LAB SESSION NO.

01:

To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire

and hence determine the modulus of elasticity of
the material of the wire.

Abstract
This report investigates the modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus) of a metallic wire through the
load-extension method. By gradually applying loads to the wire and measuring the corresponding
extensions, a load-extension curve is plotted. The linear region of the curve provides the slope needed
to calculate Young’s modulus. The experiment aims to understand the material's elastic behavior and
confirm the theoretical relationship between stress and strain.

THEORY:

STRESS
• Stress is the force applied per unit area on a material. It quantifies the internal forces that
develop within the material when it is subjected to an external load. Stress is measured in units
like pascals (Pa). There are different types of stress, such as:
o Tensile stress (stretching),
o Compressive stress (squeezing),
o Shear stress (sliding layers against each other).

STRAIN
• Strain is the measure of deformation or change in shape that a material undergoes due to
applied stress. It is a dimensionless quantity, representing the ratio of change in length to the
original length. There are also different types of strain, such as:
o Tensile strain (elongation),
o Compressive strain (contraction)
o Shear strain (distortion).
The relationship between stress and strain for materials can be described by Hooke's Law, which
states that, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain. Beyond this elastic region, materials
may experience plastic deformation or even fracture.

Modulus of elasticity:
The modulus of elasticity (also called Young's modulus) is a measure of a material's stiffness or
rigidity. It quantifies the relationship between stress and strain in the elastic region of the material's
deformation. Specifically, it is the ratio of tensile stress (force per unit area) to tensile strain
(proportional deformation) for a material that returns to its original shape after the force is removed.

Formula:
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
Where:

• E = Modulus of elasticity (Pa or N/m²),

• σ = Stress (Pa or N/m²),
• ε = Strain (dimensionless).

• A high modulus of elasticity indicates a stiff material (e.g., steel, diamond), meaning it
deforms very little under stress.
• A low modulus of elasticity indicates a more flexible material (e.g., rubber), meaning it
deforms significantly under the same stress.

Young's modulus is only valid in the elastic region, where the material returns to its original shape
after the applied stress is removed. Once the material exceeds its elastic limit, permanent deformation
(plasticity) occurs, and Young's modulus no longer applies.

Hooks law:
According to Hooke’s Law, within the elastic limit of a material, the stress is proportional to the strain:

𝜎 ∝ 𝜀 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

For a wire under tensile stress, stress (σ\sigmaσ) is given by the force per unit area:

𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴
And strain (ε) is the extension per unit length:

𝐿0
𝜀=
Δ𝐿

The load-extension curve helps visualize this relationship. The slope of the linear portion of the graph
(which represents the proportional region) can be used to calculate E.

DIFFRENCE BETWEEN STRESSS AND PRESSURE:

Stress and Pressure are both words that are commonly mistaken for one another. We can define
pressure as the amount of force that is exerted per unit area. On the other hand, stress refers to the
amount of force exerted per unit area, experienced by a material. The difference between stress and
pressure can help us to understand the basics better and know their comparisons thoroughly. Let us
now understand what is the difference between stress and pressure. Stress is determined by the
internal opposing forces while pressure is calculated using external load
.

Apparatus:
• Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights
• Meter Rod
• Vernier caliper
 Procedure:
1. Measuring the Wire: Measure the initial length (L) of the wire using a measuring tape and its
diameter (d) using a micrometer screw gauge. The cross-sectional area AAA is calculated
using: A=πd2/4A
2. Setting Up the Wire: Fix one end of the wire securely on a rigid stand, passing the wire over
a pulley and attaching a weight hanger to the free end.
3. Applying Load: Incrementally apply known weights to the wire and measure the
corresponding extension (ΔL) using a meter scale or Vernier caliper. Ensure that the wire is free
from slack before applying the first load.
4. Recording Data: Record the load (in newtons) and the corresponding extension of the wire
for each increment.
5. Plotting the Graph: Plot the load-extension curve with load (F) on the y-axis and extension (ΔL)
on the x-axis.
6. Calculating Young’s Modulus: From the slope of the linear region, calculate the modulus of
elasticity.

Results and Calculations:

Least Count of the scale of apparatus = __________ mm

Least Count of vernier caliper = __________ mm

Least Count of meter rod =__________ mm

Length of wire (L) =__________ mm

Dia of wire (d) =__________ mm

Initial Load =__________ N

X-area of wire (A= πd2/4) =__________ mm2

No. of Effective Load- Extension-δl P/δl Modulus of

Obs. P Elasticity
(mm) (lb./mm)
 (lbs.) From Graph E=(P/δl)(L/A)
Loading Unloading Average
(lb./mm2)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

This graph is a between stress and strain and its slope is modulus of elasticity this tells us that the
experiment is performed with in the proportionality limits of the wire because we can see from the
straight line.
 LAB SESSION NO. 02:

To investigate the relationship between shear stress

and shear strain for rubber and to determine the
modulus of rigidity of the material.
Abstract:
This experiment investigates the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for a rubber
specimen and determines the modulus of rigidity (G). Rubber exhibits non-linear elastic behavior, but
within certain limits, a proportional relationship between shear stress and strain can be observed. The
experiment involved applying incremental shear forces to a rubber block, measuring the resulting
deformations, and calculating the shear modulus from the linear region of the shear stress-strain curve.

1. Introduction
Shear stress and shear strain are key concepts in material mechanics, describing how a material
responds to forces that act parallel to its surface. In this experiment, rubber, a common elastomeric
material known for its high elasticity, is tested to investigate this relationship.

The modulus of rigidity (G), or shear modulus, measures the material’s resistance to shear
deformation. For elastic materials, shear stress is proportional to shear strain up to the material's
elastic limit, as described by Hooke’s Law for shear:

𝜏=𝐺⋅𝛾

Where:

• Τ = shear stress,
• G = modulus of rigidity (shear modulus),
• Γ = shear strain

The objective of this experiment is to investigate the shear stress-strain relationship for rubber and
determine its modulus of rigidity, which quantifies its stiffness under shear forces.
 Theory:

What is Modulus of Rigidity?

A body is said to be rigid if it has a definite shape and size. The solid bodies which we see around us
are not perfectly rigid. They can be compressed, stretched, and bent when applied with an external
force.

When an external force is applied, the objects get deformed. Some objects tend to regain their
original shapes. The internal force that is acting per unit area of the body to regain its original shape is
known as Stress. The ratio of the change in any dimension produced in the body to the original
dimension is called Strain.

A relationship has been established between stress and strain which is known as the Modulus of
Elasticity. It is defined as the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain, within the elastic limit.

𝜏=𝐺⋅𝛾

The SI unit of elasticity is Nm-2 and its dimensions are [ML-1T-2].

There are three types of Modulus of elasticity corresponding to the three types of strain (Longitudinal,
Volumetric, and Shear).

1. Young’s Modulus
2. Bulk Modulus
3. Shear Modulus

Modulus of Rigidity types are described below in detail, go through the notes to understand the given
concept.

Shear Modulus:

It can be defined as the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain within the elastic limit.

To understand this, consider a rectangular block whose lower face is fixed and a tangential force F is
applied over its upper face of area A. an equal and opposite force F comes into play on its lower
fixed face. The two equal and opposite forces form a couple that exerts a torque. As the lower face
of the block is fixed, the couple shears the block into a parallelopiped by displacing its upper face
 through distance AA’ = Δx. Let AB = DC = x and ∠ABA’ = θ.

Apparatus:
• Hangers
• Weights
• Steel rule
• Dial Indicator

Dimesnions of the rubber block are 12 x 4 x 1

 Procedure:
1. Measuring the Rubber Block: Measure the dimensions of the rubber block, including the area
of the top surface (AAA) and height (hhh) using a Vernier caliper or ruler. The area is important
for calculating shear stress, and height is used to compute shear strain.
2. Applying Shear Force: Apply an incremental shear force (FFF) to the top surface of the rubber
block using weights or another known force application method. Record the applied force for
each increment.
3. Measuring Lateral Displacement: Measure the corresponding lateral displacement (Δx\Delta
xΔx) for each applied force using a dial gauge or similar device. Ensure that measurements are
taken carefully for each load increment.
4. Recording Data: Record the applied shear force and the corresponding lateral displacement
in a table.
5. Calculating Shear Stress and Shear Strain: Use the recorded data to calculate shear stress
(τ\tauτ) and shear strain (γ\gammaγ) for each applied force.
6. Plotting Shear Stress-Strain Curve: Plot a graph of shear stress (τ\tauτ) versus shear strain
(γ\gammaγ) to observe the relationship. Identify the linear region where Hooke's Law holds.
7. Determining Modulus of Rigidity: From the slope of the linear region of the graph,
determine the modulus of rigidity (GGG) for the rubber material.

Results and Calculations:

Length of rubber block (l) = __________ mm

Width of rubber block (w) = __________ mm

Thickness of rubber block (t) =__________ mm

Least count of dial indicator =__________ mm

No. Load Shear Deformation-δs Shear

Modulus of Rigidity
of Shear Strain
Obs. Ps (mm) Stress

γ = δs / w

(lbs.) τ =Ps/l .t G =τ/γ G

(lb./m2)
Loading Unloading Average From
(lb./m2)
Graph
(lb./m2)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
 Conclusion:
The experiment successfully investigated the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for
rubber and determined its modulus of rigidity. The rubber material exhibited elastic behavior within
certain limits, and the shear modulus was calculated from the linear region of the stress-strain curve.
The experimental value of the modulus of rigidity was found to be X kPa, consistent with the properties
of rubber as a flexible material with low shear stiffness.

Lab session no.3

To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given

material of circular shaft.
Abstract
This experiment aims to determine the modulus of rigidity (shear modulus, GGG) of a circular shaft
material. A torsion test is performed by applying torque to the shaft and measuring the resulting
angular deformation. By plotting the torque versus angle of twist graph, the modulus of rigidity is
calculated from the linear portion of the graph, which represents elastic behavior. This property is
essential for understanding the material’s ability to resist torsional deformation in practical
applications.

Introduction
The modulus of rigidity, also known as the shear modulus (G), measures the stiffness of a material
when subjected to shear or torsional forces. For circular shafts, this property is critical for mechanical
components such as drive shafts, axles, and other rotating parts that experience torsional loads. The
modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the material's elastic
region.

𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾

Where :

• τ = shear stress,
• γ = shear strain.

In this experiment, a torsion test is used to apply torque to a circular shaft and measure the
corresponding angle of twist (θ). The modulus of rigidity can be determined from the relationship
between torque and the angle of twist in the elastic region.

𝑇𝐿
𝐺=
𝐽𝜃

• T = applied torque,
• L = length of the shaft,
• J = polar moment of inertia of the shaft,
• θ = angle of twist.

Theory
Consider the solid circular shaft, shown in the and subjected to a torque T at
the end of the shaft. The fiber AB on the outside surface, which is originally straight, will
be twisted into a helix AB′ as the shaft is twist through the angle θ.

The applied torque, when acting on the cross section of a circular shaft subject to torsion, produces
shear stress on the cross section of the shaft. The modulus of rigidity G

G, also known as shear modulus, is one of the properties of materials that gives a measure of the
material’s shear deforming. It is the ratio of an amount of shear stress to the corresponding amount of
shear strain in the elastic region which is linear since it is similar to nothing less than Young's modulus
pertaining to tensile stress.

Torsion In A Circular Shaft

In the circumstances whereby a circular shaft is twisted, the twist angle is directly proportional to the
torque 𝑇. It is not possible to pose the torsion equation by referring it only to the angle of the twist,
the torque as well as the torsion constant which pairs the modulus of rigidity with the unit of measure.

Just like any other inertial moduli deals with torsional effects as a physical quantity creating an axis
determined from the transverse section peacefulness diameter for a shaft that has a solid circular cross
section.

Roughly speaking, the polar moment of inertia J may be given as d, which is the diameter of

the casing or shaft

𝐺𝐽𝜃
𝑇=
𝐿

𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝑗

𝜋𝑑 4
𝐽=
32

𝑟𝜃
𝛾=
𝐿
 𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾

𝑇𝑟/𝐽 𝑇𝐿
𝐺= =
𝑟𝜃/𝐿 𝐽𝜃

𝑇𝐿
𝐺=
𝐽𝜃

Experimental Setup and Procedure

Apparatus:

Torsion of shaft apparatus

Hangers

Weights

Vernier Calipers

Micrometer

Steel rule

Procedure:
1. Measuring the Shaft: Measure the diameter (d) and length (L) of the circular shaft using a
Vernier caliper and meter scale, respectively. The polar moment of inertia (j) can then be
calculated using the formula .
2. Setting Up the Shaft: Fix one end of the shaft securely in the torsion testing machine. Attach
the other end to a mechanism capable of applying torque while measuring the angle of twist.
3. Applying Torque: Apply incremental torque (T) to the shaft using the torque wrench. For each
increment, measure the angle of twist (θ) using the angular displacement gauge. Ensure that
the shaft remains within the elastic limit by observing linear behavior in the torque-angle
relationship.
4. Recording Data: Record the applied torque and the corresponding angle of twist for each
increment in a table.
5. Plotting Torque vs. Angle of Twist: Plot a graph of torque (T) versus angle of twist (θ). The
slope of the linear region represents the elastic behavior of the shaft, and from this, the
modulus of rigidity (GGG) can be calculated.
6. Calculating Modulus of Rigidity: Using the slope from the graph, calculate the modulus of
rigidity (GGG) using the formula G

Results and Calculations

Dimensions of Shaft:
• Diameter of shaft, d:____________
• Length of shaft, L:_________________
• Polar moment of inertia:_______________

Table of Torque and Angle of Twist:

N LO TORQ ANGLE OF TWIST AT 1ST ANGLE OF TWIST AT 2ND ANGLE MODUL

O. AD UE MEASUREMENT ARM(NEAR MEASURING ARM(FAR END) OF US OF
END) TWIST RIGIDITY
(W 2 FOR
) 1 EFFECTI
LB-IN VE
LB G=TL/J
LENGTH
S Θ
1

-2

LOADI UNLOADI AVERA LOADI UNLOADI AVERA

NG NG GE NG NG GE

1
 2

Conclusion
The experiment successfully determined the modulus of rigidity (GGG) for the given circular shaft. The
linear relationship between torque and the angle of twist in the elastic region was confirmed, and the
modulus of rigidity was calculated using the slope of the torque-angle graph. The determined value
of GGG was consistent with expected values for the material, highlighting the material's ability to resist
torsional deformation.

Lab section # 4

To measure the stiffness of a compression spring

and compare it with theoretical values.
Abstract
This experiment aims to measure the stiffness (spring constant kkk) of a compression spring and
compare the experimental values with theoretical calculations. The relationship between the applied
force and the resulting compression was analyzed to determine the spring's stiffness.
 Introduction
The stiffness of a spring is a fundamental mechanical property defined by Hooke's Law, which states
that the force exerted by a spring is directly proportional to its displacement. The stiffness of a
compression spring can be expressed mathematically as:

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

Where:

• F = applied force (N),

• k = spring constant (N/m),
• x = displacement (m).

This report details the methodology used to measure the stiffness of a compression spring and
compares the results with theoretical values.

Theory
The spring constant k can be derived from Hooke's Law. When a force is applied to compress a spring,
the amount of compression is measured, allowing for the determination of k. For a compression spring,
the formula is rearranged to find k:

𝐹
𝑘=
𝑥

Where F is the force applied to the spring, and xxx is the displacement from its original position.

Derivation of the Spring Constant Equation

The spring constant k for a compression spring can be derived from the relationship of the spring's
physical properties and material characteristics. The formula is:

8𝐷3 𝑁𝐺
𝑘=
𝑑4

Where:

• k = spring constant (N/m)

• D = mean diameter of the spring (m)
• N = number of active coils
• G = shear modulus of the material (Pa)
• d = diameter of the wire (m)
 Derivation Steps:
1. Assumptions: Consider a circular spring subjected to a torque TTT causing shear stress. The
spring will deform proportionally to the applied force.
2. Polar Moment of Inertia: The polar moment of inertia for a circular wire is given by:

𝜋𝑑 4
𝐽=
32

3. Torsional Shear Stress: The shear stress τ\tauτ in the wire can be expressed as:

𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐽

Substituting J:

𝑇. 𝑑
𝜏= 2 = 16𝑇
𝜋32𝑑 4 𝜋𝑑 3
32

4. Angle of Twist: The angle of twist θ for the spring can be expressed as:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐺𝐽

Where L is the length of the wire in the spring.

5. Length of Wire: The length of the wire can be approximated as:

𝐿 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁
6. Substituting Length: Substitute LLL in the angle of twist equation:
𝑇𝜋𝐷𝑁 32𝑇𝑁𝐷
𝜃= =
𝜋𝑑 4 𝐺𝑑 4
𝐺 32
7. Force and Displacement: From Hooke’s law:
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

The force F can be related to the torque by the radius r:

𝑇
𝐹=
𝑟

Thus:

𝑇 2𝑇
𝐹= =
𝑑 𝑑
2
 8. Relating FFF to θ\thetaθ: The displacement xxx is related to θ:
𝑥 = 𝐷𝜃
9. Combining Equations: Substitute F and θ into the stiffness equation and rearrange to get k:
𝐹 2𝑇 2𝑇𝐷
𝑘= = =
𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑑

10. Final Expression: By substituting T and simplifying, we obtain:

8𝐷3 𝑁𝐺
𝑘=
𝑑4

This derivation shows how the physical dimensions and material properties of a spring affect its
stiffness, providing a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between these variables.

Types of spring:

Types of springs according to loading conditions:

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

Tension spring:
An extension spring is a type of helical spring that is tightly wound to offer resistance when stretched,
and it returns to its original shape once the force is removed.

These springs are characterized by their tightly coiled design, which creates an initial tension within
the coils. This initial tension provides resistance when a force is applied to stretch the spring. The
tension determines the coil's tightness and attachment. Typically, extension springs have loops, hoops,
or coils at both ends to facilitate attachment and extension.

Extension springs are effective in storing and absorbing energy while resisting pulling forces. When a
force causes the attached components to move apart, the spring’s tensile strength pulls them back to
their original position. They are commonly used in various applications, such as in hardware, washing
machines, doors, toys, aircraft landing gear, truck hoods, and more. A diagram of an extension spring
is provided below:
 Compression spring :
compression springs can store mechanical energy when they are compressed. These open-coiled,
helical springs provide resistance to compressive loading. When these springs are subjected to a
compression load, they compress, grow shorter, and absorb a large amount of potential force.
Compression Springs are found in a wide variety of applications ranging from automotive engines
and large stamping presses to major appliances and lawn mowers to medical devices, cell phones,
electronics and sensitive instrumentation devices. The most basic installation is anywhere requiring a
push button. Conical type springs are generally used in applications requiring low solid height and
increased resistance to surging.

Torsion spring:
The load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates
through an angle as the load is applied. The ends of a torsion spring are attached to a mechanical
component. When the spring is rotated around its axis at one end, the winding tightens, storing
potential energy.

During the winding process, one end of the torsion spring is deflected around the central axis, while
the other end remains fixed. As the winding tightens and resists increasing rotational force, the spring
accumulates more potential energy.

When a torsion spring is released, it unwinds and rebounds elastically, releasing the stored energy.
This causes an equal rotational force to be exerted on the opposite end of the spring, applying torque
to the attached mechanical component. Torsion springs are used to statically hold mechanical
components in place.

The operation of torsion springs relies on their resistance to rotation or twisting. The mechanical
energy generated by this resistance is stored and creates a torque that opposes the twisting force,
which is proportional to the angle of twist. Common types of torsion springs include helical, torsion
bars, and spiral wound springs. These springs can be made from materials such as wire, sprung steel,
or rubber.

Constant spring :
In this the supported load will remain constant throughout the deflection of spring.

Variable Spring:
In this, the resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.
 Types of springs according to shapes:

Coil spring:
This type is made of a coil or helix of round wire.

Flat Spring:
This type is made of a flat spring steel.
 Machined Spring:
This type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather
than a coiling operation. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the
elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of compression/extension,
torsion, etc.

Serpentine Spring :
A zig-zag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture.
 Leaf spring:
Leaf springs are a type of spring made from long, flat strips of metal that are layered and clamped
together. They are commonly used in suspension systems, particularly in heavy-duty vehicles such as
trucks, trailers, and buses.

Apparatus:
• Compression of Spring Apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights
• Compression of Spring Apparatus

Observations and Calculations:

Wire diameter (d) = _______ (mm)

Spring O/D = _______ (mm)

Spring Length (l) = _______ (mm)

Number of active turns (N) = _______

Modulus of rigidity (G) = _____ (lb./ mm2)

Where

d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns

D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)

G = Modulus of rigidity ( 17310.289lbs/ mm2 for steels spring )

No. Load Deflectio Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentag

n e Error
of (lbs.) Graph Stiffness (%)
(∆) mm
Obs d4G / 8ND3 ( Th.-Pr.)
.
(lb./mm) (lb./mm)

Loading Unloadin Mean Th.-

g Pr./Th.
X100

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
No. Load Deflectio Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentag
n e Error
of (lbs.) Graph Stiffness (%)
(∆) mm
Obs d4G / 8ND3 ( Th.-Pr.)
.
(lb./mm) (lb./mm)

Loading Unloadin Mean Th.-

g Pr./Th.
X100

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
 Conclusion
The experiment successfully measured the stiffness of a compression spring using a systematic
approach, yielding a spring constant consistent with theoretical expectations. Further studies could
involve varying the material or geometry of the spring to explore its effects on stiffness.

References:
https://byjus.com/physics/difference-between-stress-and-
pressure/#:~:text=Stress%20can%20be%20defined%20as,pressure%20will%20not%20be%20devel
oped.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/difference-between-stress-and-pressure/

https://testbook.com/physics/modulus-of-rigidity