasons why one should accept the
conclusion.

• Conclusion: Statement that the premises are intended to support or prove.

Statement: Sentence that can be viewed as either true or false.

Statement Test

Does it make sense to put “it is true that” or “it is false that” in front of a sentence?

• If so, it is a statement.

• If not, it is not a statement.

Statements 1

Examples.

• Red is a color.

• Canada is in South America.

• Abortion is morally wrong.

More than one statement may be expressed in a sentence.

Statements 2

Not all sentences are statements.

• Examples of sentences that are not statements.

• What time is it? (question).

• Close the window! (command).

• Oh, my goodness! (exclamation).

Statements can be about subjective matters of personal experience as well as objectively verifiable
matters of fact.

Tricky Statements 1

Rhetorical question: Sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be
understood as a statement.

• Examples.

• Don’t you realize how bad smoking is for your health?

 • Meaning: Smoking is very bad for one’s health.

Tricky Statements 2

Ought imperative: Sentence that has the form of an imperative or command but is intended to assert a
value or ought judgment about what is good or bad, or right or wrong.

• Examples.

• “Close that window, soldier! It’s freezing in here!” really means “You ought to close that
window, soldier!”

• “Don’t blow-dry your hair in the tub!” really means “You should not blow-dry your hair
in the tub.”

Identifying Premises and Conclusions

Indicator words provide clues that premises or conclusions are being put forward.

• Premise indicators: Since, for, seeing that, inasmuch as, in view of the fact that, because, as, and
given that.

• Conclusion indicators: Therefore, hence, so, it follows that, wherefore, thus, and consequently.

Indicator words:

• May be misleading.

• May be absent in some cases.

Finding Conclusions When Indicators Are Absent

• Find the main issue and determine the position of the writer or speaker on that issue.

• Look at the beginning or the end of the passage; the conclusion is usually found in one of those
places.

• A statement is probably the conclusion if the word “therefore” fits well before it.

• The “because” trick (fill in the blanks): The arguer believes (conclusion) because (premise(s)).

What Is Not an Argument? 1

Reports: Convey information about a subject.

• Example: Sweeping changes occurred in demographics, economics, culture, and society during
the last quarter of the 20th century. The nation aged, and more of its people gravitated to the
Sunbelt.

What Is Not an Argument? 2

Unsupported assumptions: Statements about what a speaker or writer happens to believe.

• Such statements can be true or false, rational or irrational, but they are parts of arguments only
if the speaker or writer claims that the statement follows from, or supports, another claim.
 • Example: People aren’t afraid of dying; they are afraid of not living.

What Is Not an Argument? 3

Conditional (“if-then”) statements.

• Example: If it rains, the picnic will be canceled.

• Antecedent: Part of the statement that follows the word “if.”

• Consequent: Part of the statement that follows the word “then.”

• Do not always take the “if-then” form.

• Example: In the event of rain, the picnic will be canceled.

What Is Not an Argument? 4

• Conditional statements are not arguments.

• If it rains, the picnic will be canceled.

• It is not asserted either that it will rain or that the picnic will be canceled.

• It is only asserted that if the first statement is true, the second statement will
also be true.

• Some conditional statements do involve a process of reasoning.

• Example: If Rhode Island were larger than Ohio, and Ohio were larger than Texas, then
Rhode Island would be larger than Texas.

• This statement asserts that if the first two statements are true, then the third
statement is also true.

What Is Not an Argument? 5

Chain arguments: Arguments can be composed entirely of conditional statements.

• Take the form “If A then B. If B, then C. Therefore, if A then C.”

• Example.

• If Tech scores on this play, I’ll eat my hat.

• If I eat my hat, I’ll have a bad case of indigestion.

• So, if Tech scores on this play, I’ll have a bad case of indigestion.

What Is Not an Argument? 6

Illustrations: Do not prove or support the claim but provide examples of the claim.
 • Example: Not all religions are the same. For instance, Buddhists believe the universe is
eternal, with no beginning and no Creator, while Jews, Christians, and Muslims believe
the cosmos was created by one God at the beginning of time.

• Some statements are illustrations of a claim rather than evidence intended to prove the
claim.

• Example: Many of the world’s greatest philosophers were bachelors. For

instance, Descartes, Locke, Hume, and Kant were all unmarried.

What Is Not an Argument? 7

• When it is difficult to differentiate between an argument and an illustration, one must use the
principle of charity.

• Principle of charity: When interpreting an unclear passage, always give the speaker or
writer the benefit of the doubt.

Explanation: Tries to show why something is the case, not to prove that it is the case.

• Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg (explanation).

• Capital punishment should be abolished because innocent people may be mistakenly executed
(argument).

What Is Not an Argument? 8

• Parts of an explanation.

• Explanandum: Statement that is explained.

• Explanans: Statement that does the explaining.

• Format (fill in the blanks): Explanandum because Explanans.

• I fell down because I tripped.

Tests to Distinguish Arguments and Explanations 1

Common-knowledge test.

• If the statement that a passage is seeking to prove or explain is a matter of common knowledge,
it is probably an explanation.

• There’s usually little point in trying to prove something that is already a well-known fact.

• Example: The North won the American Civil War because it had a larger population and
a greater industrial base.

Tests to Distinguish Arguments and Explanations 2

Past-event test.
 • If the statement that a passage is seeking to prove or explain is an event that occurred in the
past, it is probably an explanation.

• Usually, people do not argue that “X occurred.”

• Example: Mel flunked out because he never went to class.

Tests to Distinguish Arguments and Explanations 3

Author’s intent test.

• If the person making the statement is trying to prove something, then the passage is an
argument.

• If the person making the statement is trying to explain why something is true, then the passage
is an explanation.

• Example: Kevin is majoring in political science because he wants to go to law school.

Tests to Distinguish Arguments and Explanations 4

Principle of charity test.

• One must interpret unclear passages generously.

• One must never interpret a passage as a bad argument when the evidence reasonably permits
one to interpret it as not an argument at all.

• The test: If you have a choice between interpreting a statement as a weak argument or a
satisfactory explanation, do the latter.