Universality of Human Rights Universality of human rights means that human rights must be the same everywhere and for everyone. By virtue of being human, every individual is entitled to inalienable rights and freedoms. These rights ensure the dignity and worth of the human person and guarantee human well-being. The 1993 World Conference noted that “it is the duty of the states, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all human rights.” s means that civil and ghts are also indivisible. Thi mic, social and cultural Human ri political rights, on the one hand, and econo 143t has priorit rights, on the other, must be treated equally Neither se p y s for the use over the other. Although every country must set prioritie of its resources at any given time, this is not the same as choosing between specific rights. We must not be selective, for these rights are interrelated and interdependent. F reedom from fear and want are inextricably linked to freedom of speech and belief. The right to education is linked to health, and there is a clear connection between a mother’s literacy and the health of her children. Universality is, in fact, the essence of human rights; all people are entitled to them, all governments are bound to observe them, all state and civil actors should defend them. The goal is nothing less than all human rights for all. History of Human Rights Throughout history, people acquired rights and responsibilities through their membership in a group - a family, indigenous nation, religion, class, community, or state. In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, after conquering the city of Babylon, did something totally unexpected-he freed all slaves to return home. Moreover, he declared people should choose their own religion. The Cyrus Cylinder, a clay tablet containing his statements, is the See human rights declaration in history. style ea it ant The idea of human rights spread quickly to India, Greece and eventually Rome, The most important advances since then have included an oe sts 1 5: The Magna Carta- gay: sii ‘ - gave people new pe to the law, Ip i rights andl 3 tau Vinee theta i a ant laa Bis, The United States Declaration of Independence-proclaimed «right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, sv. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen- a ocument of France, stating that all citizens are equal under the law. contemporary International Human Rights Law and the establishment of the United Nations (UN) have important historical antecedents. Efforts in the 19" century to prohibit the slave trade and to limit the horrors of war are prime examples. In 1919, countries established the International Labor Organization (ILO) to oversee treaties protecting workers with respect to their rights, including their health and safety. Concern over the protection of certain minority groups was raised by the League of Nations at the end of the First World War. However, this organization for international peace and cooperation, created by the victorious European allies, never achieved its goals. The League floundered because the United States refused to join and because the League failed to prevent Japan’s invasion of China and Manchuria (1931) and Italy’s attack on Ethiopia (1935). It finally died with the onset of the Second World War (1939). : The idea of human rights emerged stronger after World War II. The extermination by Nazi Germany of over six million Jews, Sinti and Romani (gypsies), homosexuals, and persons with disabilities horrified the world. Trials were held in Nuremberg and Tokyo after World War II, and officials from the defeated countries were punished for committing war crimes, "crimes against peace,” and "crimes against humanity." Governments then committed themselves to establishing the United Nations, with the primary goal of bolstering international 145peace and prev enting conflict People wanted to ensure that never again would anyone be unjustly denied life, freedom, food, shelter, and nationality. The essence of these emerging human rights principles was captured in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 104) State of the Union Address when he spoke of a world founded on four essential freedoms: freedom of speech and religion and freedom from want and fear. The calls came from across the globe for human rights standards to protect citizens from abuses by their governments, standards against which nations could be held accountable for the treatment of those living within their borders. These voices played a critical role in the San Francisco meeting that drafted the United Nations Charter in 1945. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) Member states of the United Nations pledged to promote respect for the human rights of all. To advance this goal, the UN established a Commission on Human Rights and charged it with the task of drafting a document spelling out the meaning of the fundamental rights and freedoms proclaimed in the Charter. The Commission, guided by Eleanor Roosevelt’s forceful leadership, captured the world’s attention. Laat ; i agli 2d} On December 10, 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the 56 members of the United Nations, The yote was unanimous, although eight nations chose to abstain, { rae The UDHR, commonly referred to as the International Magna Carta, extended the revolution in international law ushered in by the United Nations Charter - namely, that how a government treats its Own citizens is now a matter of | legitimate international concern, andsimply @ domestic issue, Tt claims that all rights are -pdependent and indivisible. Its Preamble eloquently asserts that: Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and enable rights of all members of the human family is the indation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world. The influence of the UDHR has been substantial. Its principles :ave been incorporated into the constitutions of most of more than |85 nations now in the UN, Although a declaration is not a legally binding document, the Universal Declaration has achieved the status of customary international law because people regard it “as a common standard of achievement for ail people and all nations me Basic International Human Rights Documents: ICCPR &ICESCR { With the goal of establishing mechanisms for enforcing the UDHR, the UN Commission on Human Rights proceeded to draft two treaties: the Jnternational Covenant on Ciyil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and its optional Protocol and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICE. . Together with the Universal-Declarationstheyare-commonly referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights. The ICCPR focuses on such issues as the right to life, freedom of speech, religion, and voting. The ICESCR focuses on such issues as food, education, health, and shelter. Both covenants trumpet the extension of rights to all persons and prohibit discrimination, Furthermore, Article 26 of the ICCPR established a Human Rights Committee of the United Nations composed of eighteen human rights experts, the Committee is responsible for ensuring that each signatory to the ICCPR complies with its terms, The Committee examines reports submitted by countries every five years (to ensure they are in compliance withthe ICCPR), and issues findings based on a country’s As of 1997, over 130 nations have ratified these cove In addition to the covenants in the International Rights, the United Nations has adopted more treaties further elaborating human rights, The (Convention on the El against Women, 1979), and chi