NAME: ……………………………………….....................................

PHYSICS TEACHER: ………………………...................................

CIRCULAR MOTION AQA

[Inc. additional examples]
What is a RADIAN?
Why is the RADIAN measure so useful?

THE RADIAN (like the degree) IS A UNIT OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

if s = arc length
and r = radius (same UNIT as r)

then  (radians) is DEFINED as  = s i.e. s  r

r
so given an angle  in RADIANS we can calculate the arc length s directly

e.g.

s = r  s = 3cm x 1.5rad = 4.5cm

BUT....
..... if we were given the angle  in degrees, the calculation would be a little more difficult

Circumference = 2r

Arc length s = 86/360 x circumference

s = 86/360 x 2r
s = 4.5cm

CONVERTING BETWEEN UNITS

s = ½ x circumference

s = ½ x 2r

s= r

now

180o   radians

 (radians) = s = r =  radians
r r

It therefore follows....   
1o     0.017 radian
 180 
or
 180 
1 radian     57.3o
  

Page 1 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

One of the other great advantages of using the RADIAN as a unit of ANGULAR MEASUREMENT is that it often
allows us to simplify a mathematical expression provided  IS SMALL.

THIS WORK ON SMALL ANGLE APPROXIMATION IS NOT NEEDED FOR CIRCULAR MOTION BUT IS
INTRODUCED LATER IN THE A2 COURSE

THE SMALL ANGLE APPROXIMATION

s
( in radians)
r
opp h
sin  
hyp r
opp s
as  becomes small h  s so sin  
hyp r
i.e.sin  
i.e.   sin  if  is small and measured in radians
We can best show this with some examples;
 (degrees) sin   (radians) *
50 0.76604 0.87226
30 0.50000 0.52360
10 0.17364 0.17453
5 0.08716 0.08727
2 0.03490 0.03491
1 0.01745 0.01745

*use the conversion shown above i.e. 50° =    x 50

 180
o
FOR ANGLES LESS THAN 10 IF WE WRITE THE ANGLE IN RADIANS THEN SIN 
Why is this useful?
Consider the following examples:

For triangle 1..........

opp X
sin   sin5o 
hyp 20
so X  20 sin5o  1.74m

For triangle 2..........

X
sin 
20
but  is small (and in radians) so sin  
X s
so   (compare with   X is an arc length if  is small)
20 r
X  20 x 
X  20 x 0.08727  1.75m
We can also show......
s s
 (radians)   (radians) 
r r
x h
a) cos  b) tan 
r x
as   0 x  r as   0 x  r
r hs
so cos  1
r s
so for small angles (radians) cos  1 so tan   
r
so for small angles (radians) tan   

Page 2 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

INTRODUCTION TO CIRCULAR MOTION
Consider an object moving in a circle with a constant linear speed ‘v’
WHY DON’T WE TALK ABOUT CONSTANT VELOCITY?
It is possible to analyse circular motion in terms of this ‘linear’ speed but there are
occasions when this causes difficulties.
e.g. for the circle shown on the left, a point P closer to the axis of rotation O will
have a smaller ‘linear’ velocity than a point on the edge of the disc.
Consider a second example, a rotating sphere:
Points at different ‘latitudes’ will rotate with different ‘linear’ speeds.
What do we quote for the speed of rotation of the sphere?
One solution is to look at the problem in terms of ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
and ANGULAR VELOCITY.
If the object is rotating at a constant rate (i.e. not accelerating) the 
angular velocity () of a point on the circle or sphere is defined as:

t
where:  is the angle ‘swept out’ (angular displacement) in RADIANS and t is
the time in SECONDS
Consider a point moving in a circular path as shown below. The point is initially at A, t seconds later it has
moved to B

Angular velocity of the point  
t
from the definition of the radian: arc length AB = r
distance travelled arc length r
linear 'speed' v of point = = = = r
time taken time taken t
v  r
Also, as there are 2 radians in one complete revolution, the time period T (time for one revolution) is given by:

2 1 1 
T  f   
 T 2 2

Consider a vinyl LP record rotating on a turntable.    2 f
LP records rotate with an ANGULAR VELOCITY of 33 31 r.p.m.

 33 31 x 2 rad
angular velocity (radians/sec)   = 3.49 rads-1
t 60 sec
= 3.5 rads-1 [2sf]

ALL POINTS ON THE LP ROTATE WITH THE SAME ANGULAR

VELOCITY OF 3.49 rads-1
[Calculate  for any point on the surface of the Earth]
Consider two points on the LP; point A, 5.0cm from the axis of rotation and point B 10.0 cm from the axis of rotation
If there are two flies sitting on the LP at A and B, whilst both have
the same angular velocity, the fly at A will be travelling slower than
the one at B.

v A  rA  0.050 m x 3.49 rads-1  0.175 ms -1  0.18 ms-1 [2sf]

or v A  rA  5.0 cm x 3.49 rads-1  17.5 cms-1  18 cms-1 [2sf]

v B  rB  0.100 m x 3.49 rads-1  0.350 ms -1  0.35 ms-1 [2sf]

or v B  rB  10.0 cm x 3.49 rads-1  35.0 cms-1  35 cms-1 [2sf]

We will return to these flies later!

When using v = r the angular velocity
 must ALWAYS be in radians/sec

Page 3 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

CIRCULAR MOTION AND ACCELERATION
Imagine a stone attached to a piece of string being spun in a circle with a constant
‘linear speed ‘v’
It is possible to rotate the stone with a CONSTANT SPEED but NOT with a
CONSTANT VELOCITY.
Whilst the magnitude of the velocity is constant (i.e. the speed) the direction is
continually changing therefore the velocity is continually changing (but is always
tangential to the circle).
SO OBJECTS MOVING IN A CIRCLE WITH A CONSTANT SPEED HAVE A
CONTINUOUSLY CHANGING VELOCITY.
Remember: acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity NOT the rate of change of speed
OBJECTS MOVING IN A CIRCLE WITH A CONSTANT SPEED HAVE A CONTINUOUSLY CHANGING
VELOCITY I.E. THEY ARE ALWAYS ACCELERATING. WE HAVE ACCELERATION WITH CONSTANT SPEED.
It is important that you understand this concept; the object is accelerating NOT due to a change in speed (our
normal understanding of acceleration) but due to a change in direction.
If the stone is always accelerating, in what direction is it accelerating?
A FULL ANALYSIS IS GIVEN IN THE BOOKLET “CIRCULAR MOTION” but a little mathematics shows:
the acceleration is always towards the centre of the circle
[CENTRIPETAL].
the acceleration is given by
v2
a
r
as v = r  we can also write
v 2 (r  )2 r 2 2
a    r2
r r r
v2
a   r2
r

The direction of INCREASING DISPLACEMENT (RADIUS) is AWAY

from O.
The ACCELERATION of P is TOWARDS O
In the absence of a formal vector notation many A level texts will put
a minus sign in this formula to remind you that the acceleration a is
in the opposite direction to increasing radius r
i.e. 2
v
a  ( )  ( )r  2
r
THE MINUS SIGN CONFIRMS THAT THE ACCELERATION IS IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION TO INCREASING RADIUS.

TO AVOID CONFUSION WITH MANY PROBLEMS (SEE FOR EXAMPLE p12/13 “Motion in a vertical circle”).
YOU DO NOT NEED TO INCLUDE THE MINUS SIGN IN YOUR EXPRESSION FOR ACCELERATION BUT YOU
MUST REMEMBER THE ACCELERATION IS TOWARDS THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE.
A negative acceleration must not be regarded as a RETARDATION; a retardation occurs when the acceleration is
in the opposite direction to the velocity, not the displacement
We will adopt the notation v2
a  r2
r
An inward acting acceleration implies that the rotating stone must be subjected to an inward acting
(CENTRIPETAL) force – in this case the centripetal force is provided by the tension in the string.
IT IS THIS CENTRIPETAL FORCE THAT CONSTRAINS THE STONE TO MOVE IN A CIRCLE; IF THE
CENTRIPETAL FORCE IS LOST (i.e. if the string snaps) THE STONE WILL ‘FLY OUT’ AT A TANGENT TO
THE CIRCLE FROM THE POINT WHERE THE STRING SNAPPED.
PROBLEM
THIS FIRST PROBLEM LOOKS AT AN OBJECT ROTATING IN A HORIZONTAL CIRCLE; FOR THESE TYPE
OF PROBLEMS WE CAN IGNORE GRAVITY AS THIS HAS NO COMPONENT IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE.
Page 4 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)
A student swings a stone attached to a piece of rope in a horizontal circle above her head. If the circle has a radius
of 1.2m and the stone takes 7.5s to complete 10 revolutions;
Calculate
i) The angular velocity of the stone.
ii) The ‘linear’ velocity (speed) of the stone.
iii) The acceleration of the stone – in which direction does this
acceleration act?
SOLUTION
i) If the stone makes 10 revolutions in 7.5s, the time for one revolution (time period T) is 0.75s
 1
  2 f f  
 T
2 2
    8.37 rads-1  8.4 rads-1 [2sf]
T 0.75
ii) v  r 
v  1.2m x 8.37rads1
v  10.1 ms-1
v  10 ms-1 [2sf]
v 2 10.12
iii) a    84.2 ms-2  84 ms-2 [2sf] TOWARDS THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE
r 1.2
OR
a  r  2  1.2 x 8.372  84.2 ms-2  84 ms-2 [2sf] TOWARDS THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE

Page 5 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

PROBLEMS; NOW TRY SOME FOR
YOURSELF…..........................................
Q1 (a) Convert the following angles from degrees to Q12 An observation wheel of diameter 125 m turns 4
radians times every hour. What angle does it rotate
30o, 90o, 75o, 120o, 180o, 210o, 270o, 300o through each minute? What is the tangential
(b) Convert the following angles from radians to speed of one of the passenger cars?
degrees Q13 A CD is spinning at a frequency of 460 rpm.
/4, 3/5, , 5/4, 8/7, 3/2, 2 What are the angular and linear speeds at
points 2.0 and 4.0 cm from the centre of the
Q2 Define what is meant by angular speed.
CD?
Q3 What is meant by period and frequency of
Q14 A ball with mass, m is spun in a circle on the
rotation?
end of a string of length, l with time period, T.
Q4 A pulley wheel rotates at 300 rev min−1. Calculate Find the kinetic energy of the ball in terms of m,
(a) its angular velocity in rad s−1, l, and T.
(b) the linear speed of a point on the rim if the
Q15 The London Eye completes two revolutions in
pulley has a radius of 150 mm.
one hour. Each capsule follows a circular path
at a constant speed of 0.26 ms−1.
Q5 The turntable on a record player rotates at
(a) What is the radius of the path?
45 rev min−1. Calculate
(b) How big is the centipetal acceleration of a
(a) its angular velocity in rad s−1,
passenger in one of the capsules?
(b) the linear speed of a point 14 cm from the
centre. Q16 A geosynchronous satellite makes a complete
circular orbit once every 24 hours. The radius of
Q6 A car moves round a circular track of radius
the orbit is 4.2 x 107 m.
1.0 km at a constant speed of 120 km h−1.
(a) What is the angular velocity of the satellite?
Calculate its angular velocity in rad s−1.
(b) What is its speed?
Q7 Calculate the angular velocity (c) What is its centripetal acceleration?
i) in degrees s-1
Q17 Riders in a bobsleigh are said to be subject to
ii) in rad s-1, of
high g-forces. Calculate the centripetal
(a) A fan blade rotating 2.5 rev min-1
acceleration of a bobsleigh that is moving at
(b) The minute hand of a clock 33 ms−1 and is on a banked corner of radius
Q8 All points on the Earth rotate with an angular 38m.
speed of 7.27 x10−5 rad s−1. Q18 When a wet sock is spun in a washing machine,
(a) Show how you could have calculated the angular the drum rotates at a high speed. The water in
speed yourself the sock escapes through the holes in the drum.
(b) What is the speed of a point on the equator? The radius of the drum is 0.24m and the drum
(re = 6.37 x106m) rotates at 820 rev min-1.
(c) What is the speed of a person in London, which (a) Calculate the speed of the rim of the drum
is at latitude 51.5o? (b) Estimate the acceleration of the sock
Q9 A helicopter blade is designed to rotate at such Q19 A wheel is turning with a frequency of 20 Hz.
an angular velocity that the tip of the blade moves Calculate the time period and angular velocity of
at less than the speed of sound in air, which is its rotation.
340ms−1. The blades rotate at 260 rpm. Calculate
the maximum possible length of the blades. Q20 A cyclist is travelling at a speed of 28.8 km h−1.
What is the angular speed of the wheel? How
Q10 A CD player varies the rate of rotation of the long does it take for the wheel to turn one
disc in order to keep the track from which the complete revolution? The wheel has a diameter
music is being reproduced moving at a constant of 68 cm
linear speed of 1.30 ms−1. Calculate the rates of
rotation of a disc of diameter 12.0cm when the Q21 The designer of a loop-the-loop ride in an
music is being read from amusement park wants to create and
(a) The outer edge of the disc acceleration of 4g at the bottom of a loop of
(b) A point 2.55 cm from the centre of the disc. radius 8.0 m. At what speed should the car be
Give answers in rad s−1 and in rev min−1. moving to produce this acceleration?
Q11 The Moon orbits the Earth at a distance of
roughly 384000 km. If it takes the Moon 28 days
to complete a full orbit, what are its linear and
angular velocities?

CircularMotionAdditional 1
Page 6 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
The notes above show that any object moving in a circular path is subjected to a ‘centre-seeking’/’inward acting’
CENTRIPETAL acceleration.
By Newton’s Second Law of Motion this implies that an object moving in a circular path is subjected to a
CENTRIPETAL FORCE. The force is given by:

mv 2
F  ma  ()  ()mr  2
r
AS BEFORE, IN THE ABSENCE OF A FORMAL VECTOR NOTATION, A MINUS SIGN IS OFTEN
INTRODUCED TO REMIND US THAT THE FORCE ACTS INWARDS, THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION TO
THAT OF INCREASING RADIUS. IT OFTEN EASIER TO IGNORE THIS SIGN AND JUST REMEMBER
THAT THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE ACTS TOWARDS THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE.

We will adopt the notation

mv 2
F  ma   mr  2
r
An object CAN ONLY MOVE IN A CIRCLE if it is subjected to this inward acting force (see note above).
NOTE: As the centripetal force F acts perpendicularly to the velocity v, the centripetal force does not do any
work as work is defined as the product of force and the distance moved in the direction of the force; this distance is
always zero. If no work is done by the centripetal force it cannot change the speed of the motion.
IMPORTANT:
 Centripetal force is NOT a type (like gravity, electromagnetism or friction), it is simply the label given to the
force(s) that act towards the centre of the circle allowing the object to move along its circular path.

mv 2
 This centripetal force is always numerically equal to or mr  2
r
 For example:
o The Earth orbiting the Sun requires a centripetal force provided by gravity, this gravitational force
mv 2
will have a numerical value equal to or mr  2
r
o A stone attached to a rope being swung in a horizontal circle requires a centripetal force provided
mv 2
by tension in the rope, this tension force will have a numerical value equal to or mr  2
r
o A car moving around a horizontal circular racing track requires a centripetal force provided by the

friction between the tyres and the road, this frictional force will have a numerical value equal to
mv 2
or mr  2
r

The idea of an inward acting force appears to contradict our everyday experience of circular motion, for example, in fairground rides
you appear to be pushed outwards, not pulled inwards.
Why does this happen?
In the fairground ride you are viewing what is happening from inside the rotating system (FRAME OF REFERENCE) and indeed it is
possible under these circumstances to analyse the problem with a factitious outward acting force referred to as a CENTRIFUGAL force
In reality we try to avoid looking at problems in a rotating (hence accelerating) frame of reference. An accelerating reference frame is
called a non-inertial frame. Circular motion is normally analysed from outside of the rotating reference frame (i.e. from an inertial
frame that is not accelerating). This gives rise to a CENTRIPETAL force.
Further details can be found in Appendix A.

Page 7 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

If we revisit the rotating stone example, assume the stone has a mass of 1.5kg.

mv 2
F  ( )  ( )mr  2
r
2
but  is related to the time period T by the expression  
T
so we can write....

 2  4 2mr
2

F  mr   mr 
2
  F
T  T2
4 2 mr 4 2 x1.5 x1.2
From this point onwards the MINUS sign F  mr  2    126.3N
T2 0.752
will be dropped as its inclusion can result
in errors with more complex problems.  130N [2sf]
Often we are only interested in the THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE IS PROVIDED BY THE
magnitude of the centripetal force or TENSION IN THE STRING AND ACTS TOWARDS THE
acceleration. The fact that it is centripetal CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE; IF THE STRING SNAPS THERE
is a reminder that the force acts towards IS NO CENTRIPETAL FORCE AND THE STONE CANNOT
the centre of the circle. MOVE IN A CIRCLE.
Q/ What happens to the tension in the string (centripetal force) if the stone is spun faster such that the (time) period
of rotation is halved?

4 2 mr
F if T is halved, T2 will be quartered so F, the tension in the string will increase by a factor of x 4
T2
If the string has a breaking strength of 200N, calculate:
i) the maximum speed at which the stone can be spun.
ii) the shortest time period the stone can be spun with
before the string snaps.
2 2
i) F  T  mv  FMAX  TMAX  mv MAX
r r
rT
v MAX 2  MAX
m
rTMAX
v MAX 
m
1.2 x 200
v MAX   12.6 ms-1  13 ms-1 [2sf]
1.5

4 2 mr 4 2 mr
ii) F  2
T2  OR
T F
distance travelled
4 2 mr speed =
T  time taken
F
4 2 mr 4 2 x1.5 x1.2 distance travelled
i.e.TMIN    time taken =
FMAX 200 speed
so TMIN  0.60s
FOR ONE REVOLUTION

2 r 2 r
T   TMIN 
BE CAREFUL: v v MAX
Using the letter T for TIME PERIOD and
2 r 2 x1.2
TENSION may cause you some problems!  TMIN    0.60s [2sf]
v MAX 12.6

(the downside to this method is it relies on the

previously calculated value of )

Page 8 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

If we now revisit our two flies sitting on the LP record............
Assume both flies have a mass of 0.10g i.e. 1.0x10-4kg
Calculate the CENTRIPETAL force acting on the flies at A and
B. What provides this force?

FA  mrA 2  1.0x104 x0.050 x 3.492  6.0x105 N (i.e. 60N)

FB  mrB 2  1.0x104 x0.100 x 3.492  1.2x104 N (i.e. 120N)
THIS FORCE CAN ONLY BE PROVIDED BY THE STATIC
FRICTION FORCE BETWEEN THE FLY AND THE LP.
If we look at a side view of the record.......
THE FRICTION ACTS TOWARD THE CENTRE OF
ROTATION.

IF THE STATIC FRICTION HAS A LIMITING VALUE OF 80N, DESCRIBE THE SUBSEQUENT MOTION OF
THE FLIES.
Fly A continues to move in a circle.
Fly B is THROWN OUT AT A TANGENT not because of any outward acting force but because friction
can no longer provide the inward acting force required to maintain circular motion.
THIS LAST BULLET POINT IS TRUE FOR ALL EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR MOTION; OBJECTS
ARE NEVER THROWN OUTWARDS BY SOME TYPE OF ‘MYSTERIOUS’ FORCE; AN OBJECT
MOVING IN A CIRCLE WILL CEASE TO MOVE IN A CIRCLE IF THE FORCE REQUIRED TO
PROVIDE THE INWARD ACTING (CENTRIPETAL) FORCE IS LOST.
What provides the centripetal force acting on the water in a rotating washing machine drum?
Why does the water leave the drum?
[HINT: Why is the drum filled with holes?]
INVESTIGATING CIRCULAR MOTION CENTRIPETAL FORCE

LOOKING TOWARDS THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE…….

The centripetal force is provided by the tension in the string T.

m1v 2
=T
r
From the free body diagram for mass 2:
T = m2g

Combining these two equations gives

m1v 2
= m2 g (i)
r
distance travelled during one revolution
Time period (i.e. the time for ONE revolution) =
speed of rotation
2 r
T=
v
2 r 4 2 r
2
 v= hence v 2 = substituting into equation (i)
T T2
 4 r 
2 2
m1  2 
 T  =m g
r
2

4 2m1r
2
= m2g
T
i.e. the time period T is related to the radius of “orbit” r by the
expression on the left.
 4 2m1  4 2m1r
 r = T
2
 T= (ii) FOR A FIXED RADIUS r THE TIME PERIOD T IS FIXED.
 m 2 g  m2 g (PROVIDED m1 AND m2 ARE CONSTANT).

Page 9 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

TASK
Choose suitable values for m 1 and m2.
Using equation (ii) calculate the expected values for T these masses would produce for a given range of r.
Set up the experiment using the values of r chosen above (you may need to mark the string!) and measure
the time period T using a stopwatch. How does this compare with the calculated value of T?

SAFETY
KEEP YOUR DISTANCE FROM OTHER GROUPS.
WORK ON THE PLAYGROUND.
WEAR EYE PROTECTION.

Calculated Measured value of T (s)

m1 (kg) m2 (kg) r (m)
value of T (s) TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Suggested values:
m1 → (small rubber bung) has a mass of 9.5g or 9.5 x 10−3kg
m2 → try 100g or 0.100kg
r → try 0.15m to 0.50m at 0.05m intervals
OTHER EXAMPLES:
THE CONICAL PENDULUM
Resolving vertically: Tcos = mg (i)
For circular motion we need an inward acting (CENTRIPETAL)
force; in this example this must be provided by the horizontal
component of T

mv 2
FC   T sin  ii  i.e. the only force acting towards
r
the centre of the circle is T sin 
by dividing (ii) by (i)

v2
tan 
rg
 v  rg tan
2 r 2 r
time period TP (not to be confused with tension T) TP  
v rg tan
FURTHER MATHEMATICS SHOWS..........
sin
remembering i) tan 
cos 
and from diagram ii) r  l sin if we now square both sides

2 l sin 2 l sin 4 2 l 2 4 2 l cos  l cos 

Tp   TP 2    TP  2
sin lgsin 2  lg  g g
l sin g  cos  
cos  cos   

2 l sin 2 l
Tp  
lg lg
sin
cos  cos 
Page 10 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)
NOTES:
The result is independent of ‘m’
It is NOT POSSIBLE to have a conical pendulum with  = 90o
The result is very similar to the expression derived for a traditional simple pendulum using S.H.M.
THE CAR ROUNDING A BEND

A 1500kg car moving on a flat road negotiates a curve whose radius is 35m.

If the coefficient of static friction between the tyres and the dry road is 0.50 find the
maximum speed the car can have in order to make the turn successfully.

THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE WHICH ENABLES THE CAR TO REMAIN IN A

CIRCULAR PATH IS THE FORCE OF STATIC FRICTION FS * BETWEEN THE
CAR AND THE ROAD.

[* there is no ‘slipping’ of the car towards or away from the centre of the circle]

mv 2
 FS
r
The maximum speed that the car can have around the curve corresponds to the speed at which it is on the verge of
skidding outwards. At this point the friction force has its maximum value given by:
FS MAX  N

As N = W = mg
FS MAX  mg  0.50x1500x9.81  7350N  7400N [2sf]

mv MAX 2 F r
 FS MAX   v MAX 2  S MAX
r m

FS MAX r 7350 x 35
v MAX    13.1 ms-1  13 ms-1 [2sf]
m 1500
THIS VALUE IS FIXED BY THE CONDITIONS OF THE ROAD AND THE CAR – IT IS INDEPENDENT OF THE
SKILL OF THE DRIVER. YOU (OR ANY OTHER DRIVER) CANNOT SUCCESSFULLY NEGOTIATE THE
CURVE AT A SPEED GREATER THAN 13.1 ms-1
An engineer wishes to design a curve on a race track in such away that a car will not have to rely on friction to
round the curve without skidding. This can be done by banking the curve.
i) How does this work?
ii) If the car rounds the curve at 30 ms-1 (approx. 70mph) and the radius of the curve is 100m, at what
angle should the curved be banked so that friction plays no part in helping the car around the curve?

The previous example showed that on a flat road, the centripetal force to
allow the car to move in a circular path, must be provided by the force of
friction between the car and the road.
HOWEVER......
If the road is banked at an angle  the normal reaction force N has a
horizontal component Nsin towards the centre of the circular path followed
by the car.
If we do not want to rely on friction, all of the centripetal force required for
circular motion must be provided by Nsin The banking angle we will
calculate will be one for which no frictional force is required – a car should
be able to negotiate the bend even if it is covered in ice (assuming it doesn’t
lose traction).

R    N cos  mg (i)

Page 11 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

The centripetal force required for circular motion is provided by the horizontal component of N

mv 2
N sin  (ii)
r
If we divide (ii) by (i)

mv 2
N sin v2
 r 
N cos mg rg
v2
tan 
rg
v 2  1  302 
  tan1    tan    43
o

 
rg  100 x 9.81
If a car round the banked curve at a speed lower
than 30 ms-1 the driver will have to rely on friction to
stop him sliding down the incline.
If a car round the banked curve at a speed higher
than 30 ms-1 the driver will have to rely on friction to
stop him sliding up the incline.

On some tracks the angle of the banking increases as

you move away from the centre of the curve; a skilled
driver can pick the ‘correct line’ to match his speed and
allow him to negotiate the bend at any speed and not rely
on friction.

The best modern example of a banked track is the cycle

velodrome where the radius of curvature is so small that
the banking angle approaches 90o.

MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE

For an object moving in a VERTICAL circle we need to consider the FORCE OF GRAVITY acting on the object as
this can contribute to the centripetal force required for circular motion.
The equations for circular motion in a vertical circle can be derived by remembering that THE RESULTANT
FORCE ACTING TOWARDS THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE PROVIDES THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE
REQUIRED FOR CIRCULAR MOTION.
If we consider the following diagram, at all positions along the circular path, there are TWO forces acting on
the object; the tension (T) in the string and the force of gravity (mg) on the object [weight].

If we look at the force(s) acting towards the centre of the circle

at A, B, C and D, the resultant force towards the centre of the

mv 2
circle is what provides the centripetal force required for
r
circular motion. WE DO NOT NEED TO WORRY ABOUT THE

MINUS SIGN NORMALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THIS FORMULA AS

WE ARE RESOLVING TOWARDS THE CENTRE – A MINUS SIGN

(IF USED) IS A REMINDER THAT WE MUST DO THIS!

Page 12 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

 At A: the resultant force acting towards the centre of the circle (which provides the centripetal force
required for circular motion) is mg + T so..........
mv 2
mg  T 
r
At B: the only force acting towards the centre of the circle is the tension T, so....
mv 2
T 
r
At C: the resultant force acting towards the centre of the circle (which provides the centripetal force
required for circular motion) is T − mg so..........
mv 2
T  mg 
r
At D: the only force acting towards the centre of the circle is the tension T, so....
mv 2
T 
r
NOTES:
At B and D the force of gravity makes no contribution to the centripetal force (gravity does not have a
horizontal component).
At A (the top of the circle) the centripetal force is provided by the tension T in the string PLUS the weight mg
of the object.
At C (the bottom of the circle) the centripetal force is provided by the tension T in the string MINUS the weight
mg of the object.
If we rearrange the equations for the centripetal force at A and C......
At the top of the circle A At the bottom the circle C

mv 2 mv 2
mg  T  T  mg 
r r
mv 2 mv 2
T   mg T   mg
r r

THE TENSION HAS ITS LEAST VALUE AT THE TOP OF THE CIRCLE AND ITS GREATEST VALUE AT THE
BOTTOM – IT THE STRING IS GOING TO SNAP IT WILL DO SO AT THE BOTTOM.
WATER IN A ROTATING BUCKET
If the bucket is rotated fast enough, the water remains in the bucket.
Consider the bucket at the top of its vertical circle as shown.
At the top of the circle, the forces acting on the water towards the
centre of the circle are the reaction force on the water (R) from the
bottom of the bucket and the weight force due to gravity (mg).
The centripetal force for circular motion is thus provided by the weight of the water and the reaction force on the
water from the bottom of the bucket

mv 2
mg  R 
r
Clearly the least value of v for which the water stays in the bucket is that for which R = 0 i.e the water just loses
contact with the bottom of the bucket (i.e. no reaction).

mv 2MIN
 mg  v 2MIN  gr  v MIN  gr
r
It is more useful to calculate the maximum time that can be taken to rotate the bucket..........
distance circumference
v= 
time time period

2 r
v MIN   gr
TMAX

2 r r
 TMAX   2
gr g
Page 13 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)
WORKED EXAMPLES
Following the last draft of this booklet I received a number of requests to include some more “worked examples” to
help illustrate the kind of problems that appear in examination papers. The problems shown below come from a
number of sources (including the AQA A2 text book). The solutions are mine; there will be alternative / equally valid
methods for solving many of the problems. You may wish to cover my solutions and see if you can solve the
problems for yourself. TC

EXAMPLE 1: A 500g ball moves in a horizontal circle of radius 40cm at 4.0m/s. Calculate the centripetal
acceleration of the ball and the force required to maintain this acceleration.
Solution:

v 2 4.02
a   40ms2
r 0.40
F  ma  0.500kg x 40ms2  20N

EXAMPLE 2: An object in uniform circular motion is being acted upon by a centripetal force F. If the radius of the
object’s path is to double while its velocity remains the same, what will be the new centripetal force (in terms of F)?
Solution:
mv 2
F
r
if the radius is doubled to 2r than the new centripetal force F' will be:
mv 2 1  mv 2  1
F'      F ...........assuming no changes in m and v
2r 2 r  2
i.e the centripetal force required is half the previous value.

EXAMPLE 3: A car just leaves the road when it passes over a hump of radius 40m. What is the velocity of the car?
Solution:

i) the car will first lose contact with the road as it passes over the
brow/”hump”
ii) on the brow of the hill the centripetal force required for circular motion
is provided by mg – R
i.e.
mv 2
mg  R 
r
iii) the car leaves the road when R falls to ZERO
so the max speed the car can travel with is given by
mv max 2
mg  0 
r
mv max 2
 mg 
r
m v max 2
mg   v max 2  rg
r
v max  rg  40 x10  400  20ms1

Page 14 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

EXAMPLE 4: In an amusement park roller coaster ride, a car starts from rest at point A and races through a loop-
the-loop. What is the minimum height h from which the car can start if it is not to leave the track at B. Give your
answer for h in terms of r.
[HINTS: car travels on inside edge of loop, think about Conservation of Energy]

Solution:

i) the point at which the car will first lose contact

with the loop is at the TOP (shown on the left)

ii) At the top of the circle:

mv 2
R  mg 
r
The minimum velocity needed to ‘loop-the-loop’ is
the value of v for which R falls to ZERO
i.e.
mv 2 mv min2
R  mg   0  mg 
r r
m v min2
mg 
r
 v min  rg
2

Total energy E Total energy E  GPE + KE

 mgh  mg 2r  21 mv 2 [but v 2  v min
2
 rg ]
 Total energy E  mg 2r  21 mrg
 2 21 mgr
As the total energy E is conserved…..
Total energy E at A = the total energy E at B

mgh  2 21 mgr
mg h  2 21 mg r
h  2 21 r

Page 15 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

EXAMPLE 5: In another roller coaster ride the designer wishes the riders to experience “weightlessness” as they
round the top of one hill. If the hill has a radius of curvature of 20m, what is the minimum velocity of the car
required?
[HINT: you need to remember the relationship between WEIGHT and REACTION and how humans perceive their
own weight – this work is cover at AS level but the notes on WEIGHTLESSNESS have been included in Appendix
B. See also example 3]
Solution:
mv 2
mg  R 
r
For weightlessness, R = 0
mv min2
mg  0  [compare with example 3, this relationship gives the minimum
r
velocity for weightlessness]
mv min2
 mg 
r
m v min2
mg   v min2  rg
r
v min  rg  20 x10  200  14ms 1

EXAMPLE 6: A huge pendulum consists of a 200kg steel ball attached to the end of a 15m length of cable. If the
pendulum is drawn back through an angle of 37o and released, what force must the cable withstand as the
pendulum swings back and forth?
[HINT: think about Conservation of Energy]
Solution:
i) Calculate the height through which
the pendulum drops.

ii) Remember, the pendulum moves in a CIRCULAR path,

the maximum tension in the cable occurs at the bottom
of the swing

mv 2
T  mg  r  15m
r
mv 2
T   mg
r
mv 2
i .e. Tmax   mg (a)
r

iii) Use Conservation of Energy to find v at the bottom of the swing……….

KE gained  GPE lost
1
2
m v 2  m gh
 v 2  2gh (b)
Finally, substitute (b) into (a)………… mv 2
Tmax   mg
r
m2gh
Tmax   mg
r
(200 x 2 x 9.81x 3.0)
Tmax   (200 x 9.81)
15
Tmax  2800N

Page 16 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

 EXAMPLE 7: Mr Bond (007) is strapped to the inside of a
wheel of radius 6.5m. During interrogation, the wheel is rotated
in a vertical plane with gradually increasing angular velocity.
Calculate the maximum rotation rate in revs/sec which Mr Bond
can withstand if he is found to blackout when the force exerted
on him by the wheel is equal to 8 times his weight.
Take g as 10m/s2.
Solution:

At A: mg  R  mr  2  R  mr  2  mg
At B: R  mr  2
At C: R  mg  mr  2  R  mr  2  mg
At D: R  mr  2
i.e. Bond experiences maximum reaction force R
at point C, the bottom of the loop

At C: R  mr  2  mg
Bond 'passes out' when R = 8 x body weight
i.e. R = 8mg
 8mg  mr   mg 2

8 m g  m r2  m g
7g  r  2

7g 7g 7 x10
2  so     3.2(8) rads 1
r r 6.5

Finally, we need to convert rads−1 to rev/sec…………..

2 rads 1  1 rev/sec
 1 
so 1 rads 1    rev/sec
 2 
 1 
 3.28rads1    x 3.28 rev/sec
 2 
3.28rads 1  0.52 rev/sec

Page 17 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

EXAMPLE 8: A jet fighter plane pulls out of a dive into a circular arc of radius 1200m. During this manoeuvre the
plane maintains a constant velocity of 720km/h. Find the force with which the 80kg pilot pushes down in his seat at
the bottom of the arc. How does this force compare with the pilots weight?
[HINTS: The downward force F that the pilot exerts on his seat is equal and opposite to the reaction force the seat
puts on the pilot – N3rdL, see the notes on WEIGHTLESSNESS]
Solution:
The force R will be a MAX at the bottom of the arc…….
mv 2
R  mg 
r
mv 2
 R  mg
r
[NOTE: R is the reaction force on the pilot from the seat]
r  1200m
720 x1000 m
v  200ms1
3600 s
mv 2
R   mg
r
80 x 2002
R  (80 x10)
1200
R  3500N [2sf]

By N3L, the force put on the seat by the pilot will also be 3500N
[Pilot’s ‘normal’ weight = mg = 80kg x 10N/kg =800N so the force on the seat is ≈ 4.4x greater than normal]

EXAMPLE 9: Figure 1 shows a cross-section of an automatic brake fitted to a rotating shaft. The brake pads are
held on the shaft by springs.
Figure 1
(a) Explain why the brake pads press against the inner surface of
the stationary collar if the shaft rotates too fast.
(3marks)
(b) Each brake pad and its retainer has a mass of 0.30 kg and its
centre of mass is 60 mm from the centre of the shaft. The
tension in the spring attached to each pad is 250N. Calculate
the maximum frequency of rotation of the shaft for no braking.
(4marks)

(c) Automatic brakes of the type described above are used on

ships to prevent lifeboats falling freely when they are lowered
on cables onto the water. Discuss how the performance of the
brake would be affected if the springs gradually became
weaker. (2marks)
NOTE: the same mechanism is used on an INERTIA REEL
SEATBELT – what happens when you pull a seat belt forward slowly?
How does this compare with a more rapid movement?
Solution:
(a)
The brake pads move in a circular path

The centripetal force required for the circular motion is provided by the tension in the springs
mv 2
As the speed of rotation increases a greater centripetal force is required F 
r
In order to provide this greater centripetal force, the tension in the spring must increase

The tension in the spring can only increase if the spring stretches F=kl

Eventually the spring length is long enough for the brake pads to rub against the “collar” and stop the
rotation.

Page 18 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

(b)
Centripetal force is provided by the tension T...........
mv 2
T   mr  2  mr (2 f )2
r
 T  4 2f 2 mr
T T 250
 f2  so f    18.8Hz 19Hz [2sf]
4 2 mr 4 2 mr 4 x 0.30 x 60 x10 3
2

(c)
Weaker springsmaller value of ‘k’ (the spring constant)
The tension in the spring is given by F=T=kl
If k is smaller, a smaller value of T will give the same extension l
The brakes will lock on for a smaller tension in the spring hence the brakes will engage for a smaller value
of v
mv 2
T  k l 
r
k  lr k lr
v 2  hence v  where l is the increase in spring length required to lock brakes
m m
All other factors being constant v will become smaller if k becomes smaller

EXAMPLE 10
(a) A particle that moves uniformly in a circular path is accelerating yet moving at a constant
speed.
Explain this statement by reference to the physical principles involved. (3 marks)

(b) A 0.10 kg mass is to be placed on a horizontal turntable that is then rotated at a fixed rate of
78 revolutions per minute. The mass may be placed on the table at any distance, r, from the
axis of rotation, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2
If the maximum frictional force between the mass and the turntable is 0.50 N, calculate the maximum value of the
distance I' at which the mass would stay on the turntable at this rate of rotation.
(4 marks)
Solution:
(a)
Speed is a SCALAR quantity
Velocity is a VECTOR quantity
For circular motion, the speed can be constant but the velocity will always be changing………..
 As acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity, the object will always be accelerating, even
if the speed is constant
(b)
Friction provides the centripetal force………..
F  mr  2 if m and  are fixed........
Fmax  mrmax 2
Fmax  78 x 2 rad 
 rmax 
m 2    8.17rads-1 
 6 0 s 
0.50
 rmax   0.075m or 7.5cm
0.10 x 8.172

Page 19 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

EXAMPLE 11: Figure 3 shows a dust particle at position D on a rotating vinyl disc. A combination of electrostatic
and frictional forces act on the dust particle to keep it in the same position.

Figure 3
The dust particle is at a distance of 0.125 m from the centre of the disc. The disc
rotates at 45 revolutions per minute.

(a) Calculate the linear speed of the dust particle at D. (3 marks)

(b) (i) Copy the diagram and mark an arrow to show the direction of the resultant horizontal force
on the dust particle.
(ii) Calculate the centripetal acceleration at position D. (3 marks)
(c) On looking closely at the rotating disc it can be seen that there is more dust concentrated on
the inner part of the disc than the outer part. Suggest why this should be so. (3 marks)
Solution:
(a)
45 x 2 rad v  r
  4.7(1)rads-1
60s v  0.125m x 4.71rads-1
v  0.59ms-1

(b)
i) For circular motion an inward acting centripetal force is required, see diagram
D
ii) v2 45 x 2 rad
a  r2   4.7(1)rads-1
r 60s
 a  0.125 x(4.71)2
a  2.7(7)ms2
(c)

all points revolve with the same angular velocity 

the centripetal force required to keep the particles moving in a circle is given by
F  mr  2
assuming all the dust particles have the same mass m…………
then
Fmax  mrmax 2
as Fmax is fixed, there will be a maximum value of r (rmax) for which the particles
can remain on the disc in circular motion, beyond this radius, the dust particles ‘fly
off’ at a tangent.
EXAMPLE 12: A strimmer is a tool for cutting long grass. A strimmer head such as that shown in Figure 4a is
driven by a motor. This makes the plastic line rotate causing it to cut the grass. To simplify analysis, the strimmer
line is modelled as the arrangement shown in Figure 4b. In this model the effective mass of the line is considered
to rotate at the end of the line.

Figure 4
Page 20 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)
In one strimmer the effective mass of 0.80 g rotates in a circle of radius 0.125m at 9000 revolutions per minute.

(a) Show that the angular speed of the line is approximately 9.4 x 102 rad/sec. (2 marks)

(b) (i) Explain how the centripetal force is applied to the effective mass.

(ii) Calculate the centripetal force acting on the effective mass. (4 marks)

(c) The line strikes a pebble of mass 1.2g, making contact for a time of 0.68ms. This causes the
pebble to fly off at a speed of 15m/s. Calculate the average force applied to the pebble.
(3 marks)
Solution:
(a) 9000 x 2 rad
  942rads-1
60s
(b) i) the centripetal force is provided by the tension in the line
F  mr  2  0.80 x103 x 0.125 x (9422 )
ii)
 F  88N [2sf]
(c) The force applied to the pebble is equal to the RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM OF THE PEBBLE……

(mv )  (1.2 x10 3 kg x 15m/s)  (1.2 x10 3 kg x 0m/s)

 0.018kgm/s
(mv ) 0.018kgm/s
 F 
t 0.68 x10 3 s
 F  26(.5)N

EXAMPLE 13: Figure 5 shows a toy engine moving with a constant speed on a circular track of constant radius.

Figure 5
(a) (i) Explain why the engine is accelerating even though its speed remains constant.
(ii) Mark on a copy of Figure 5 the direction of the centripetal force acting on the engine.
(3 marks)
(b) The total mass of the toy engine is 0.14 kg and it travels with a speed of 0.17m s −1.
The radius of the track is 0.80 m. Calculate the centripetal force acting on the engine.
(2 marks)
Figure 6 shows a close up of a pair of wheels as the engine moves towards you in the forward direction shown in
Figure 5.

Figure 6
(c) (i) State and explain on which wheel the centripetal force acts at the instant shown. You may
use Figure 6 to help your explanation.
(ii) For the toy engine going round a curved track, state and explain the two factors which
determine the stress on each wheel. (5 marks)

Page 21 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

Solution:
(a) i) the velocity of the engine is continually changing
 the engine is accelerating………… change in velocity
acceleration =
ii) time taken

The force is centripetal, towards the centre of the circle

mv 2 0.14 x0.172
(b) F    5.1x103 N
r 0.80
(c)
the centripetal force acts towards the centre of the circle
this force is provided by the REACTION force on the outer wheel
as it presses against the rail

EXAMPLE 14: A mass of 30 g is attached to a thread and whirled in a circle of radius 45 cm. The circle is in a
horizontal plane. The tension in the thread is 0.35N
(a) Calculate:
(i) the speed of the mass,
(ii) the period of rotation of the mass. (4 marks)
(b) The mass M is now whirled in a circle in a vertical plane as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7
(i) On a copy of Figure 7, label the forces acting on the mass, and use arrows to show their
direction.

(ii) Without performing calculations, state and explain the difference between the tension in the
thread when M is at the top of the circle and when it is at the bottom. (6 marks)
Solution:
(a) i)
mv 2
F where F is provided by the tension in the string
r
mv 2 Tr
F T   v2 
r m
Tr 0.35 x 0.45
v   3
 2.29ms1  2.3ms1 [2sf]
m 30 x10
ii)
2 r 2 x0.45
T    1.23s  1.2s [2sf]
v 2.29

Page 22 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

 mv 2
(b) i) ii) the centripetal force required for circular motion =
r
mv 2 mv 2
At the TOP of the circle: mg  T   T   mg
r r
mv 2 mv 2
At the BOTTOM of the circle: T  mg   T   mg
r r
i.e. the tension is a MAX at the bottom of the circle
the tension is a MIN at the top of the circle [see page 13]

EXAMPLE 15: Figure 8 shows the initial path taken by an electron when it is produced as a result of a collision in a
cloud chamber.

Figure 8
The path is the arc of a circle of radius 0.045 m with centre O.
The speed of the electron is 4.2 x 107 ms−1. The mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10−31 kg.
(a) Calculate the momentum of the electron. (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the force acting on the electron that makes it follow the curved path.
(2marks)
(c) Show on a copy of Figure 8 the direction of this force when an electron is at point P. (1 mark)
Solution:
1
(a) p  mv  9.1x10 kg x 4.2x10 ms
-31 7

p  3.8x1023kgms-1
(b) mv 2 9.1x10-31 x (4.2x107 )2 (c)
F 
r 0.045
F  3.57 x10 14 N

Page 23 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

EXAMPLE 16: Figure 9 shows a simple accelerometer designed to measure the centripetal acceleration of a car
going round a bend following a circular path.

Figure 9
The two ends A and B arc fixed to the car. The mass M is free to move between the two springs. The needle
attached to the mass moves along a scale to indicate the acceleration. In one instant a car travels round a bend of
radius 24 m in the direction shown in Figure 9. The speed of the car is 45 km h −1.
(a) State and explain the direction in which the pointer moves from its equilibrium position.
(3 marks)
(b)
(i) Calculate the acceleration that would be recorded by the accelerometer.
(ii) The mass M between the springs in the accelerometer is 0.35 kg. A test shows that a force of
0.75 N moves the pointer 27 mm.
Calculate the displacement of the needle from the equilibrium position when the car is travelling with the
acceleration in part (i). (4 marks)
Solution:
(a) A centripetal force is required for circular motion……………
this is provided by INCREASING the tension in the RIGHT HAND
SPRING and DECREASING the tension in the LEFT HAND SPRING

………the pointer will move to the LEFT

v2 45000m
(b) i) a  v  45km/h   12.5ms 1
r 3600s
12.52
a
24
a  6.5(1)ms-2 towards the centre of the circle
ii) Calculate 'k' the spring constant for the system............
F 0.75N
F  k l  k    27.8Nm-1
l 27 x103 m
Force on mass m  F  ma
F  0.35 x 6.51
F  2.27(9)N
 Displacement l of the mass is given by.................
F 2.279N
l    0.082m or 8.2cm
k 27.8Nm-1

Page 24 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

SPINNING GLOBES AND APPARENT WEIGHT
If you stand on a set of scales at the North Pole and then again at the Equator, will the scales read the same
value?
Assuming the Earth is a PERFECT UNIFORM SPHERE (i.e. a uniform density and constant radius). A person
standing on a set of scales at the North Pole records a reading of 600N. What will the scales read if the
measurement is retaken at the Earth’s equator.
rE = 6370 km = 6.37 x 106 m E = 7.27 x 10−5 rad/sec
KEYPOINT: the apparent weight for somebody standing on a surface is equal to the magnitude of
the contact force (reaction) experienced by that body (i.e. apparent weight = R). You CANNOT feel
your own weight; you can only feel the reaction force from the surface on which you are standing.
Recapping the notes on “What is weightlessness” and for an object in a lift...................
 Lift NOT accelerating
R(  ) mg  R  ma or R(  ) R  mg  ma
mg  R  m x 0 R  mg  m x 0
mg  R  0 R  mg  0
mg  R R  mg
i.e the apparent weight R (recorded on scales) = actual weight mg

 Lift ACCELERATING DOWNWARDS with a constant acceleration ‘a’

R(  ) mg  R  ma
mg  ma  R
R  mg  ma
i.e the apparent weight R (recorded on scales) < actual weight mg

 Lift ACCELERATING UPWARDS with a constant acceleration ‘a’

R(  ) R  mg  ma
R  ma  mg

i.e the apparent weight R (recorded on scales) > actual weight mg

At NORTH POLE
The person has no centripetal acceleration
R(  ) mg  R  ma R(  ) R  mg  ma
mg  R  m x 0 or R  mg  m x 0
mg  R  0 R  mg  0
mg  R R  mg

i.e the apparent weight R (recorded on scales) = actual weight

mg (600 N in this example)
At the EQUATOR
The person has a centripetal acceleration towards the centre of
the Earth as they are moving in a circular path around the axis of
rotation
mv 2
a  mr  2
r
R(  ) mg  R  ma
v2
mg  R  m x
r or R(  ) mg  R  ma
2
mg  R 
mv mg  R  m x r  2
r mg  R  mr  2
2
mv
R  mg  R  mg  mr  2
r
i.e at the EQUATOR the apparent weight R (recorded on scales) < actual weight mg (600 N in this example)

Page 25 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

So, at the equator................

R  mg  mr  2
BUT
mg  600N
W 600N
m    61.16kg
g 9.81Nkg-1

Thus the value of R (the apparent weight recorded by the scales) is given by:

R  mg  mr  2
R  600  (61.16 x 6.37 x106 x(7.27 x10 5 )2 ]
R  600  2.06
R  597.9(4)N

i.e at the EQUATOR the apparent weight R (recorded on scales) is 99.66% of the actual weight of the person.
See Q 22 below...........
Draw a sketch of a man of mass 75.0 kg standing on a weighing machine (calibrated in Newtons) at the Earth’s
equator where, because the Earth is rotating, he has a centripetal acceleration of 0.034 m s -2.
(a) What is the pull of the Earth on him? Take g to be 9.780 N kg-1.
(b) Draw a free-body diagram for the man and add the forces acting on him.
(c) Calculate the push of the weighing machine on him.
(d) What will the weighing machine record as his weight? Explain in words why this is not equal to mg
EXTENSION
For a mass on the Earth’s equator; calculate how fast the Earth would need to spin (time period) for the mass to
lose contact with the Earth and fly off into space.
KEYPOINT: the mass will lose contact with the Earth when R becomes equal to zero.
For a mass on the equator...........
mg  R  mr  2
 R  mg  mr  2
contact is lost when R  0
 0  mg  mr  2
so m g  m r2
g
i.e 2 
r
2 4 2
But    2  2
T T
4 2 g

T2 r
2
T r
 2 
4 g
r 
so T 2  4 2  
g 
r where r is the radius of the Earth at the equator
 T  2
g g is the Earth’s gravitational field strength at the equator

An alternative solution to this problem is outlined in the notes on GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS. If material just loses
contact at the equator, it can be considered to be in orbit at a height zero above the equator. The notes show that
under these conditions

r3 where r is the radius of the Earth at the equator

T  2
GM G is the Newton’s Universal Gravitational constant [6.67x10−11 Nm2kg−2]
M is the mass of the Earth [5.98x1024 kg]
You might like to show that both of these relationships give a time period of (approx.) 5000seconds; if the Earth
spun with a day less than this time period, all mass at the equator would fly off into space.

Page 26 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

PROBLEMS; NOW TRY SOME FOR
YOURSELF…..........................................
Q1 What is meant by centripetal acceleration and Q9 An object of mass 6.0 kg is whirled round in a
centirpetal force? vertical circle of radius 2.0 m with a speed of
8.0 m s−1. Calculate the maximum and minimum
Q2 On a ride at a theme park, riders are strapped tension in the string connecting the object to the
into seats attached to the edge of a spinning centre of the circle.
horizontal wheel of diameter 8.5 m. The wheel If the string breaks when the tension in it exceeds
rotates 15 times min−1. Calculate the force felt by 360 N, calculate the maximum speed of rotation
a rider of mass 60kg. in m s−1, and state where the object will be when the
Q3 A biker rides in a vertical circle round the inside string breaks.
of a cylinder of radius 5 m (he is upside down at Assume g = 9.81 m s−2.
the top). For the biker not to fall off at the top of Q10 A car travels over a humpback bridge at a speed
the loop, he must be going fast enough that his of 30 m s−1. Calculate the minimum radius of the
centripetal acceleration does not fall below the bridge if the car road wheels are to remain in
acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 ms−1. What is contact with the bridge. What happens if the radius
the minimum speed he must be travelling at the is less than the limiting value?
top of the loop? Assume g = 9.81 m s−2.
Q4 A planet follows a circular orbit of radius r round Q11 A conical pendulum consists of a bob of mass
a star. The planet experiences a constant 0.50 kg attached to a string of length 1.0 m.
acceleration a. How long does it take for the The bob rotates in a horizontal circle such that the
planet to orbit the star 3 times? angle the string makes with the vertical is 30°.
Calculate
a a r
A 3 B 6 C 6 (a) the period of the motion,
r r a (b) the tension in the string.
D 2
 ar Assume g = 9.81 m s−2.
3

Q12 A child of mass 30kg is playing on a swing. Her

Q5 An object of mass 0.30 kg is attached to the end centre of mass is 3.2 m below the supports when
of a string and is supported on a smooth she moves through the bottom of her swing at
horizontal surface. The object moves in a 6.0 m s-1.
horizontal circle of radius 0.50 m with a constant (a) Draw a free-body diagram for the child at this
speed of 2.0 m s−1. Calculate moment.
(a) the centripetal acceleration, (b) Calculate: (i) her centripetal acceleration (i) the
(b) the tension in the string. push of the seat of the swing on her.
Q6 An object of mass 4.0 kg is whirled round in a Q13 The turning circle of Concorde, when flying
vertical circle of radius 2.0 m with a speed of horizontally at a constant speed of 650 m s−1, is of
5.0 m s−1. Calculate the maximum and minimum radius 80 km. What is the ratio of the centripetal
tension in the string connecting the object to the force experienced by the aircraft to the weight of
centre of the circle. the aircraft? (Take g, the acceleration of free fall, as
Assume acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m s−2.)
g = 9.81 ms−2.
A 8.3x10−4 : 1 B 0.54 : 1 C 1.9 : 1
Q7 A particle of mass 0.1 kg moves in a circular path
on a horizontal frictionless plane, attached freely D 52 : 1 E 540 : 1
to a point O by an inelastic string of negligible
mass which can support a maximum tension of
1 N without breaking. Find the maximum angular
velocity with which the particle can circulate
about O in a path of radius 1 m without breaking
the string.

Q8 A car of mass 1.0 x 103 kg is moving at 30 m s−1

around a bend of radius 0.60 km on a horizontal
track. What centripetal force is required to keep
the car moving around the bend, and where does
this force come from?

Page 27 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

Q14 A cyclist is moving round a horizontal corner Q20 (a) Draw and label a diagram to illustrate the four
and leans over slightly to one side. Draw a free- principal forces, including lift and drag, acting on
body diagram to show the vertical and an aircraft moving in horizontal flight at a
horizontal components, N and F respectively, of constant velocity. Give two relations between
the push of the road on him and also his the magnitudes of these forces.
weight, W. (b) To enable it to turn in a horizontal circle, an
a. The total mass of the cyclist plus bicycle is aircraft banks as shown below
95 kg. Explain why N = 930 N.
b. The cyclist is moving at 18 m s-1 in a circle of
radiius 50 m. Calculate F.
c. Calculate (i) the resultant force acting on the
bicycle and cyclist (ii) the resultant push of
the ground on him
Q15 In throwing a ‘hammer’ an athlete whirls a steel
ball in a circle of radius 1.9 m at 2.4 rev s−1. The
steel ball has a mass of 7.3 kg.
(a) What is the size of the ball’s acceleration? (i) What force provides the centripetal
(b) Calculate the centripetal pull of the wire on the acceleration?
ball. (ii) Calculate the angle at which it banks if it
moves in a horizontal circle of radius 15 km
Q16 A car travels over a humpback bridge of radius at a speed of 200 m s−1
of curvature 45 m. Calculate the maximum
speed of the car if its road wheels are to stay in Q21 The diagram shows two views of a piece of
contact with the bridge. apparatus that enables each of F, m, r and ω to be
Assume g = 9.81 m s−2. measured for an object (here a steel ball) moving in
a horizontal circle, thus providing experimental
Q17 The designer of an amusement park ride wants evidence for F = mrω2. The bulb lights up when the
a train to have a centripetal acceleration of steel ball touches either the terminals RS or the
19.6 ms−2 at the top of a loop of radius 7.0 m. terminals PQ. Describe how you would use the
(a) Calculate the minimum speed he must ensure apparatus to test the relationship. You may use
the train has at the top of the loop. other routine lab apparatus as well as that shown in
(b) At the top of the loop two forces P and W act the diagram.
vertically downwards. The centripetal force is
therefore P + W.
(i) Describe the two forces as the push or pull of
something on the train.
(ii) Calculate W and P for a train of mass
1600 kg.
Q18 A metal bob of mass 0.20 kg is whirled in a
horizontal circle on the end of a string once
every second. The pendulum is of length
0.29 m and makes an angle of 30o with
the vertical.
(a) Calculate (i) the speed of the bob.
(ii) its centripetal acceleration.
(b) Hence show that T = 2.3 N
Q22 Draw a sketch of a man of mass 75.0 kg
Q19 A small bob of mass m hangs from a light standing on a weighing machine (calibrated in
string. Newtons) at the Earth’s equator where,
The bob is then set in motion so that it moves in because the Earth is rotating, he has a
A horizontal circle of radius r with the string centripetal acceleration of 0.034 m s-2.
making an angle  with the vertical. If the (a) What is the pull of the Earth on him? Take g to
angular velocity of the bob is  and g is the be 9.780 N kg-1.
acceleration of free fall, which one of the (b) Draw a free-body diagram for the man and add
following is equal to tan ? the forces acting on him.
m 2 r  (c) Calculate the push of the weighing machine on
A m 2 r B C him.
g g (d) What will the weighing machine record as his
 2r r 2 weight? Explain in words why this is not equal
D E
g g to mg

CircularMotionAdditional 2

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Appendix A: MOTION IN ACCELERATED FRAMES
When Newton's Laws of motion were introduced in we emphasized that the laws are valid when observations
are made in an inertial frame of reference. In this section, we shall analyze how an observer in a non-inertial
frame of reference (one that is accelerating) would attempt to apply Newton's second law.
If a particle moves with an acceleration a relative to an observer in an inertial frame, then the inertial observer
may use Newton's second law and correctly claim that F= ma. If an observer in an accelerated frame (the non-
inertial observer) tries to apply Newton's second law to the motion of the particle, the non-inertial observer must
introduce fictitious forces to make Newton's second law work in that frame. Sometimes, these fictitious forces
are Fictitious or inertial forces referred to as inertial forces. These forces "invented" by the non-inertial observer
appear to be real forces in the accelerating frame. However, we emphasize that these fictitious forces do not
exist when the motion is observed in an inertial frame. The fictitious forces are used only in an accelerating
frame but do not represent "real" forces on the body. (By "real" forces, we mean the interaction of the body with
its environment.) If the fictitious forces are properly defined in the accelerating frame, then the description of
motion in this frame will be equivalent to the description by an inertial observer who considers only real forces.
Usually, motions are analyzed using inertial reference frames, but there are cases in which an accelerating
frame is more convenient.
In order to understand better the motion of a rotating system, consider a car
travelling along a highway at a high speed and approaching a curved exit ramp, as
in the diagram on the right. As the car takes the sharp left turn onto the ramp, a
person sitting in the passenger seat slides to the right across the seat and hits the
door. At that point, the force of the door keeps him from being ejected from the car.
What causes the passenger to move toward the door? A popular, but improper,
explanation is that some mysterious force pushes him outward. (This is often called
the "centrifugal" force, but we shall not use this term since it often creates
confusion.) The passenger invents this fictitious force in order to explain what is
going on in his accelerated frame of reference.

The phenomenon is correctly explained as follows. Before the car enters the ramp, the passenger is moving in a
straight-line path. As the car enters the ramp and travels a curved path, the passenger, because of inertia, tends
to move along the original straight-line path. This is in accordance with Newton's a first law: the natural tendency
of a body is to continue moving in a straight line. However, if a sufficiently large centripetal force (toward the
centre of curvature) acts on the passenger, he will move in a curved path along with the car. The origin of this
centripetal force is the force of friction between the passenger and the car seat. If this frictional force is not large
enough, the passenger will slide across the seat as the car turns under him. Eventually, the passenger
encounters the door, which provides a large enough centripetal force to enable the passenger to follow the same
curved path as the car. The passenger slides toward the door not because of some mysterious outward force
but because there is no centripetal force large enough to allow him to travel along the circular path
followed by the car.

In summary, one must be very careful to distinguish real forces

from fictitious ones in describing motion in an accelerating
frame. An observer in a car rounding a curve is in an
accelerating frame and invents a fictitious outward force to
explain why he or she is thrown outward. A stationary observer
outside the car, however, considers only real forces on the
passenger. To this observer, the mysterious outward force does
not exist! The only real external force on the passenger is the
centripetal (inward) force due to friction or the normal force of
the door.

PHYSICS FOR SCIENTIST AND ENGINEERS:

RAYMOND A. SERWAY

Page 29 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

Appendix B: WHAT IS WEIGHTLESSNESS? [REVISION NOTES]
Why do you feel ‘heavier’ in a lift that is accelerating upwards or ‘lighter’ in a lift accelerating downwards?
Why are astronauts in a spacecraft in orbit said to be ‘weightless’?
The answer to these two common questions is the same and can be explained by applying Newton’s Second
Law of Motion (N2L) to the passenger in the lift or the astronaut in the spacecraft.
THE KEY TO UNDERSTANDING BOTH PROBLEMS IS THAT YOU CANNOT ‘FEEL’ YOUR OWN WEIGHT –
WHAT YOUR BODY FEELS IN EVERYDAY LIFE IS THE REACTION FORCE PLACED ON IT BY YOUR
CONTACT WITH THE GROUND; IT IS THIS THAT YOU PERCEIVE AS YOUR WEIGHT.
Under most circumstances, the REACTION FORCE acting on you is numerically equal to your WEIGHT so any
change in this reaction force fools you into thinking that your weight has changed.
[REMEMBER: WEIGHT AND REACTION ARE NOT NEWTON THIRD LAW PAIRS]
Consider the examples shown below
(1) Imagine a person (mass m) standing stationary on the ground. He/she is NOT accelerating up or down;
If we look at the resultant force in the UPWARD direction
The RESULTANT force F is given by
F = R - mg
BUT
By N2L
F = mass x acc
R – mg = mass x acc
as a = 0
 R – mg = mass x 0
R = mg
i.e. the REACTION force R felt by the person is numerically equal to his WEIGHT mg
(2) Now imagine the same person in a lift that is STATIONARY or moving with a CONSTANT VELOCITY i.e.
NO ACCELERATION
Once again, if we look at the forces in an UPWARD direction
The RESULTANT force F is given by
F = R - mg
BUT
By N2L
F = mass x acc
R – mg = mass x acc
as a = 0
 R – mg = mass x 0
R = mg
i.e. the REACTION force R felt by the person is numerically equal to his WEIGHT mg
the situation is identical to (1) that is, standing stationary on the ground
(3) Now imagine the same person in a lift that is no longer stationary or moving with a constant velocity but
ACCELERATING UPWARDS with an acceleration = a
Once again, if we look at the forces in an UPWARD direction
The RESULTANT force F is given by
F = R - mg
BUT
By N2L
F = mass x acc
R – mg = mass x acc
as acc = a
 R – mg = ma
R = mg + ma
i.e. the REACTION force R felt by the person is numerically greater than his WEIGHT mg
the person will ‘feel’ heavier

Page 30 of 31 tinyurl.com/TCKS5Notes T Connolly (SLBS Physics Dept)

 (4) This time imagine the same person in a lift that ACCELERATING DOWNWARDS with an acceleration = a
This time it is easier to look at the forces in a DOWNWARD
direction
The RESULTANT force F is given by
F = mg - R
BUT
By N2L
F = mass x acc
mg – R = mass x acc
as acc = a
 mg – R = ma
R = mg - ma
i.e. the REACTION force R felt by the person is numerically less than his WEIGHT mg
the person will ‘feel’ lighter
(5) Finally, imagine the lift cable snaps so that the lift and passenger are in FREE FALL. This time the lift and
the person in it will ACCELERATE DOWNWARDS with an acceleration = g
Once again, looking at the forces in a DOWNWARD direction
The RESULTANT force F is given by
F = mg - R
BUT
By N2L
F = mass x acc
mg – R = mass x acc
as acc = g
 mg – R = mg
R = mg – mg = 0
i.e. the REACTION force R felt by the person is numerically ZERO
the person will appear ‘weightless’
WEIGHTLESSNESS IN SPACE
The weight of an object is given by:

WEIGHT = MASS x GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH

W = mg
An object can only be truly weightless if it is in a region of space where the gravitational field strength (g) is
ZERO.
No such place exists, even in Earth orbit the value of g is NON ZERO
Why are astronauts floating in space are said to be weightless?

FOR A SPACE CRAFT IN ORBIT THE KEYPOINT TO REMEMBER IS THAT THE SPACE CRAFT AND ITS
OCCUPANTS ARE IN FREE FALL AROUND THE EARTH – THE PICTURE IS ANALOGOUS TO THE LIFT IN
FREE FALL

F = mg - R
BUT
By N2L
F = mass x acc
mg – R = mass x acc
as acc = g
 mg – R = mg

R = mg – mg = 0

i.e. the REACTION force R felt by the astronaut is numerically ZERO

the astronaut will appear ‘weightless’
the astronaut floats in the spacecraft because both the astronaut and the spacecraft are falling at the same rate

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