Camera

Leica camera (1950s)

Hasselblad 500 C/M with Zeiss lens

A camera is an instrument used to capture and store images and videos,

either digitally via an electronic image sensor, or chemically via a light-
sensitive material such as photographic film. As a pivotal technology in the
fields of photography and videography, cameras have played a significant
role in the progression of visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and
scientific research. The invention of the camera dates back to the 19th
century and has since evolved with advancements in technology, leading to
a vast array of types and models in the 21st century.

Cameras function through a combination of multiple mechanical components

and principles. These include exposure control, which regulates the amount
of light reaching the sensor or film; the lens, which focuses the light; the
viewfinder, which allows the user to preview the scene; and the film or
sensor, which captures the image.
Several types of cameras exist, each suited to specific uses and offering
unique capabilities. Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras provide real-time, exact
imaging through the lens. Large-format and medium-format cameras offer
higher image resolution and are often used in professional and artistic
photography. Compact cameras, known for their portability and simplicity,
are popular in consumer photography. Rangefinder cameras, with separate
viewing and imaging systems, were historically widely used in
photojournalism. Motion picture cameras are specialized for filming cinematic
content, while digital cameras, which became prevalent in the late 20th and
early 21st century, use electronic sensors to capture and store images.

The rapid development of smartphone camera technology in the 21st

century has blurred the lines between dedicated cameras and
multifunctional devices, profoundly influencing how society creates, shares,
and consumes visual content.

History

19th century

Beginning with the use of the camera obscura and transitioning to complex
photographic cameras, the evolution of the technology in the 19th century
was driven by pioneers like Thomas Wedgwood, Nicéphore Niépce,
and Henry Fox Talbot. First using the camera obscura for chemical
experiments, they ultimately created cameras specifically for chemical
photography, and later reduced the camera's size and optimized lens
configurations.

The introduction of the daguerreotype process in 1839 facilitated commercial

camera manufacturing, with various producers contributing diverse designs.
As camera manufacturing became a specialized trade in the 1850s, designs
and sizes were standardized.

The latter half of the century witnessed the advent of dry plates and roll-film,
prompting a shift towards smaller and more cost-effective cameras,
epitomized by the original Kodak camera, first produced in 1888. This period
also saw significant advancements in lens technology and the emergence of
color photography, leading to a surge in camera ownership. [1][2][3]

20th century

[edit]
The first half of the 20th century saw continued miniaturization and the
integration of new manufacturing materials. After World War I, Germany took
the lead in camera development, spearheading industry consolidation and
producing precision-made cameras. The industry saw significant product
launches such as the Leica camera and the Contax, which were enabled by
advancements in film and lens designs. Additionally, there was a marked
increase in accessibility to cinematography for amateurs with Eastman
Kodak's production of the first 16-mm and 8-mm reversal safety films. The
World War II era saw a focus on the development of specialized aerial
reconnaissance and instrument-recording equipment, even as the overall
pace of non-military camera innovation slowed.

In the second half of the century, Japanese manufacturers in particular

advanced camera technology. From the introduction of the affordable
Ricohflex III TLR in 1952 to the first 35mm SLR with automatic exposure, the
Olympus AutoEye in 1960, new designs and features continuously emerged.
Electronics became integral to camera design in the 1970s, evident in
models like Polaroid's SX-70 and Canon's AE-1.

Transition to digital photography marked the late 20th century, culminating

in digital camera sales surpassing film cameras in the United States by 2003.
In contrast, the film camera industry in the UK, Western Europe, and the USA
declined during this period, while manufacturing continued in the USSR,
German Democratic Republic, and China, often mimicking Western designs. [1]
[2][3]

21st century

[edit]

The 21st century witnessed the mass adoption of digital cameras and
significant improvements in sensor technology. A major revolution came with
the incorporation of cameras into smartphones, making photography a
commonplace activity. The century also marked the rise of computational
photography, using algorithms and AI to enhance image quality. Features like
low-light and HDR photography, optical image stabilization, and depth-
sensing became common in smartphone cameras. [4][5][6]

Mechanics

[edit]
 Basic elements of a modern digital single-
lens reflex (SLR) still camera

Most cameras capture light from the visible spectrum, while specialized
cameras capture other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such
as infrared.[7]: vii

All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through
a converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive
medium.[8] A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters
the camera.[9]: 1182–1183

Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded,
along with means to adjust various combinations of focus, aperture
and shutter speed.[10]: 4

Exposure control

[edit]

Main article: Exposure (photography)

Aperture

[edit]

Main article: Aperture

Different apertures of a lens

Light enters the camera through an aperture, an opening adjusted by

overlapping plates called the aperture ring.[11][12][13] Typically located in the
lens,[14] this opening can be widened or narrowed to alter the amount of light
that strikes the film or sensor.[11] The size of the aperture can be set
manually, by rotating the lens or adjusting a dial or automatically based on
readings from an internal light meter.[11]

As the aperture is adjusted, the opening expands and contracts in

increments called f-stops.[a][11] The smaller the f-stop, the more light is
allowed to enter the lens, increasing the exposure. Typically, f-stops range
from f/1.4 to f/32[b] in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22,
and 32.[15] The light entering the camera is halved with each increasing
increment.[14]

The distance range in which objects appear clear

and sharp, called depth of field, can be adjusted by many cameras. This
allows a photographer to control which objects appear in focus, and which do
not.

The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the
background is blurry while the foreground is in focus. This depth of
field increases as the aperture closes. A narrow aperture results in a high
depth of field, meaning that objects at many different distances from the
camera will appear to be in focus.[16] What is acceptably in focus is
determined by the circle of confusion, the photographic technique, the
equipment in use and the degree of magnification expected of the final
image.[17]

Shutter

[edit]

Main article: Shutter (photography)

The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the
amount of light entering the camera. The shutter determines the duration
that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light
enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the
shutter closes.[14][18]
There are two types of mechanical shutters: the leaf-type shutter and the
focal-plane shutter. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained
under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and
closes when the shutter is released.[15]

A focal-plane shutter. In this shutter, the metal

shutter blades travel vertically.

More commonly, a focal-plane shutter is used.[14] This shutter operates close

to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening
that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an
opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane
shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, since covering
the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the
photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during
the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a
loaded camera, as many SLRs have interchangeable lenses. [11][15]

A digital camera may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of

which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record
data from the entire sensor simultaneously (a global shutter) or record the
data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter). [11] In movie cameras, a
rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame
of film.[11][19]

The duration for which the shutter is open is called the shutter
speed or exposure time. Typical exposure times can range from one second
to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not
uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several
minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as
a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the
duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be
used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and
eliminate motion blur.[20][15][11][14] However, shorter exposure times require
more light to produce a properly exposed image, so shortening the exposure
time is not always possible.

Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two
settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is
recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the
exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is
lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step,
then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same. [14]

Light meter

[edit]

Main article: Light meter

A handheld digital light meter showing an

exposure of 1/200th at an aperture of f/11, at ISO 100. The light sensor is on
top, under the white diffusing hemisphere.

In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is

measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter. [c] Taken through the
lens (called TTL metering), these readings are taken using a panel of light-
sensitive semiconductors.[12] They are used to calculate optimal exposure
settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the
reading is used by the camera's microprocessor. The reading from the light
meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or
sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure. [d]

Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More
advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering—weighing the center
of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the
differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the
photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image
(spot metering).[16][20][21][11]

Lens

[edit]

Main articles: Camera lens and Photographic lens design

A camera lens is an assembly of multiple optical elements, typically made

from high-quality glass.[22] Its primary function is to focus light onto a
camera's film or digital sensor, thereby producing an image. [12] This process
significantly influences image quality, the overall appearance of the photo,
and which parts of the scene are brought into focus. [22]

A camera lens is constructed from a series of lens elements, small pieces of

glass arranged to form an image accurately on the light-sensitive surface.
Each element is designed to reduce optical aberrations, or distortions, such
as chromatic aberration (a failure of the lens to focus all colors at the same
point), vignetting (darkening of image corners), and distortion (bending or
warping of the image). The degree of these distortions can vary depending
on the subject of the photo.[22]

The focal length of the lens, measured in millimeters, plays a critical role as
it determines how much of the scene the camera can capture and how large
the objects appear. Wide-angle lenses provide a broad view of the scene,
while telephoto lenses capture a narrower view but magnify the objects. The
focal length also influences the ease of taking clear pictures handheld, with
longer lengths making it more challenging to avoid blur from small camera
movements.[22]

Two primary types of lenses include zoom and prime lenses. A zoom lens
allows for changing its focal length within a certain range, providing the
convenience of adjusting the scene capture without moving the camera or
changing the lens. A prime lens, in contrast, has a fixed focal length. While
less flexible, prime lenses often provide superior image quality, are typically
lighter, and perform better in low light.[22]
Focus involves adjusting the lens elements to sharpen the image of the
subject at various distances.[23] The focus is adjusted through the focus ring
on the lens, which moves the lens elements closer or further from the
sensor. Autofocus is a feature included in many lenses, which uses a motor
within the lens to adjust the focus quickly and precisely based on the lens's
detection of contrast or phase differences. This feature can be enabled or
disabled using switches on the lens body. [12]

Advanced lenses may include mechanical image stabilization systems that

move lens elements or the image sensor itself to counteract camera shake,
especially beneficial in low-light conditions or at slow shutter speeds. [22] Lens
hoods, filters, and caps are accessories used alongside a lens to enhance
image quality, protect the lens, or achieve specific effects. [12]

Viewfinder

[edit]

The camera's viewfinder provides a real-time approximation of what will be

captured by the sensor or film. It assists photographers in aligning, focusing,
and adjusting the composition, lighting, and exposure of their shots,
enhancing the accuracy of the final image.[14]

Viewfinders fall into two primary categories: optical and electronic. Optical
viewfinders, commonly found in Single-Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras, use a
system of mirrors or prisms to reflect light from the lens to the viewfinder,
providing a clear, real-time view of the scene. Electronic viewfinders, typical
in mirrorless cameras, project an electronic image onto a small display,
offering a wider range of information such as live exposure previews and
histograms, albeit at the cost of potential lag and higher battery
consumption.[11] Specialized viewfinder systems exist for specific
applications, like subminiature cameras for spying or underwater
photography.[18]

Parallax error, resulting from misalignment between the viewfinder and lens
axes, can cause inaccurate representations of the subject's position. While
negligible with distant subjects, this error becomes prominent with closer
ones. Some viewfinders incorporate parallax-compensating devices to
mitigate that issue.[15]

Film and sensor

[edit]
Image capture in a camera occurs when light strikes a light-sensitive
surface: photographic film or a digital sensor.[18] Housed within the camera
body, the film or sensor records the light's pattern when the shutter is briefly
opened to allow light to pass during the exposure. [16]

Loading film into a film camera is a manual process. The film, typically
housed in a cartridge, is loaded into a designated slot in the camera. One
end of the film strip, the film leader, is manually threaded onto a take-up
spool. Once the back of the camera is closed, the film advance lever or knob
is used to ensure the film is correctly placed. The photographer then winds
the film, either manually or automatically depending on the camera, to
position a blank portion of the film in the path of the light. Each time a photo
is taken, the film advance mechanism moves the exposed film out of the
way, bringing a new, unexposed section of film into position for the next
shot.[16]

The film must be advanced after each shot to prevent double exposure —
where the same section of film is exposed to light twice, resulting in
overlapped images. Once all frames on the film roll have been exposed, the
film is rewound back into the cartridge, ready to be removed from the
camera for developing.[18]

In digital cameras, sensors typically comprise Charge-Coupled Devices

(CCDs) or Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) chips, both of
which convert incoming light into electrical charges to form digital images.
[11]
CCD sensors, though power-intensive, are recognized for their excellent
light sensitivity and image quality. Conversely, CMOS sensors offer individual
pixel readouts, leading to less power consumption and faster frame rates,
with their image quality having improved significantly over time.

Digital cameras convert light into electronic data that can be directly
processed and stored. The volume of data generated is dictated by the
sensor's size and properties, necessitating storage media such as Compact
Flash, Memory Sticks, and SD (Secure Digital) cards.[18] Modern digital
cameras typically feature a built-in monitor for immediate image review and
adjustments.[11] Digital images are also more readily handled and
manipulated by computers, offering a significant advantage in terms of
flexibility and post-processing potential over traditional film. [18]

Camera accessories

[edit]
Flash

[edit]

A flash provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a

commonly used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash
systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled
tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or
less).[e][21]

Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine
the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to
the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot
shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the
flash, and the camera's internal light meter can help determine the duration
of the flash.[21][16]

Additional flash equipment can include a light diffuser, mount and stand,
reflector, soft box, trigger and cord.

Other accessories

[edit]

Accessories for cameras are mainly used for care, protection, special effects,
and functions.

 Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light
source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box).

 Lens cap: covers and protects the camera lens when not in use.

 Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the
camera was designed.

 Filter: allows artificial colors or changes light density.

 Lens extension tube: allows close focus in macro photography.

 Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance

tools, and screen protector.

 Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with

a brighter and more colorful screen, and typically exposes more
advanced tools such as framing guides, focus peaking, zebra
stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an "RGB
 parade"), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image
critical to the photographer.

 Tripod: primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording
video, doing a long exposure, and time-lapse photography.

 Microscope adapter: used to connect a camera to a microscope to

photograph what the microscope is examining.

 Cable release: used to remotely control the shutter using a remote

shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable. It can
be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period, and it is also
commonly used to prevent the camera shake from pressing the built-in
camera shutter button.

 Dew shield: prevents moisture build-up on the lens.

 UV filter: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches,

cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum
impact on image quality.

 Battery and sometimes a charger.

Large format cameras use special equipment that includes a magnifier loupe,
view finder, angle finder, and focusing rail/truck. Some professional SLRs can
be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level
focusing, focusing screens, eyecup, data backs, motor-drives for film
transportation or external battery packs.

Primary types

[edit]

Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera

[edit]

Main article: Single-lens reflex camera

Further information: Instant return mirror

 Nikon D200 digital camera

In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror

to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter
for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the
mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the photographic
medium, and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera
before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR
cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release
and only returned when the finger pressure was released. [24][25] The Asahiflex
II, released by Japanese company Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world's
first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.[26]

In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through
the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax which occurs when the
viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens
reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5x7"
and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll,
and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and
6x4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large
format and roll film SLR cameras
include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Seagull, Mamiya and Pentax. However,
the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently
the migration to digital SLR cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and
sometimes using the same lens systems.

Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to
direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the
eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light
path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other
methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-
transparent pellicle as in the Canon Pellix[27] and others with a small
periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series.[28]

Large-format camera

[edit]

Main article: View camera

The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early
plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and
technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common
types: the view camera, with its monorail and field camera variants, and
the press camera. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter
mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking roll film and later digital
backs are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These
cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of
focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras
by viewing a ground-glass screen which is replaced by the film to make the
exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use.

Plate camera

[edit]

19th-century studio camera with bellows for

focusing

Main article: Photographic plate

The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were plate cameras,

using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board
which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were
simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with
interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome
Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the
lens forwards or backward to control perspective.
Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at
the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather small aperture
lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint and
most photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing
and composition to be carried out more quickly. When focus and composition
were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed, and a sensitized
plate was put in its place protected by a dark slide. To make the exposure,
the dark decline was carefully slid out and the shutter opened, and then
closed and the dark fall replaced.

Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film;
adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In
addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted.

Medium-format camera

[edit]

Main article: Medium format

Hasselblad medium format camera

Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras

and smaller 35 mm cameras.[29] Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll
film.[30] The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm;
the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show
greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems
through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller
rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in
this format.

Twin-lens reflex camera

[edit]

Main article: Twin-lens reflex camera

 Twin-lens reflex camera

Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses: one to form
the image and one as a viewfinder.[31] The lenses were arranged with the
viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an
image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some
manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the
viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The
advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing
screen and that under most circumstances the view seen on the viewing
screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however,
parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an
indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.

Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses,
they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that
the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the
smaller 127 films.

Compact cameras

[edit]

Instant camera

[edit]

Main article: Instant camera

 Instant Camera

After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside the
instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper
'sandwich' is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just
needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive image with a
fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant
image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The
ultimate development was the SX-70 system of Polaroid, in which a row of
ten shots – engine driven – could be made without having to remove any
cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of
formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format
cameras.

Subminiature camera

[edit]

Main article: Subminiature camera

Subminiature spy camera

Subminiature cameras were first produced in the twentieth century and use
film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm Minox, the
only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became
very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company
later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were
made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality
with these small film sizes was limited.

Folding camera

[edit]
Main article: Folding camera

Folding camera

The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be
made much smaller and for the baseplate to be hinged so that it could be
folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and
small models were dubbed vest pocket cameras. One of the smallest and
best-selling cameras was the Vest Pocket Kodak, sold in two generations
between 1912 and 1934. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding
plate cameras, more compact than other designs.

Box camera

[edit]

Main article: Box camera

Kodak box camera

Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few if any
controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder
mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls
and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger
direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the
impact of deficiencies in the lens.

Rangefinder camera
[edit]

Main article: Rangefinder camera

Rangefinder camera, Leica c. 1936

As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became

more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make focusing more
precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of
which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the
focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a
ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being
photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A
normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and
rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had interchangeable
lenses, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages.

Rangefinder cameras were produced in half- and full-frame 35 mm and roll

film (medium format).

Motion picture cameras

[edit]

Main article: Movie camera

Further information: Digital movie camera

A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a still camera,

except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at
a rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and
displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved. [32]: 4

Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie

cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are
still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often
used to capture moving images in special effects work and many modern
cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.
A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on
an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures
a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each
called a frame, through the use of an intermittent mechanism.

The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed,
called the frame rate (number of frames per second). While viewing, a
person's visual system merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of
motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several
types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was
quickly established as 35mm film and this remained in use until the
transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats
include 70 mm film and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm
film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital
format.

The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses
required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too
heavy to be handheld whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be
very small and light for single-handed operation.

Professional video camera

[edit]

Arri Alexa, a digital movie camera

Main article: Professional video camera

Further information: Video camera

A professional video camera (often called a television camera even though

the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating
electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier
recorded the images on film). Originally developed for use in television
studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies,
corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc.
These cameras earlier used vacuum tubes and later electronic image
sensors.

Camcorders

[edit]

Sony HDR-HC1E, a HDV camcorder.

Main article: Camcorders

A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video

recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term
"camcorder", the name on the package and manual is often "video camera
recorder". Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and
digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term "camcorder" is
used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and
recording its primary function.

Digital camera

[edit]

Main article: Digital camera

Disassembled digital camera

Further information: Digital image, Digital imaging, Digital

photography, Digital single-lens reflex camera, and Digital video
A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and
videos and stores them for later reproduction.[33] They typically use
semiconductor image sensors.[34] Most cameras sold today are digital,[35] and
they are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones
(called camera phones) to vehicles.

Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of
variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device. [36] The aperture
and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film
but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However,
unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen
immediately after being captured or recorded, and store and delete images
from memory. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos
with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures & perform
other elementary image editing.

Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras

transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras
transitioned to digital in the 2010s.

The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was
developed by Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-
coupled device (CCD) provided by Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided
only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device
with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and
white images onto a cassette tape.[37]: 442 The images were then read from the
cassette and viewed on a TV monitor.[38]: 225 Later, cassette tapes were
replaced by flash memory.

In 1986, Japanese company Nikon introduced an analog-recording electronic

single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.[39]

Sony Alpha 1, a full-frame mirrorless digital

camera
The first full-frame digital SLR cameras were developed in Japan from around
2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax,[40] the N Digital by Contax's Japanese R6D
team,[41] and the EOS-1Ds by Canon.[42] Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame
DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography. [citation
needed]

On most digital cameras a display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD),

permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO
speed, exposure, and shutter speed.[10]: 6–7 [43]: 12

Camera phone

[edit]

Smartphone with built-in camera

Main article: Camera phone

Further information: Front-facing camera and Selfie

In 2000, Sharp introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the J-SH04 J-
Phone, in Japan.[44] By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an
integrated digital camera, and by the beginning of the 2010s, almost
all smartphones had an integrated digital camera.

See also

[edit]

 Film portal

 Camera matrix

 History of the camera

 List of camera types

 List of digital camera brands

Footnotes
[edit]

1. ^ These f-stops are also referred to as f-numbers, stop

numbers, steps or stops. The f-number is the focal length of the
lens divided by the diameter of the effective aperture.

2. ^ Theoretically, they can extend to f/64 or higher.[13]

3. ^ Some photographers use handheld exposure

meters independent of the camera and use the readings to
manually set the exposure settings on the camera. [21]

4. ^ Film canisters typically contain a DX code that can be read by

modern cameras so that the camera's computer knows the
sensitivity of the film, the ISO.[14]]

5. ^ The older type of disposable flashbulb uses an aluminum or

zirconium wire in a glass tube filled with oxygen. During the
exposure, the wire is burned away, producing a bright flash. [21]

References

[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Pritchard, Michael; Nicholson, Angela

(2005). "Camera development". The Oxford Companion to the
Photograph. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866271-
6. Archived from the original on 10 November 2023.
Retrieved 12 December 2019.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b Lagasse, Paul, ed. (2018). "camera". The

Columbia Encyclopedia (8 ed.). Columbia University Press.

3. ^ Jump up to:a b The Focal encyclopedia of photography: digital

imaging, theory and applications history and science. Michael R.
Peres (ed.) (4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. 2007. ISBN 978-0-
240-80740-9.

4. ^ "A snapshot history of digital camera

technology". VentureBeat. 26 June 2014. Archived from the
original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.

5. ^ "Timeline: The history of digital cameras". Digital Spy. 19

August 2014. Archived from the original on 5 July 2023.
Retrieved 5 July 2023.
6. ^ "History of digital cameras: From '70s prototypes to iPhone
and Galaxy's everyday wonders". CNET. Archived from the
original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.

7. ^ Gustavson, Todd (2009). Camera: a history of photography

from daguerreotype to digital. New York: Sterling Publishing Co.,
Inc. ISBN 978-1-4027-5656-6.

8. ^ "camera design | designboom.com". designboom |

architecture & design magazine. Archived from the original on
18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.

9. ^ Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A.; Ford, A. Lewis

(2008). Sears and Zemansky's University Physics (12 ed.). San
Francisco, California: Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-
50147-9.

10. ^ Jump up to:a b London, Barbara; Upton, John; Kobré,

Kenneth; Brill, Betsy (2002). Photography (7 ed.). Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-028271-2.

11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l Columbia University

(2018). "camera". In Paul Lagasse (ed.). The Columbia
Encyclopedia (8 ed.). Columbia University Press.

12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e "How Cameras Work". How Stuff

Works. 21 March 2001. Archived from the original on 14
December 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019.

13. ^ Jump up to:a b Laney, Dawn A. ..BA, MS, CGC, CCRC.

“Camera Technologies.” Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science,
June 2020. Accessed 6 February 2022.

14. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Lynne Warren, ed. (2006).

"Camera: An Overview". Encyclopedia of twentieth-century
photography. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-393-4.

15. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e "technology of

photography". Britannica Academic. Archived from the original
on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2019.

16. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Lynne Warren, ed. (2006). "Camera:

35 mm". Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography. New
York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-393-4.
17. ^ The British Journal Photographic Almanac. Henry
Greenwood and Co. Ltd. 1956. pp. 468–471.

18. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Rose, B (2007). "The Camera

Defined". The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography. Elsevier.
pp. 770–771. doi:10.1016/B978-0-240-80740-9.50152-5. ISBN 9
78-0-240-80740-9. Archived from the original on 14 December
2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.

19. ^ "Motion-picture camera". Encyclopedia Britannica.

Retrieved 12 December 2019.[dead link]

20. ^ Jump up to:a b "Camera". World Encyclopedia. Philip's.

2004. ISBN 978-0-19-954609-1. Retrieved 12 December 2019.

21. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e "camera". Britannica

Academic. Archived from the original on 10 November 2023.
Retrieved 12 December 2019.